A

PROJECT REPORT
ON

“EFFICIENT SOLAR CHARGING WITH BATTERY PROTECTION”

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Bachelor of Engineering
In
Electrical and electronics

Guided By Submitted By
Kaeynat Shahid Anil Jakhar (18UEEE6006)
Harendra Rinwa (18UEEE6016)
(Professor) Prakash (18UEEE6028)
Nitesh Dadhich (18UEEE6027)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

M.B.M. Engineering College
Jai Narayan Vyas University, Jodhpur-342011
2020-21
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this project report titled “EFFICIENT SOLAR CHARGING WITH BATTERY
PROTECTION” has been submitted by Anil Jakhar (18UEEE6006),Harendra Rinwa
(18UEEE6016),Prakash (18UEEE6028),Nitesh Dadhich (18UEEE6027) in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Electronics and electrical engineering of the
MBM Engineering College, JNVU, Jodhpur during the academic year 2020-21 and is a record of work
carried out by them under my guidance and supervision

______________________

Kaeynat Shahid
Professor
Date: Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
M.B.M Engineering College, Jodhpur
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me immense pleasure to present this project report. I would like to take the opportunity
to thank the people, without whom this would not have been possible. Firstly, I would like to
express my deep gratitude to Prof. (Dr.) RAJESH BHADADA, Head of ECE department,
MBM engineering college, Jodhpur for providing me an opportunity to accomplish the project.

It is my profound privilege to express my deep sense of gratitude to my guide Prof. KAEYNAT

SHAHID for her precious guidance, constructive encouragement and support throughout the
project period, without whom things could not have proceeded as smoothly as they did.

I express my regards towards Prof. PULKIT ARORA for all the technical and administrative
support in carrying out the project.

I would, also, like to express my deepest appreciation to my fellow team members of the
training for their valuable co-operation.

________________________

Anil Jakhar (18UEEE6006)

Harendra Rinwa (18UEEE6016)
Prakash (18UEEE6028)
Nitesh Dadhich (18UEEE6027)

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,

M.B.M Engineering College, Jodhpur
 INDEX

S.NO CONTENT PAGE NO.

1. Certificate

2. Acknowledgement

3. Abstract

4. Introduction

5. Details of Components:

LT3652 Driver

Schottky Rectifier(1N5819)

LED

Battery

Potentiometer

Resistor

Capacitor

Inductor

Cables and connectors

PCB and breadboard

6. Working

7. Circuit Diagram

8. Block Diagram

9. PCB Layout
10. Benefits

11. Limitations

12. Applications

13. Future Development

14. Conclusion

15. References
 ABSTRACT

Solar Charge Controller (SCC) with Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
is needed to extract maximum energy from photovoltaic. However, a SCC
device with MPPT technology feature is expensive on the market due to the
requirements for a high-power system. On the other hand, in lower power
applications such as IoT sensors, solar street lights, and wireless
communication nodes, these types of controllers can be produced at a lower
cost. In this study, the design of a low-cost SCC was conducted using the
MPPT technology for low-power solar applications. The SCC is designed
based on the Arduino microcontroller, which has the role of controlling the
circuit and producing PWM signals to regulate the DC-DC converter. Several
tests were conducted to validate the efficiency of the MPPT algorithm. The
SCC device succeeded in increasing efficiency up to 52% on the low
irradiance level.

INTRODUCTION
MPPT is an algorithm commonly used in solar chargers. The charge controller
measures the output voltage from the panels and the battery voltage, then by getting
these two data, it compares them to decide the best power that the panel could provide
to charge the battery. At whatever the situation, whether in good or poor sunlight
condition, the MPPT charge controller uses this maximum power output factor and
converts this to the best charge voltage and current for the battery. Whenever the
power output from the solar panel gets dropped, the battery charge current also
decreases.

Thus, in poor sunlight conditions, the battery continuously gets charged according to
the output of the solar panel. This is usually not the case in normal solar chargers.
Because each solar panels comes with a maximum output current rating and a short
circuit current rating. Whenever the solar panel could not provide the proper current
output, the voltage falls significantly and the load current does not change and crosses
the short circuit current rating making the output voltage of the solar panel is zero.
Hence, the charging gets stopped completely in poor sunlight conditions. But MPPT
allows the battery to charge even in the poor sunlight condition by controlling the
battery charge current.

MPPTs are around 90-95% efficient in the conversion. However, efficiency is also
dependable on the solar driver temperature, battery temperature, solar panel quality,
and conversion efficiency. In this project, we will build a Solar MPPT charger for lithium
batteries and check the output.

