Domestic Violence in Women

1.Introduction
Domestic violence (also named domestic abuse or family violence) is violence or other abuse
by one person against another in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. It
may be termed intimate partner violence when committed by a spouse or partner in an
intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner, and can take place in heterosexual or
same-sex relationships, or between former spouses or partners. Domestic violence can also
involve violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It takes a number of forms,
including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, reproductive, and sexual abuse,
which can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and to violent physical abuse
such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation, and acid throwing that results in
disfigurement or death. Domestic murders include stoning, bride burning, honor killings, and
dowry deaths.

Globally, the victims of domestic violence are overwhelmingly women, and women tend to
experience more severe forms of violence. They are also more likely than men to use intimate
partner violence in self-defense.In some countries, domestic violence is often seen as
justified, particularly in cases of actual or suspected infidelity on the part of the woman, and
is legally permitted. Research has established that there exists a direct and significant
correlation between a country's level of gender equality and rates of domestic violence, where
countries with less gender equality experience higher rates of domestic violence. Domestic
violence is among the most underreported crimes worldwide for both men and women.Due to
social stigmas regarding male victimization, men who are victims of domestic violence face
an increased likelihood of being overlooked by healthcare providers.

Domestic violence often occurs when the abuser believes that abuse is an entitlement,
acceptable, justified, or unlikely to be reported. It may produce an intergenerational cycle of
abuse in children and other family members, who may feel that such violence is acceptable or
condoned. Many people do not recognize themselves as abusers or victims because they may
consider their experiences as family conflicts that got out of control. Awareness, perception,
definition and documentation of domestic violence differs widely from country to country.
Domestic violence often happens in the context of forced or child marriage.

In abusive relationships, there may be a cycle of abuse during which tensions rise and an act
of violence is committed, followed by a period of reconciliation and calm. Victims of
domestic violence may be trapped in domestic violent situations through isolation, power and
control, traumatic bonding to the abuser, cultural acceptance, lack of financial resources, fear,
shame, or to protect children. As a result of abuse, victims may experience physical
disabilities, dysregulated aggression, chronic health problems, mental illness, limited
finances, and poor ability to create healthy relationships. Victims may experience severe
psychological disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Children who live in a
household with violence often show psychological problems from an early age, such as
avoidance, hypervigilance to threats, and dysregulated aggression which may contribute to
vicarious traumatization.
The United Nations Population Fund found violence against women and girls to be one of the
most prevalent human rights violations worldwide, stating that "one in three women will
experience physical or sexual abuse in her lifetime."Violence against women tends to be less
prevalent in developed Western nations, and more normalized in the developing
world.Women are more likely to be victimized by someone that they are intimate with,
commonly called "intimate partner violence" (IPV). Instances of IPV tend not to be reported
to police and thus many experts find it hard to estimate the true magnitude of the problem.
Though this form of violence is often considered as an issue within the context of
heterosexual relationships, it also occurs in lesbian relationships, daughter-mother
relationships, roommate relationships and other domestic relationships involving two women.
Violence against women in lesbian relationships is about as common as violence against
women in heterosexual relationships.

Women are much more likely than men to be murdered by an intimate partner. In the United
States, in 2005, 1181 women were killed by their intimate partners, compared to 329 men. In
England and Wales about 100 women are killed by partners or former partners each year
while 21 men were killed in 2010. In 2008, in France, 156 women were killed by their
intimate partner, compared to 27 men. According to the WHO, globally, as many as 38% of
murders of women are committed by an intimate partner. A UN report compiled from a
number of different studies conducted in at least 71 countries found domestic violence
against women to be most prevalent in Ethiopia. A study by Pan American Health
Organization conducted in 12 Latin American countries found the highest prevalence of
domestic violence against women to be in Bolivia. In Western Europe, a country that has
received major international criticism for the way it has dealt legally with the issue of
violence against women is Finland; with authors pointing out that a high level of equality for
women in the public sphere (as in Finland) should never be equated with equality in all other
aspects of women's lives

Wife beating was made illegal nationally in the United States by 1920 Although the exact
rates are disputed, there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence that women are subjected
to domestic violence significantly more often than men.In addition, there is broad consensus
that women are more often subjected to severe forms of abuse and are more likely to be
injured by an abusive partner, and this is exacerbated by economic or social dependence.

The United Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women (1993) states
that "violence against women is a manifestation of historically unequal power relations
between men and women, which has led to domination over and discrimination against
women by men and to the prevention of the full advancement of women, and that violence
against women is one of the crucial social mechanisms by which women are forced into a
subordinate position compared with men". The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence
against Women classifies violence against women into three categories: that occurring in the
family (DV), that occurring within the general community, and that perpetrated or condoned
by the State.

The Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence

against Women defines violence against women as "any act or conduct, based on gender,
which causes death or physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, whether
in the public or the private sphere".Similarly with the Declaration on the Elimination of
Violence against Women, it classifies violence against women into three categories; one of
which being DV – defined as violence against women which takes place "within the family or
domestic unit or within any other interpersonal relationship, whether or not the perpetrator
shares or has shared the same residence with the woman".

The Maputo Protocol adopted a broader definition, defining violence against women as: "all
acts perpetrated against women which cause or could cause them physical, sexual,
psychological, and economic harm, including the threat to take such acts; or to undertake the
imposition of arbitrary restrictions on or deprivation of fundamental freedoms in private or
public life in peacetime and during situations of armed conflicts or of war".

The Istanbul Convention states: ""violence against women" is understood as a violation of

human rights and a form of discrimination against women (...)". (Article 3 – Definitions). In
the landmark case of Opuz v Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights held for the first
time that gender-based domestic violence is a form of discrimination under the European
Convention.

According to one study, the percentage of women who have reported being physically abused
by an intimate partner vary from 69% to 10% depending on the country. In the United States,
it is estimated that intimate partner violence accounts for 15% of all violent crime.The latest
research (2017) by the CDC found that over half of all female homicides are committed by
intimate partners, 98 percent of whom are men.

Femicide is usually defined as the gender-based killing of women by men, although the exact
definitions vary. Femicides often occur in the context of DV, such as honor killings or dowry
killings. For statistical purposes, femicide is often defined as any killing of a woman. The top
countries by rate of femicide are El Salvador, Jamaica, Guatemala, South Africa and Russia
(data from 2004–09). However, in El Salvador and Colombia, which have a very high rate of
femicide, only three percent of all femicides are committed by a current or former intimate
partner, while in Cyprus, France, and Portugal former and current partners are responsible for
more than 80% of all cases of femicide.

Key facts and Statistics:

● Violence against women – particularly intimate partner violence and sexual violence
– is a major public health problem and a violation of women's human rights.
 ● Global estimates published by WHO indicate that about 1 in 3 (35%) of women
worldwide have experienced either physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence or
non-partner sexual violence in their lifetime.
● Most of this violence is intimate partner violence. Worldwide, almost one third (30%)
of women who have been in a relationship report that they have experienced some
form of physical and/or sexual violence by their intimate partner in their lifetime.
● Globally, as many as 38% of murders of women are committed by a male intimate
partner.
● Violence can negatively affect women’s physical, mental, sexual, and reproductive
health, and may increase the risk of acquiring HIV in some settings.
● Men are more likely to perpetrate violence if they have low education, a history of
child maltreatment, exposure to domestic violence against their mothers, harmful use
of alcohol, unequal gender norms including attitudes accepting of violence, and a
sense of entitlement over women.
● Women are more likely to experience intimate partner violence if they have low
education, exposure to mothers being abused by a partner, abuse during childhood,
and attitudes accepting violence, male privilege, and women’s subordinate status.
● There is evidence that advocacy and empowerment counselling interventions, as well
as home visitation are promising in preventing or reducing intimate partner violence
against women.
● Situations of conflict, post conflict and displacement may exacerbate existing
violence, such as by intimate partners, as well as and non-partner sexual violence, and
may also lead to new forms of violence against women.

2.Types
Not all domestic violence is equivalent. Differences in frequency, severity, purpose, and
outcome are all significant. Domestic violence can take many forms, including physical
aggression or assault (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing
objects, beating up, etc.), or threats thereof; sexual abuse; controlling or domineering;
intimidation; stalking; passive/covert abuse (e.g., neglect); and economic deprivation.It can
also mean endangerment, criminal coercion, kidnapping, unlawful imprisonment, trespassing,
and harassment.

Physical
Physical abuse is that involving contact intended to cause fear, pain, injury, other physical
suffering or bodily harm.In the context of coercive control, physical abuse is to control the
victim. The dynamics of physical abuse in a relationship are often complex. Physical violence
can be the culmination of other abusive behavior, such as threats, intimidation, and restriction
of victim self-determination through isolation, manipulation and other limitations of personal
freedom. Denying medical care, sleep deprivation, and forced drug or alcohol use, are also
forms of physical abuse. It can also include inflicting physical injury onto other targets, such
as children or pets, in order to cause emotional harm to the victim.
Strangulation in the context of DV has received significant attention. It is now recognized as
one of the most lethal forms of DV; yet, because of the lack of external injuries, and the lack
of social awareness and medical training in regard to it, strangulation has often been a hidden
problem. As a result, in recent years, many US states have enacted specific laws against
strangulation.