Photovoltaic Characteristics

The photovoltaic is a semiconductor that produces electricity by converting energy from sun
irradiance to electricity [5]. Photovoltaic performance is dependent on the current weather,
insolation, temperature, and other surroundings. The common basic external influences of
photovoltaic power performance are insolation or irradiance and temperature of the device
[14]. Figures 1(a) and 1(b) show the illustration of the power-voltage characteristic curve and
current-voltage characteristic curve generated by the photovoltaic, along with the changes in
irradiance and temperature.
Figure 1(a) shows that the power-voltage curve generated will be shifted to the right with
decreasing temperature, causing the module to generate a higher voltage, while the
increase of irradiance affects both the power generated and voltage generated, causing
these values to increase [14]. Figure 1(b) shows that the current-voltage curve generated
will shift to the right with decreasing temperature, the same as in Figure 1(a). The
increase of irradiance affects both the current generated and the maximum voltage
generated, causing that these values will also increase [14]. These ambient parameters,
such as temperature and insolation, are affected by the surrounding conditions, such as
the geographical aspect, weather, and altitude.

Following these characteristics, the photovoltaic needs to operate at its maximum voltage
value to avoid power loss. The maximum voltage value is the voltage when the
photovoltaic produces its maximum power point and is marked by the red dot in Figure 1.
Because of this condition, using a load with an impedance that does not match the
impedance of photovoltaic will cause power loss. Therefore, to optimize the photovoltaic
power, the system can harness MPPT technology.
MPPT Technology

Maximum Power Point Tracking or MPPT is a technology that can control a power source from
photovoltaic, such as a solar module, to generate its maximum power [11]. MPPT uses a DC-DC
converter to control the solar module for charging the lithium-ion battery, as shown in Figure 2.
This DC-DC converter then needs to operate using a certain algorithm, so the power of the solar
module reaches the maximum point. Control of the DC-DC converter can be undertaken by
controlling the PWM signal that drives the DC-DC converter, following various tracking
algorithms, such as Perturb and Observation (P&O). For MPPT to conduct the tracking
algorithm, MPPT needs a controller device or circuit that can monitor the solar module
conditions, such as the voltage, current, and temperature. The controller for MPPT should have
the capability to sense at least one data measurement of the solar module conditions, then
control or produce the duty cycle needed by the PWM signal to drive the DC-DC converter.

DC-DC Converter

A DC-DC converter consists of several types of circuit, such as buck converter, boost
converter. A buck converter is a circuit that is used to reduce the input voltage of the buck
converter circuit so that it is lower than the input at the output side [15]. Figure 3 shows
a basic asynchronous buck converter circuit. A buck converter used an inductor
connected series between the input and the output; a switching element connected series
between the input and inductor, an output capacitor; and a diode connected parallel to
the circuit ground between the switch and the inductor, an input capacitor. For the buck
converter to operate, the input has to be connected and opened periodically [6]. Thus, the
buck converter has two steps of operation. The first step is the closed circuit, and the next
is the opened circuit step. Figure 4(a) shows the short-circuit step when the switch
element is closed; this condition causes the input to power the load and charge the
inductor and output capacitor [15]. After the inductor and the output capacitor are
charged, the second step will occur. Figure 4(b) shows the second step, when the switch
is opened. In the second step, the charged inductor powers the load in this step [15].
These two steps will be repeated as long as the buck converter is operating. To implement
this process, the circuit uses a transistor component as a switching element controlled by
a PWM signal. By changing the duty cycle of the PWM signal, the duration time of the
closed, circuit step in the period will change, and thus, the solar module voltage will
change correspondingly to the duty cycle value of the PWM signal.
Lithium-Ion Battery Charging Technique

The lithium-ion battery (LIB) is the most commonly used battery in electrical products
and devices [18]. They have been used in almost all portable devices in the fields of
communication, power, and data processing. Even though LIB is known for their
durability, they have a procedure for charging and discharging. LIB are known to explode
if the usage does not correspond to their profile [18]. Constant-current and constant-
voltage (CC-CV) is one of the charging techniques that can be implemented on an LIB. The
purpose of CC-CV is to maximize the charging and the lifetime of the battery [19].

Figure 5 shows the charging procedure of CC-CV of a single LIB. CC-CV consists of four
stages of charging [19]. The first stage is trickle and happens when the battery voltage is
below 3 V; in this condition, the charging current must be below 0.1 C. C is the labelled
capacity of the battery used. When the battery voltage is above 3 V and below 4.2 V, the
battery enters the second stage of charging, the constant current. The constant current
stage is charging the battery from 0.2 C to 1 C in a constant or semi constant charging
current. The third stage is the constant voltage stage, where the battery voltage is above
4.2 V; then, the current must slowly reduce so that the battery voltage is below or equal
to 4.2 V. The last stage, end of charge, occurs when the charging current falls below 0.02 C,
indicating that the charging is finished and the current can be cut.