Homicide as a result of domestic violence makes up a greater proportion of female homicides

than it does male homicides. More than 50% of female homicides are committed by former or
current intimate partners in the US.In the United Kingdom, 37 percent of murdered women
were killed by an intimate partner compared to 6 percent for men. Between 40 and 70 percent
of women murdered in Canada, Australia, South Africa, Israel and the United States were
killed by an intimate partner.The World Health Organization states that globally, about 38%
of female homicides are committed by an intimate partner.

During pregnancy, a woman is at higher risk to be abused or long-standing abuse may change
in severity, causing negative health effects to the mother and fetus.Pregnancy can also lead to
a hiatus of domestic violence when the abuser does not want to harm the unborn child. The
risk of domestic violence for women who have been pregnant is greatest immediately after
childbirth.

Acid attacks are an extreme form of violence in which acid is thrown at the victims, usually
their faces, resulting in extensive damage including long-term blindness and permanent
scarring.These are commonly a form of revenge against a woman for rejecting a marriage
proposal or sexual advance.

In the Middle East and other parts of the world, planned domestic homicides, or honor
killings, are carried out due to the belief of the perpetrators that the victim has brought
dishonor upon the family or community. According to Human Rights Watch, honor killings
are generally performed against women for "refusing to enter into an arranged marriage,
being the victim of a sexual assault, seeking a divorce" or being accused of committing
adultery. In some parts of the world, where there is a strong social expectation for a woman
to be a virgin prior to marriage, a bride may be subjected to extreme violence, including an
honor killing, if she is deemed not to be a virgin on her wedding night due to the absence of
blood.

Bride burning or dowry killing is a form of domestic violence in which a newly married
woman is killed at home by her husband or husband's family due to their dissatisfaction over
the dowry provided by her family. The act is often a result of demands for more or prolonged
dowry after the marriage. Dowry violence is most common in South Asia, especially in India.
In 2011, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths in India, but
unofficial figures estimate at least three times this amount.

Sexual
Percentage of women throughout the world of intimate partner violence
by WHO region (based on a WHO survey )

Regions Percentage

American Region 29.8%

Eastern Mediterranean Region 37.0%

South-East Asia Region 37.7%

African Region 36.6%

European Region 25.4%

Western Pacic Region 24.6%

High income countries 23.2%

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is concentrated in 29 countries with wide variations in

prevalence. FGM is included in the WHO definition of sexual violence
Sexual abuse, Marital rape, and Sexual violence by intimate partners
Sexual abuse, is defined by World Health Organization as any sexual act, attempt to obtain a
sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic, or otherwise directed,
against a person's sexuality using coercion. It also includes obligatory inspections for
virginity and female genital mutilation. Aside from initiation of the sexual act through
physical force, sexual abuse occurs if a person is verbally pressured into consenting,unable to
understand the nature or condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to
communicate unwillingness to engage in the sexual act. This could be because of underage
immaturity, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or due to
intimidation or pressure.

In many cultures, victims of rape are considered to have brought 'dishonour' or 'disgrace' to
their families and face severe familial violence, including honor killings. This is especially
the case if the victim becomes pregnant.

Female genital mutilation is defined by WHO as "all procedures that involve partial or total
removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-
medical reasons." This procedure has been performed on more than 125 million females alive
today, and it is concentrated in 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East.

Incest, or sexual contact between an adult and a child, is one form of familial sexual violence.
In some cultures, there are ritualized forms of child sexual abuse taking place with the
knowledge and consent of the family, where the child is induced to engage in sexual acts with
adults, possibly in exchange for money or goods. For instance, in Malawi some parents
arrange for an older man, often called "hyena", to have sex with their daughters as a form of
initiation.The Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual
Exploitation and Sexual Abuse was the first international treaty to address child sexual abuse
occurring within the home or family.

Reproductive coercion (also called "coerced reproduction") are threats or acts of violence
against a partner's reproductive rights, health and decision-making; and includes a collection
of behaviors intended to pressure or coerce a partner into becoming pregnant or ending a
pregnancy. Reproductive coercion is associated with forced sex, fear of or inability to make
contraceptive decision, fear of violence after refusing sex, and abusive partner interference
with access to healthcare.

In some cultures, marriage imposes a social obligation for women to reproduce. In northern
Ghana, for example, payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children,
and women using birth control face threats of violence and reprisals. WHO includes forced
marriage, cohabitation, and pregnancy including wife inheritance within its definition of
sexual violence.Wife inheritance, or levirate marriage, is a type of marriage in which the
brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his widow, and the widow is obliged to marry
her deceased husband's brother.

Marital rape is non-consensual penetration perpetrated against a spouse. It is under-reported,

under-prosecuted, and legal in many countries, due in part to the belief that through marriage,
a woman gives irrevocable consent for her husband to have sex with her when he wishes. In
Lebanon, for instance, while discussing a proposed law that would criminalize marital rape,
Sheik Ahmad Al-Kurdi, a judge in the Sunni religious court, said that the law "could lead to
the imprisonment of the man where in reality he is exercising the least of his marital
rights."Feminists have worked systematically since the 1960s to criminalize marital rape
internationally. In 2006, a study by the United Nations found that marital rape was a
prosecutable offense in at least 104 countries Once widely condoned or ignored by law and
society, marital rape is now repudiated by international conventions and increasingly
criminalized. The countries which ratified the Council of Europe Convention on preventing
and combating violence against women and domestic violence, the first legally binding
instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women, are bound by its provisions to
ensure that non-consensual sexual acts committed against a spouse or partner are illegal.The
convention came into force in August 2014.

Emotional
Emotional abuse (or psychological abuse) is a pattern of behavior that threatens, intimidates,
dehumanizes or systematically undermines self-worth. According to the Istanbul Convention,
psychological violence is "the intentional conduct of seriously impairing a person's
psychological integrity through coercion or threats".

Emotional abuse includes minimising, threats, isolation, public humiliation, unrelenting

criticism, constant personal devaluation, repeated stonewalling and gaslighting.Stalking is a
common form of psychological intimidation, and is most often perpetrated by former or
current intimate partners. Victims tend to feel their partner has nearly total control over them,
greatly affecting the power dynamic in a relationship, empowering the perpetrator, and
disempowering the victim.Victims often suffer from depression, putting them at increased
risk of eating disorders,suicide, and drug and alcohol abuse.

Economic
Economic abuse (or financial abuse) is a form of abuse when one intimate partner has control
over the other partner's access to economic resources.Marital assets are used as a means of
control. Economic abuse may involve preventing a spouse from resource acquisition, limiting
what the victim may use, or by otherwise exploiting economic resources of the victim.
Economic abuse diminishes the victim's capacity to support themselves, increasing
dependence on the perpetrator, including reduced access to education, employment, career
advancement, and assets acquirement. Forcing or pressuring a family member to sign
documents, to sell things, or to change a will are forms of economic abuse.
A victim may be put on an allowance, allowing close monitoring of money is spent,
preventing spending without perpetrator consent, leading to the accumulation of debt or
depletion of the victim's savings. Disagreement about money spent can result in retaliation
with additional physical, sexual or emotional abuse. In parts of the world where women
depend on husbands' income in order to survive (due to lack of opportunities for female
employment and lack of state welfare) economic abuse can have very severe consequences.
Abusive relations have been associated with malnutrition among both mothers and children.
In India, for example, the withholding of food is a documented form of family abuse.

3. Causes:
Abusers may feel this need to control their partner because of low self-esteem, extreme
jealousy, difficulties in regulating anger and other strong emotions, or when they feel inferior
to the other partner in education and socioeconomic background.

Some people with very traditional beliefs may think they have the right to control their
partner, and that women aren’t equal to men. Others may have an undiagnosed personality
disorder or psychological disorder. Still others may have learned this behavior from growing
up in a household where domestic violence was accepted as a normal part of being raised in
their family.

A partner’s domination may take the form of emotional, physical or sexual abuse. Studies
suggest that violent behavior often is caused by an interaction of situational and individual
factors. That means that abusers learn violent behavior from their family, people in their
community and other cultural influences as they grow up. They may have seen violence often
or they may have been victims themselves. Some abusers acknowledge growing up having
been abused as a child.

Children who witness or are the victims of violence may learn to believe that violence is a
reasonable way to resolve conflict between people. Boys who learn that women are not to be
valued or respected and who see violence directed against women are more likely to abuse
women when they grow up. Girls who witness domestic violence in their families of origin
are more likely to be victimized by their own husbands. Although women are most often the
victim of domestic violence, the gender roles can and are reversed sometimes.

Alcohol and drugs may contribute to violent behavior. A drunk or high person will be less
likely to control his or her violent impulses toward their partner, so keeping such drinking or
drug use episodes to a minimum may be valuable for a person living in a domestic violence
situation.

No cause of domestic violence, however, justifies the actions of the abuser, nor should it be
used as a rationale for their behavior. These possible causes are only to better understand why
an abuser believes it is acceptable to abuse their partner physically, sexually, psychologically
or emotionally. Ultimately an abuser needs to get help for their unhealthy and destructive
behavior, or find themselves living a solitary and lonely life.