LIST OF COMPONENT:

• LT®3652

• Schottky Rectifier(1N5819)
• 10k pot

• 10uF Capacitors - 2 pcs

 • Green LED
•
• Orange LED
•
• 220k resistor
•
• 330k resistor
•
• 200k resistor
•
• 68uH Inductor
•
• 1uF capacitor
•
• 100uF capacitor - 2 pcs
•
• Battery - 7.4V
•
• 1k resistors 2 pcs
•
• Barrel socket

DETAILS OF COMPONENTS:
monolithic step-down battery charger
(LT3652):
step-down
battery charger range. The LT3652 provides a The LT3652 is a complete monolithic that
operates over a 4.95V to 32V input
voltage constant-current/
constant-voltage charge characteristic, with maximum
charge current externally programmable up to 2A. The
charger employs a 3.3V float voltage feedback reference,
so any desired battery float voltage up to 14.4V can be
programmed with a resistor divider.
The LT3652 employs an input voltage regulation loop, which
reduces charge current if the input voltage falls below a
programmed level, set with a resistor divider. When the
LT3652 is powered by a solar panel, the input regulation
loop is used to maintain the panel at peak output power.
The LT3652 can be configured to terminate charging
when charge current falls below 1/10 of the programmed
maximum (C/10). Once charging is terminated, the LT3652
enters a low-current (85µA) standby mode. An auto-re-
charge feature starts a new charging cycle if the battery
voltage falls 2.5% below the programmed float voltage.
The LT3652 also contains a programmable safety timer,
used to terminate charging after a desired time is reached.
This allows top-off charging at currents less than C/10.

APPLICATIONS INFORMATION
Overview
LT3652 is a complete monolithic, mid-power, multi-chemistry buck battery charger, addressing high
input voltage applications with solutions that require a minimum of external components. The IC
uses a 1MHz constant frequency, average-current mode step-down architecture. The LT3652
incorporates a 2A switch that is driven by a bootstrapped supply to maximize efficiency during
charging cycles. Wide input range allows operation to full charge from voltages as high as 32V. A
precision threshold shutdown pin allows incorporation of UVLO functionality using a simple resistor
divider. The IC can also be put into a low-current shutdown mode, in which the input supply bias is
reduced to only 15µA. The LT3652 employs an input voltage regulation loop, which reduces charge
current if a monitored input voltage falls below a programmed level. When the LT3652 is powered
by a solar panel, the input regulation loop is used to maintain the panel at peak output power. The
LT3652 automatically enters a battery precondition mode if the sensed battery voltage is very low. In
this mode, the charge current is reduced to 15% of the programmed maximum, as set by the
inductor sense resistor, RSENSE. Once the battery voltage reaches 70% of the fully charged float
voltage, the IC automatically increases maximum charge current to the full programmed value. The
LT3652 can use a charge-current based C/10 termination scheme, which ends a charge cycle when
the battery charge current falls to one tenth of the programmed maximum charge current. The
LT3652 also contains an internal charge cycle control timer, for timer-based termination. When
using the internal timer, the IC combines C/10 detection with a programmable time constraint,
during which the charging cycle can continue beyond the C/10 level to top-off a battery. The charge
cycle terminates when a specific time elapses, typically 3 hours. When the timer-based scheme is
used, the IC also supports bad battery detection, which triggers a system fault if a battery stays in
precondition mode for more than one eighth of the total charge cycle time.
Once charging is terminated, the LT3652 automatically enters a low-current standby mode where
supply bias currents are reduced to 85µA. The IC continues to monitor the battery voltage while in
standby, and if that voltage falls 2.5% from the full-charge float voltage, the LT3652 engages an
automatic charge cycle restart. The IC also automatically restarts a new charge cycle after a bad
battery fault once the failed battery is removed and replaced with another battery. The LT3652
contains provisions for a battery temperature monitoring circuit. This feature monitors battery
temperature using a thermistor during the charging cycle. If the battery temperature moves outside
a safe charging range of 0°C to 40°C, the IC suspends charging and signals a fault condition until the
temperature returns to the safe charging range. The LT3652 contains two digital open-collector
outputs, which provide charger status and signal fault conditions. These binary-coded pins signal
battery charging, standby or shutdown modes, battery temperature faults, and bad battery faults.

General Operation (See Block Diagram) The LT3652 uses average current mode control loop
architecture, such that the IC servos directly to average charge current. The LT3652 senses charger
output voltage through a resistor divider via the VFB pin. The difference between the voltage on this
pin and an internal 3.3V voltage reference is integrated by the voltage error amplifier (V-EA). This
amplifier generates an error voltage on its output (ITH), which corresponds to the average current
sensed across the inductor current sense resistor, RSENSE, which is connected between the SENSE
and BAT pins. The ITH voltage is then divided down by a factor of 10, and imposed on the input of
the current error amplifier (C-EA). The difference between this imposed voltage and the current
sense resistor voltage is integrated, with the resulting voltage (VC) used as a threshold that is
compared against an internally generated ramp. The output of this comparison controls the
charger’s switch.

Figure 1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

The circuit uses LT3652 which is a complete monolithic step-down battery charger that
operates over a 4.95V to 32V input voltage range. Thus, the maximum input range is 4.95V
to the 32V for both solar and adapter. The LT3652 provides a constant current / constant
voltage charge characteristics. It can be programmed through current sense resistors for
a maximum of 2A charge current.