4. Identification of The Issue:

A large proportion of interpersonal violence is unreported to criminal justice agencies, often
because individuals fear stigma (e.g. from family and friends) or retribution from abusers for
revealing their abuse. However, violence often leads to physical injury and a range of
emotional and social problems, which can bring victims into contact with health and other
services (e.g. primary care, emergency departments, mental health services). Consequently,
such settings provide an opportunity to identify victims of violence, provide support and refer
them appropriately. However, a range of obstacles can prevent agencies from identifying and
supporting victims of violence. for staff working in healthcare settings, for example, these
can include lack of education; time constraints; stereotyping; fear of offending the patient;
fear of accusing the perpetrator; powerlessness, and feelings of hopelessness and frustration;
lack of screening routines; and a lack of perceived responsibility. In addition, many victims
will not disclose their situation unless they are directly asked. Therefore, health and other
professionals require the information, knowledge and skills to ensure that they can recognize
victims of violence and respond to their needs.

Screening tools to identify victims of violence :

Screening is a process used to identify people at risk of a disease or condition, who may
otherwise remain undetected. for victims of violence, screening aims to increase
identification, lead to appropriate interventions and support and decrease subse- quent
exposure to violence and related problems. A range of screening tools have been developed
for use in settings such as emergency departments, prenatal services and mental health care
settings, most commonly for identifying victims of intimate partner violence and child
maltreatment. The tools generally consist of a series of questions about a person’s current
relationships and their experience of physical, sexual and emotional violence. Evidence
suggests that screening by health care providers can be effective in facilitating the disclosure
of intimate partner violence and thus improving identification levels for example, a study in a
Canadian emergency department compared the use of a five question screening tool for
intimate partner violence with routine emergency care, and found that the tool increased
detection rates from less than 1% of female patients to 14%.
While screening for violence within healthcare settings is widely promoted, there is little
evidence on its sustainability or effectiveness in helping to reduce violence. A systematic
review of studies exploring screening for victims of intimate partner violence in healthcare
settings found that modest improvements were made in identification of victims. However,
there was no evidence that improvements in identification were sustained beyond initial
implementation. Another systematic review found that while screening in emergency
departments can be effective in improving victim identification, there are a number of
barriers to introducing and sustaining this routinely. These include inadequate knowledge and
skills among staff, lack of privacy or after hours services within emergency department
settings and lack of staff ownership and acceptance of the questions posed.
Screening for victims of violence can be implemented universally (i.e. with all patients) or
targeted at patients considered to be at-risk (e.g. presenting with physical injuries, depression,
anxiety or sexual health problems). It has been suggested that routine screening is more
beneficial than targeted screening as it increases the potential of victim identification among
all patients (including those with symptoms not overtly associated with violence). A study in
the United States found that while the majority of abused and non-abused women attending
emergency departments supported routine screening, those who had suffered abuse were less
supportive. Limited resources may mean routine screening is not possible and that identified
victims are not offered subsequent support. Consequently, the choice of whether or not to
screen and, if so, the screening method used must be made in light of available resources.
There is little evidence examining the effective- ness of screening for other types of violence
(e.g. elder abuse, youth violence, child maltreatment). In the United Kingdom, the
introduction of a reminder flowchart to improve detection of child maltreatment for staff in
an emergency department found that it increased staff awareness, consideration and
documentation of intentional injury. However, evidence from systematic reviews suggests
that screening for child maltreatment can result in high levels of false-positives and
consequently should not be recommended. further, all studies meeting quality criteria for
these reviews assessed tools directed at parents. This can create reliability problems as
information may be obtained directly from the perpetrator. for elder abuse, it has been
recommended that public health care workers screen for abuse as a necessary first step in a
chain of interventions. However, the implementation of screening should take place within an
interdiscipli- nary framework and be accompanied by ongoing research, evaluation and
capacity building.
The benefits of screening tools may only be realised if they are complemented by protocols
that incorporate victim identification and support into routine practice. for example, in the
United States, a pre- and post-test controlled study explored the effectiveness of having an
abuse assessment protocol in prenatal clinics. During the 15 months following the
introduction of the protocol, an audit of patient charts found that 88% of patients in the
intervention clinics had been as- sessed. furthermore, detection of abuse increased from under
1% to 7% of patients in the intervention clinics; there were no changes in the comparison
clinics. Adequate auditing, training and support are required to ensure such protocols are
followed

Education programmes on violence and victim identification:

A lack of violence-related education among health- care staff can be a barrier to the
recognition, identification and support of victims of abuse. A range of training programmes
have been developed for health care staff to aid their understanding of violence and increase
victim identification and subsequent support and referral. These cover topics such as
improving staff knowledge on issues surrounding violence, including its extent, impacts and
risk factors; reasons why victims may not re- port their abuse and staff competence in
screening; documenting evidence; assessing victim safety; and referring victims for
appropriate support.
Evaluations of two such programmes that focused on the education of healthcare profession-
als about intimate partner violence suggest that training can improve knowledge of, and
attitudes towards, screening for intimate partner violence, as well as perceived self-efficacy in
supporting victims.
Although fewer studies have examined the effectiveness of education programmes in tackling
other types of violence (e.g. child maltreatment and elder abuse), some positive results have
been reported. for instance, child maltreatment education can increase knowledge,
appropriate attitudes and perceived self-competency to manage child abuse cases among
medical staff immediately after training. Longer term outcomes have generally not been
measured. Rigorous studies on the effectiveness of education on managing elder abuse are
lacking. However, such interventions can improve knowledge and level of comfort in
handling elder abuse and neglect.
Outside the healthcare sector, organizations such as the police and specialized non-
governmental organizations (e.g. Victim Support in the United Kingdom) can also provide
training to staff and volunteers. Specific agency guidance for supporting victims has also
been developed. for example, in uganda, a handbook for police on responding to intimate
partner violence provides information on the issue, along with risk assessment forms,
interview guides and practical examples of how to support victims. There is little research
available on how such measures impact on levels or quality of support provided to victims or
victimization.

Mandatory reporting:
Some countries (e.g. Australia, Canada, England, South Africa and the United States) have
mandatory child maltreatment reporting laws. In general, these require professionals in
contact with children to report all suspected child maltreatment cases to authorities with legal
responsibility for child protection. This aims to ensure that appropriate enquiries and
interventions are initiated. However, there is little consensus on the usefulness of mandatory
reporting of suspected child maltreatment. Critics have raised concerns including the fear of
investigation deterring families from accessing services; child protection resources being
focused on the investigation of allegations of maltreatment at the expense of supporting
victims; and a lack of legal, child protection and support services being available to act on a
report. In some states in the United States, differential response systems allow child
protection agencies more flexibility to address cases based on perceived risk and the family’s
personal circumstances. Low and moderate risk cases can be offered a family assessment to
determine needs and encouraged to access support services most appropriate to them.
In some states in the United States, mandatory reporting of intimate partner violence
incidents has also been established. Again, debate surrounds the appropriateness of this
approach. While supporters believe it can enhance victim safety and improve health care
responses to intimate partner violence and data collection, critics believe that it may place
women at risk of further abuse and deter them from accessing services. Although mandatory
reporting systems are in operation in many countries, there is little evidence relating to their
effectiveness in preventing any form of violence.