On the output section, the charger employs 3.3V float voltage feedback reference, so any
desired battery float voltage up to 14.4V can be programmed with a resistor divider. The
LT3652 also contains a programmable safety timer using a simple capacitor. It is used
for charge termination after the desired time is reached. It is useful to detect battery
faults.
The LT3652 requires MPPT setup where a potentiometer can be used to set the MPPT
point. When the LT3652 is powered using a solar panel, the input regulation loop is used
to maintain the panel at peak output power. From where the regulation is maintained
depends on the MPPT setup potentiometer.

All these things are connected to the schematic. The VR1 is used to set the MPPT point.
R2, R3, and R4 are used to set the 2S battery charging voltage (8.4V). Formula to set
battery voltage can be given by-

RFB1 = (VBAT(FLT) • 2.5 • 105)/3.3 and

RFB2 = (RFB1 • (2.5 • 105))/ (RFB1 - (2.5 • 105))

The capacitor C2 is used to set up the charge timer. The timer can be set using the below
formula-

tEOC = CTIMER • 4.4 • 106 (In Hours)

The D3 and C3 are the boost diode and boost capacitor. It drives the internal switch and
facilitates the saturation of the switch transistor. The boost pin operates from 0V to 8.5V.

R5 and R6 are a current sense resistor connected in parallel. The charge current can be
calculated using the below formula-

RSENSE = 0.1/ ICHG(MAX)

The current sense resistor in the schematic is selected 0.5 Ohms and 0.22 Ohms which is
in parallel creates 0.15 Ohms. Using the above formula, it will produce almost 0.66A of
charge current. The C4, C5, and C6 are the output filter capacitors.

The DC barrel jack is connected in such a way that the solar panel will get disconnected
if an adapter jack is inserted into the adapter socket. The D1 will protect the solar panel
or the adapter from reverse current flow during no charging condition.
 ABSOLUTE MAXIMUM RATINGS Voltages:

VIN ........................................................................40V BOOST...................................................SW+10V, 50V

BAT, SENSE ...........................................................15V

VIN_REG, SHDN, CHRG, FAULT ............ VIN + 0.5V, 40V

SW ........................................................................40VSW-
VIN.................................................................4.5V BAT-SENSE ......................................... –0.5V to +0.5V

NTC, TIMER, ........................................................2.5V Operating Junction Temperature- ....................40°C to 125°

VFB ..........................................................................5V Storage Temperature Range ................... –65°C to

PIN CONFIGURATION & IC PACKAGE:

Figure 2 IC PACK
PIN FUNCTIONS
VIN (Pin 1):
Charger Input Supply. VIN operating range is 4.95V to 32V. VIN must be 3.3V greater than
the programmed output battery fl oat voltage (VBAT(FLT)) for reliable start-up. (VIN –
VBAT(FLT)) ≥ 0.75V is the minimum operating voltage, provided (VBOOST – VSW) ≥ 2V.
IVIN ~ 85μA after charge termination.

VIN_REG (Pin 2):

Input Voltage Regulation Reference. Maximum charge current is reduced when this pin is
below 2.7V. Connecting a resistor divider from VIN to this pin enables programming of
minimum operational VIN voltage. This is typically used to program the peak power voltage
for a solar panel. The LT3652 servos the maximum charge current required to maintain the
programmed operational VIN voltage, through maintaining the voltage on VIN_REG at or
above 2.7V. If the voltage regulation feature is not used, connect the pin to VIN.

SHDN (Pin 3):

Precision Threshold Shutdown Pin. The enable threshold is 1.2V (rising), with 120mV of input
hysteresis. When in shutdown mode, all charging functions are disabled. The precision
threshold allows use of the SHDN pin to incorporate UVLO functions. If the SHDN pin is
pulled below 0.4V, the IC enters a low current shutdown mode where VIN current is reduced
to 15μA. Typical SHDN pin input bias current is 10nA. If the shutdown function is not desired,
connect the pin to VIN.
CHRG (Pin 4):

Open-Collector Charger Status Output; typically pulled up through a resistor to a reference

voltage. This status pin can be pulled up to voltages as high as VIN when disabled, and can
sink currents up to 10mA when enabled. During a battery charging cycle, if required charge
current is greater than 1/10 of the programmed maximum current (C/10), CHRG is pulled low.
A temperature fault also causes this pin to be pulled low. After C/10 charge termination or, if
the internal timer is used for termination and charge current is less than C/10, the CHRG pin
remains high-impedance.

FAULT (Pin 5): Open-Collector Charger Status Output; typically pulled up through a resistor
to a reference voltage. This status pin can be pulled up to voltages as high as VIN when
disabled, and can sink currents up to 10mA when enabled. This pin indicates fault conditions
during a battery charging cycle. A temperature fault causes this pin to be pulled low. If the
internal timer is used for termination, a bad battery fault also causes this pin to be pulled low.
If no fault conditions exist, the FAULT pin remains high-impedance.

TIMER (Pin 6):

End-Of-Cycle Timer Programming Pin. If a timer-based charge termination is desired, connect
a capacitor from this pin to ground. Full charge end-ofcycle time (in hours) is programmed
with this capacitor following the equation: tEOC = CTIMER • 4.4 • 106 A bad battery fault is
generated if the battery does not achieve the precondition threshold voltage within oneeighth
of tEOC, or: tPRE = CTIMER • 5.5 • 105 A 0.68μF capacitor is typically used, which generates
a timer EOC at three hours, and a precondition limit time of 22.5 minutes. If a timer-based
termination is not desired, the timer function is disabled by connecting the TIMER pin to
ground. With the timer function disabled, charging terminates when the charge current drops
below a C/10 threshold, or ICHG(MAX)/10

VFB (Pin 7):

Battery Float Voltage Feedback Reference. The charge function operates to achieve a final
float voltage of 3.3V on this pin. Output battery float voltage (VBAT(FLT)) is programmed
using a resistor divider. VBAT(FLT) can be programmed up to 14.4V. The auto-restart feature
initiates a new charging cycle when the voltage at the VFB pin falls 2.5% below the
float voltage reference. The VFB pin input bias current is 110nA. Using a resistor divider with
an equivalent input resistance at the VFB pin of 250k compensates for input bias current error.
Required resistor values to program desired VBAT(FLT) follow the equations:
R1 = (VBAT(FLT) • 2.5 • 105)/3.3 (Ω)
R2 = (R1 • 2.5 • 105)/(R1 - (2.5 • 105)) (Ω)
R1 is connected from BAT to VFB, and R2 is connected from VFB to ground.

NTC (Pin 8):

Battery Temperature Monitor Pin. This pin is the input to the
NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient) thermistor temperature monitoring circuit. This
function is enabled by connecting a 10kΩ, B = 3380 NTC thermistor from the NTC pin to
ground. The pin sources 50μA, and monitors the voltage across the 10kΩ thermistor. When the
voltage on this pin is above 1.36 (T < 0°C) or below 0.29V (T > 40°C), charging is disabled
and the CHRG and FAULT pins are both pulled low. If internal timer termination is being
used, the timer is paused, suspending the charging cycle. Charging resumes when the voltage
on NTC returns to within the 0.29V to 1.36V active region. There is approximately 5°C of
temperature hysteresis associated with each of the temperature thresholds. The temperature
monitoring function remains enabled while the thermistor resistance to ground is less than
250k, so if this function is not desired, leave the NTC pin unconnected.

BAT (Pin 9):

Charger Output Monitor Pin. Connect a 10μF decoupling capacitance (CBAT) to ground.
Depending on application requirements, larger value decoupling capacitors may be required.
The charge function operates to achieve the programmed output battery float voltage
(VBAT(FLT)) at this pin. This pin is also the reference for the current sense voltage. Once a
charge cycle is terminated, the input bias current of the BAT pin is reduced to < 0.1μA, to
minimize battery discharge while the charger remains connected.

SENSE (Pin 10):

Charge Current Sense Pin. Connect the inductor sense resistor (RSENSE) from the SENSE pin
to the BAT pin. The voltage across this resistor sets the average charge current. The maximum
charge current (ICHG(MAX)) corresponds to 100mV across the sense resistor. This resistor
can be set to program maximum charge current as high as 2A. The sense resistor value follows
the relation: RSENSE = 0.1/ICHG(MAX) (Ω) Once a charge cycle is terminated, the input bias
current of the SENSE pin is reduced to < 0.1μA, to minimize battery discharge while the
charger remains connected.

BOOST (Pin 11):

Bootstrapped Supply Rail for Switch Drive. This pin facilitates saturation of the switch
transistor. Connect a 1μF or greater capacitor from the BOOST pin to the SW pin. Operating
range of this pin is 0V to 8.5V, referenced to the SW pin. The voltage on the decoupling
capacitor is refreshed through a rectifying diode, with the anode connected to either the battery
output voltage or an external source, and the cathode connected to the BOOST pin.

SW (Pin 12):
Switch Output Pin. This pin is the output of the charger switch, and corresponds to the emitter
of the switch transistor. When enabled, the switch shorts the SW pin to the VIN supply. The
drive circuitry for this switch is bootstrapped above the VIN supply using the BOOST supply
pin, allowing saturation of the switch for maximum efficiency. The effective on-resistance of
the boosted switch is 0.175Ω.

SGND (Pin 13): Ground Reference and Backside Exposed Lead Frame Thermal Connection.
Solder the exposed lead frame to the PCB ground plane.

• Schottky Rectifier(1N5819)
• 1n5819 is a metal to silicon power diode that applies Schottky Barrier Principle. It is

also referred as Schottky Rectifier (named after Scientist Walter H. Schottky), surface

barrier diode, hot electron diode or hot carrier diode.

• This diode is mainly used as a rectifier in many devices including high frequency low

voltage inverters, polarity protection diodes free wheeling diodes and radio frequency

applications.