5. Statistical Analysis and Prevalence of Domestic Violence:

1.Domestic violence in South Africa
Domestic violence in South Africa has been viewed as a private matter until the last few
decades. In the 2012 financial year, just over one-third of the crimes against women that had
been reported were prosecuted in court. Legislation has been passed to help improve the
quality of life for those being abused and to prevent further abuse. Although the movement
against domestic violence is a relatively new movement, it has been making great strides in
the country since the 1990s.
Prevalence of Domestic Violence in South Africa
In a study done by the World Health Organization, it was found that 60,000 women and
children are victims of domestic violence in South Africa. It is hard to gather accurate
statistical data in South Africa because domestic violence is rarely reported. On average, in a
cross-sectional study conducted in 2002, the women who were abused came from a lower
secondary education and were unemployed. The same study indicated that 9.5 percent of
women reported being abused within the past year (working back from 2002); in some areas
of the country it rose to 28.4 percent of women who reported being abused. In 2013, 50
percent of the women surveyed reported that they had suffered emotional and verbal abuse.
Of the women who were in violent relationships, 45.9 percent of them reported injury. In the
same study it was found that typically the women who do witness and feel the violence come
from a rural childhood compared to those raised in an urban area. Although there are many
places that do offer help to those suffering from domestic violence, those resources are more
available in urban areas. In rural areas it is harder to access proper resources. Nearly half of
the female murders that happened in 1999 in South Africa resulted from domestic violence.
The percentage of women who reported experiencing domestic violence at least once in their
lifetime is as high as 59 percent.
In a study conducted in 2002 by R. Jewkes et al. 24.6% of all women, and 24.3% of black
African women, experienced physical violence during their lifetime. Black African women
were less likely to ever experience physical violence or to experience physical violence in the
past year than were women of other races. The women in this sample were from the province
of Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga, and Northern Province with a mean age of 31.
Recent research has found that binge drinking was associated with intimate partner violence
perpetration, and that problematic alcohol use can be a predictor of intimate partner violence
and domestic violence perpetration. Additionally, men with a history of exposure to violence
were more likely to have difficulty with self-control as it relates to violence towards a partner
in certain situations compared to men without a history of exposure to violence.
According to the latest statistics, 51% of African women report that being beaten by their
husbands is justified if they either go out without permission, neglect the children, argue
back, refuse to have sex, or burn the food. This is startling. To be sure, the numbers reflect
attitudes, not incidence. About one third of African women report to have experienced
domestic violence (physical or sexual). But the attitudes are arguably even more pernicious.
They shape behavior, reflect social norms toward conflict resolution, also outside the home,
and could bear importantly on development and poverty reduction. They are also correlated
with the incidence of violence. In assessing people’s poverty status and well-being, a much
more systematic discussion of the acceptance and incidence of domestic violence is called
for.
2. Domestic Violence in India
Domestic violence in India includes any form of violence suffered by a person from a
biological relative, but typically is the violence suffered by a woman by male members of her
family or relatives. According to a National Family and Health Survey in 2005, total lifetime
prevalence of domestic violence was 33.5% and 8.5% for sexual violence among women
aged 15–49. A 2014 study in The Lancet reports that the reported sexual violence rate in
India is among the lowest in the world, the large population of India means that the violence
affects 27.5 million women over their lifetimes.
The 2012 National Crime Records Bureau report of India states a reported crime rate of 46
per 100,000, rape rate of 2 per 100,000, dowry homicide rate of 0.7 per 100,000 and the rate
of domestic cruelty by husband or his relatives as 5.9 per 100,000. These reported rates are
significantly smaller than the reported intimate partner domestic violence rates in many
countries, such as the United States (590 per 100,000) and reported homicide (6.2 per
100,000 globally), crime and rape incidence rates per 100,000 women for most nations
tracked by the United Nations.
There are several domestic violence laws in India. The earliest law was the Dowry
Prohibition Act 1961 which made the act of giving and receiving dowry a crime. In an effort
to bolster the 1961 law, two new sections, Section 498A and Section 304B were introduced
into the Indian Penal Code in 1983 and 1986. The most recent legislation is the Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act (PWDVA) 2005. The PWDVA, a civil law, includes
physical, emotional, sexual, verbal, and economic abuse as domestic violence.
Domestic violence is currently defined in India by the Protection of Women from Domestic
Violence Act of 2005. According to Section 3 of the Act, “any act, omission or commission
or conduct of the respondent shall constitute domestic violence in case it:
• harms or injures or endangers the health, safety, life, limb or well-being, whether mental or
physical, of the aggrieved person or tends to do so and includes causing physical abuse,
sexual abuse, verbal and emotional abuse and economic abuse; or
• harasses, harms, injures or endangers the aggrieved person with a view to coerce her or any
other person related to her to meet any unlawful demand for any dowry or other property or
valuable security; or
• has the effect of threatening the aggrieved person or any person related to her by any
conduct mentioned in clause (a) or clause (b); or
• Otherwise injures or causes harm, whether physical or mental, to the aggrieved person.”

3. Domestic Violence in Pakistan

Domestic violence in Pakistan is an endemic social and public health problem. According to
a study carried out in 2009 by Human Rights Watch, it is estimated that between 20 and 30
percent of women in Pakistan have suffered some form of abuse. An estimated 5000 women
are killed per year from domestic violence, with thousands of others maimed or disabled.
Women have reported attacks ranging from physical to psychological and sexual abuse from
intimate partners. In 1998, of the 1974 reported murders, the majority of victims were killed
by family members. A survey carried out by the Thomson Reuters Foundation ranked
Pakistan as the third most dangerous country in the world for women, after Afghanistan and
the Democratic Republic of Congo; it is followed by India and Somalia. The majority of
victims of violence have no legal recourse. Law enforcement authorities do not view
domestic violence as a crime and usually refuse to register any cases brought to them. Given
the very few women's shelters in the country, victims have limited ability to escape from
violent situations.
Reported Cases in Pakistan and why so many Cases Being Reported are
“The lack of laws is leading to a scary rise in domestic violence in some of Pakistan's
provinces”
Despite the many advancements and developments in media and information technology, the
Pakistani society is still bound by many chains which hinder its progression. One of these
chains is the violence committed against women.
Factors responsible for Domestic Violence in Pakistan
Various factors are associated with domestic violence in Pakistan. Poverty, illiteracy and
social and economic taboos are considered the main reasons for domestic violence in the
country. A lack of awareness about women’s rights and a lack of support from the
government are the other two reasons. Another factor given for the rise in domestic violence
has been due to increased urbanization. As people move from villages and increasingly live
apart from an extended family, assaults are less likely to be prevented by the intervention of
family members, who in past times often intervened in domestic conflicts. Yet another reason
given for abuses is patriarchy in Pakistani society, which marginalizes women’s role. In some
traditional societies, a man is considered to have the right to physically beat his spouse. In
1998 of 1974 reported murders the majority of victims were killed by either family members
or In-laws. A survey carried out by the Thomson Reuters Foundation ranked Pakistan as the
third most dangerous country in the world for women, after Afghanistan and the Democratic
Republic of Congo; it is followed by India and Somalia. More than a thousand victims of
honor crimes were recorded last year.
The annual report by the independent Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP)
recorded gang rapes, kidnapping, acid attacks, amputations, burnings and said almost 800
women killed themselves or attempted suicide. The report warned that despite a series of
landmarks in 2015, which saw the first Pakistani female firefighter and rickshaw driver start
work, exploitation and abuse remains rife with little judicial recourse. The Human Rights
Commission of Pakistan report said prosecution rates for domestic violence and sexual
offences were low, with women frequently too afraid to report the crimes or being
intimidated into withdrawing complaints. It recorded more than 900 rapes and sexual assaults
in 2015, 279 instances of domestic violence, 143 of burning, 833 kidnappings and 777
suicides and attempted suicides. The HRCP reported 987 honor crimes in 2015, with 1,096
female victims and 88 male victims, including an unknown number of children.