• It is little bit different than normal PN junction diode where metal like platinum or

aluminium are used in place of P-Type semiconductor.

• In Schottky diode, semiconductor and metal joined together, forming a metal-

semiconductor junction where semiconductor side acts as an cathode and metal side

acts as a anode.

• When metal-semiconductor junction formed between metal and semiconductor, they

result in depletion layer also referred as Schottky barrier.

• Schottky comes with low stored charge and exhibits low power loss and high

efficiency mechanical characteristics.

• It is manufactured in such a way that all external surfaces are corrosion resistant and

terminals are easily solderable where current flows in one direction only and it stops

the current flowing in other direction.

• Maximum temperature it can withstand for soldering purpose is 260 °C.

• Guard ring die construction gives it transient protection and high surge capability.

• The power drop occurred in this diode is lower than PN junction diodes.

• The Schottky diode is a semiconductor diode that comes with fast switching

applications and it pertains to less unwanted noise as compared to PN junction diode

which makes it an ideal choice for most of the switching applications.

• When voltage is applied across the diode terminals, current starts to flow which

results is small voltage drop across the terminals.

• The voltage drop in this diode lies around 0.15 to 0.45 which is very low as compared

to regular diode where voltage drop lies between around 0.6 to 1.7 V.

• The lower voltage drop results in higher efficiency and higher switching speed.

• The voltage drop is actually referred as a voltage required to turn on the diode.

• The voltage required to turn on the germanium is same as Schottky diode, but

germanium diodes are not used in most of the applications because they feature very

less switching speed as compared to germanium diode.

 How Schottky Diode 1n5819 Works
• Working of Schottky diode is slightly different than normal PN junction diode where

P-Type semiconductor is replaced by metal.

• When metal and semiconductor are joined together, they shape a metal-

semiconductor junction which allows the flow of electron from higher energy level to

lower energy level.

• As the electrons available in N-Type semiconductor exhibit more energy and start

flowing from semiconductor to the metal region.

• We know when atom loses an electron, it results in positive ion and when atom gains

electrons it results in negative ion.

• Similarly, when N-Type semiconductor loses electron, it clothes positive charge on it

and the electrons that go to the metal allow it to cloth negative charge on it.
• The positive and negative charges appearing on the metal and semiconductor region

are nothing but the depletion region.

• The electronic width available in the n-type semiconductor is much larger than the

electronic width that allows the electron to move from semiconductor to the metal.

• Basically built-in-voltage houses inside the semiconductor that can be seen by the

conduction bands when electrons try to move to the metal region.

• In order to move electrons from semiconductor to the metal region, the positional

energy of the electrons must be greater than the built-in-voltage.

• We are referring unbiased Schottky diode where only small number of electrons pass

from semiconductor to metal region because built-in-voltage creates a barrier which

refrains the large movement of electrons from semiconductor to the metal region.

• Following figure shows the absolute maximum ratings of 1n5819

•
• It is important to note that these are the stress ratings, which if exceed from absolute

maximum ratings, can damage the device severely.

• Similarly, if stresses are applied for extended period of time, they can effect the

reliability of the device.

Comparison between Schottky Diode and PN junction Diode

• There are number of differences between Schottky diode and PN junction diode. The

Schottky diode is a uni-polar device because conduction is carried out by the

movement of electrons only. Conduction through holes is very negligible as

compared to conduction through electrons.

• PN junction diode is a bipolar device where conduction is carried by the movement

of both charge carriers i.e. electrons and holes.

• In Schottky diode, the reverse breakdown voltage and depletion region is very small

or negligible as compared to silicon PN junction diode.

• Similarly, the voltage drop across Schottky is very low as compared to PN junction

diode which makes it suitable for many switching applications.

 Applications

Hardware design

Figure shows the full schematic for the hardware design. A detailed diagram showing the

connections is shown in Appendix A of this report. The top and the bottom layer of the PCB design

used in this project is shown in figures below.

Figure 3_TOP LAYER

COMPLETE PCB LAYOUT

POTENTIOMETER :
A potentiometer (also known as a pot or potmeter) is defined as a 3 terminal variable
resistor in which the resistance is manually varied to control the flow of electric current. A
potentiometer acts as an adjustable voltage divider.
RESISTORS:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow,
adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines,
among other uses. High-power resistors that can dissipate many watts of electrical power as
heat, may be used as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems, or as test loads
for generators. Fixed resistors have resistances that only change slightly with temperature,
time or operating voltage. Variable resistors can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a
volume control or a lamp dimmer), or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force, or
chemical activity.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are
ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors as discrete components can be
composed of various compounds and forms. Resistors are also implemented within integrated
circuits.

CAPACITORS:
A capacitor is a device that stores electric charge in an electric field. It is a passive electronic
component with two terminals.

The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists between
any two electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a component designed to
add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known as
a condenser or condensator. This name and its cognates are still widely used in many
languages, but rarely in English, one notable exception being condenser microphones, also
called capacitor microphones.
CABLES AND CONNECTORS:
Cables and Connectors are the physical media used to transmit power and signal to the
various types of devices and control in any industrial system. An electrical connector is an
electro-mechanical device used to join electrical terminals and create an electrical circuit.
Electrical connectors consist of plugs (male-ended) and jacks (female-ended). An electrical
cable is an assembly of one or more wires running side by side or bundled, which is used to
carry electric current.

Wires & Cables

Wire and cables are networking hardware used to connect one network device to other
network devices, or to connect two or more computers to share printers, scanners etc.
Different types of network cables, such as coaxial cable, optical fibre cable and twisted pair
cables are used, depending on the network's physical layer, topology and size.

Connectors

A connector is an electro-mechanical device used to join electrical terminals and create an

electrical circuit. Electrical connectors consist of plugs (male-ended) and jacks (female-
ended). The connection may be temporary, as for portable equipment, require a tool for
assembly and removal, or serve as a permanent electrical joint between two wires or devices.
An adapter can be used to effectively bring together dissimilar connectors.
PCB AND BREADBOARD :

No matter the type of electronic device we have, chances are it will need a board to control
the majority of its functions. When it comes to building the board, it’s critical that the
designer knows what type of board is most suitable for the electronic project.

There are two main types of boards to build: a Printed Circuit Board (PCB) or a Breadboard.
One is suited for more general projects, while the other is best used for custom and specific
projects. Each have their benefits and downfalls over the other, making it difficult to decide
which is most suitable for us. A PCB is the small green board covered in grooves and
connections found in almost any electronic device available. A PCB manufacturer takes our
design and turns it into a functioning board to run electronics. The PCB will be our finished
product.

A breadboard is a type of prototyping that requires no soldering connections. This will make
them less permanent compared to a PCB. Breadboards have sockets that we push the
components into, allowing us to remove and change them if needed. The purpose of the
breadboard is to make quick electrical connections between components- like resistors,
LEDs, capacitors, etc- so that we can test your circuit before permanently soldering it
together. Breadboards have many small sockets on them, and some groups of sockets are
electrically connected to each other.

Breadboard vs PCB

A breadboard is commonly used as the first step before developing a PCB. With a
breadboard, you can change and move circuits that are otherwise permanent on a PCB.

There is a time when we would use a breadboard over a PCB, and the other way around.
Depending on what we are making and the stage we are at, that will help us decide when to
use either a breadboard or a PCB.

We would use a breadboard mostly for experimenting with connections and circuits. Because
the board is not permanent, it allows us to move circuits around without damaging the board.
However, because it is not a permanent board, the current capacity is minimal and is best
used as a pre-step before developing the actual PCB.
We would use a PCB for the actual electronic device. After you test out the breadboard and
find the design best suited for our project, we would then develop that into a PCB. The PCB
is a permanent device in electronics because of the soldering required. We would use a PCB
to run your electronic project.

MPPT Charge Controller - Design Considerations

The MPPT Charge controller circuit that we design in this project will have the following
specifications meat.

1. It will charge a 2P2S battery (6.4-8.4V)

2. Charge current will be 600mA
3. It will have an additional charging option using an adapter.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

RESULTS

The final project satisfies all the client requirements. Most client specifications
are met and addressed. Moreover, the circuit design is based on MPPT
algorithm with 95% efficiency. The project is built to have high efficiency and
low cost. Figure shows the final design of the solar charge controller. For
further improvement, the buck converter can be upgraded to buck-boost
converter in order to charge batteries from lower voltage sources, also the
solar charge controller is designed with extra push button, LED, and four pins
on the PCB for futuristic using
 MPPT Charge Controllers :

what is MPPT and its advantages

MPPT Charge Controllers or Maximum Power Point Tracking Charge Controllers are
a type of charge controllers that track the power for the maximum power point.

What is an MPPT Charge Controller?

The MPPT charge controller ensures that the loads receive maximum current to be
used (by quickly charging the battery). Maximum power point could be understood
as an ideal voltage at which the maximum power is delivered to the loads,
with minimum losses. This is also commonly referred to as peak power voltage.

What is the maximum power point (MPP)?

The maximum power point (MPP) describes the point on a current voltage (I-V)
curve at which the solar PV device generates the largest output i.e., where the
product of current intensity (I) and voltage (V) is maximum. The MPP may change
due to external factors such as temperature, light conditions and workmanship of
the device. In order to ensure maximum power output (Pmax) of a solar PV device in
view of these external factors, maximum power output trackers (MPPT) may be
operated to regulate the resistance of the device.

How do MPPT charge controllers work?

Anyone familiar with the charging and discharging characteristics of the battery is
familiar to the fact that the voltage of the battery varies with its charge content. As
current flows from a high potential to low potential, the steeper the gradient or
voltage difference, the greater is the flow of current. This potential gradient could be
made steeper by two ways:

1. By increasing the output voltage of the Solar Panel

2. By decreasing the voltage of the battery (discharging the battery)
Using increased panel voltage to deliver maximum power

Now batteries could only be charged if the output voltage of the solar panel is greater than
that of the batteries, to facilitate a flow of current from the panel to the battery. The output
voltage of the panel depends on different factors, including the weather (irradiance). On a
sunny day the output voltage may be higher than the rated output voltage, while during a
cloudy day the output voltage is probably less. Normal controllers do not have the capacity
to utilize this higher output voltage to deliver more power. However, MPPT charge
controllers have the ability to adjust the voltage in order to get a boost of current during
times of peak demand. MPPT delivers higher than rated charge to the battery as they can
adjust the voltage to current ratio.

Using battery voltage for delivering maximum power

Current and Voltage are inversely proportional to each other. With other words, if the current
increases, the voltage drops and vice versa. By lowering the current by introducing some
resistance in the path of the current, the MPPT charge controller can boost up the voltage.
This voltage to current ratio adjustment is called Maximum power point tracking. MPPT
typically increases the current to the battery by approximately 25% to 30%. Important to keep
in mind is that an 80% discharged battery will charge faster than a 50% discharged battery.
The reason for this is that when the battery starts to discharge, its voltage also reduces.
The larger the gap between the solar panel output voltage and the battery voltage, the more
current will flow into the battery, and the faster the battery will be charged.

Combined techniques for optimum battery charging

MPPT charge controllers use both principles mentioned above to deliver the maximum
amount of power. This type of solar charge controllers come pre-programmed
with adjustable set-points which can be edited and adjusted according to your needs. If you
need to choose between a standard and a MPPT charge controller, usually paying a bit more
for a proper MPPT controller is the way to go.

Advantages

(i)Although the feed-in tariff has changed quite a bit since it was introduced, solar PV
systems are still a great investment because they substantially lower your electric bill
(ii)The price of solar panels has gone down by 45 percent or more, which makes the
entire system much more affordable .
(iii)Solar PV systems operate differently than solar thermal ones. Solar PV system
actually generates free electricity while solar thermal systems heat up your water.
(iv)Solar photovoltaic systems require daylight and so will work in days when the sun is
not shining. All you need is light to create energy, so although the effectiveness of the
solar PV array will be less when the sun is covered by clouds, it will still generate some
electricity.
(v)Utilizing solar power helps lower your electric bills because you are generating some
of the electricity you use. Some systems can generate as much as 40 percent of the
electricity you use on an annual basis].
(vi)There is very little maintenance involved in owning a solar PV system. Just make sure
that you purchase the system from a company with a solid reputation so that you know
you are buying quality panels and a good aftercare service].
(vii)The feed-in tariff is designed to increase the amount of solar power being utilized in
the UK, but it also makes the installation of solar PV systems look even more attractive to
home and business owners].
(viii)By using green energy instead of fossil fuels, you are doing what you can to protect
the environment. Our world’s fossil fuel reserves are rapidly decreasing, so we will have
to find alternative fuels soon. Solar PV panels provide a green way to produce electricity].
8.2. Disadvantages

(i)
Solar PV panels are more expensive than panels designed for solar thermal energy.
However, they do a lot more for your home or business than solar thermal panels do, and
there are some incentives and grants to help pay for them .
(ii)You need an adequate roof space to display your solar PV panels. The larger the panel
covering the more the electricity generated.
(iii)Solar PV panels may not be a viable green energy option for your home or business if
you have a predominantly north or east facing roof or if tall buildings and/or trees place
your roof in the shade during the day.

CONCLUSION:
This method presented here control lead acid battery charging faster and efficiently. The control
algorithm executes P and O method allow module to operate at maximum power point according to
solar irradiation, and match load with the source impedance to provide maximum power. This MPPT
model is more suitable because of less cost, easier circuit design. and the efficiency of circuit
increased by 20 to 25 % in case of MPPT solar charge controller compare toa circuit without MPPT.
And also saved the extra energy required in mechanical tracking. As Arduino based controlling is
used, it maintained constant 12 V at the output terminal that is at the battery terminal.

FUTURE SCOPE: -

1. Hybrid of MPPT with mechanical tracking will give more efficiency, project can be extended in this
direction. 2.

Battery output is directly utilized to feed power in the dc grid which can be used for charging
electronic devices like laptop, mobiles directly.

3.By adding WIFI module we can record data in the system and optimize the data for better use.

4. Solar Panel installed on urban and sub- urban areas with modified technology will lead in saving
our electricity bills.
REFERENCES:

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijp/2019/5026464/fig5/

https://www.analog.com/media/en/technical-documentation/data-sheets/3652fe.pdf

https://www.digikey.co.nz/en/product-highlight/l/linear-tech/lt3652-2a-battery-charger

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijp/2019/5026464/

https://sinovoltaics.com/learning-center/components/mppt-charge-controllers-mppt-
advantages/

https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8783895

https://www.theengineeringprojects.com/2018/04/introduction-to-1n5819.html