6. Global Prevalence of Domestic Violence in Women:

Global prevalence of domestic violence Domestic violence against women is prevalent not
only in developing countries but, it also exists in developed societies. According to WHO
2002 report in 48 different countries, 10% to 69% of women were being physically hit by
their intimate/partner at some point in their lives. Researches have showed that physically
violated women report psychological and mental health abuse and one-third to over half of
cases also reported sexual abuse. In Colombia, violence can take the form of marital rape, and
is the leading cause of death and also contributes to 25% of the disease burden.' In United
Kingdom (UK). Domestic violence is reported in every one out of four women.9 further, an
Indian research showed that women married to husbands who were more educated than them
(7th class or even more), experienced significantly higher risks of coercive sexual
intercourse. In case women show reluctance for forceful sexual activities, they are deprived
of their basic needs such as clothes. Proper food. And shelter. In order to fulfill their
commission of Pakistan (HRCP), the finding of one study conducted in Pakistan shows that
marital rape or nonconsensual sex was reported by 46.9% of the women interviewed out of
seventy-seven. Another study they reported, conducted on seventy Pakistani men, in which
77.1% of men engaged in the non-consensual sex with their wives.2 1 Domestic violence
against women is found in many forms of physical abuse in Pakistan. This includes burning
women using kerosene oil or petrol and acid throwing which is prevalent in urban as well as
rural areas. 21 Moreover, not only intimate partners are involved in acid throwing or burning
but, in-laws are also found to be involved in this act in Pakistan. According to Human Rights'
Commission of Pakistan (HRCP) report, a study conducted by a private organization reported
over 15 acid attack cases in Bahawalpur from January till June 2004, of which two victims
died while others suffered acute injuries, including permanent loss of vision. Around 400
women fall victim to acid burns each year, often inflicted by their husbands or in-laws. And
in the last 10 years, 15,000 cases (lad been reported throughout the country. 21 Domestic
violence is at an alarming stage when the data and survey reports are analyzed and many
women in Pakistan are facing all forms of abuse; physical, psychological and sexual in both
rural and urban areas.

7. Impact of Domestic Violence

Domestic and family violence tears lives apart. One in 3 women experience physical or
sexual violence, or both, caused by someone known to them. It affects women, children, the
family and the community. And it has big personal, social and economic effects.
Effects on the victim
 Death, illness, injury and disability — domestic and family violence is the leading
cause of death, illness and disability for women aged under 45
 Emotional and psychological trauma — the devastating impact on an individual’s
physical, mental and emotional health including depression, shame, anger and suicide
 Homelessness — nearly one-third of people in NSW seeking help from homelessness
services say domestic and family violence is an issue
 Use of alcohol and other drugs to deal with the pain
 Physical health injuries and problems, which may not get medically treated

Effects on the family

 Violence and the threat of violence at home creates fear and can destroy family
environments and lead to the break-up of families
 Frequent moving to avoid the abuser
 Regular household conflict
 Child protection or police involvement

Effects on the community

 Children growing up without learning about positive and respectful relationships
 Abusers going to prison
 Higher rates of alcohol and other drug use, and mental health problems
 Domestic and family violence is estimated to cost the NSW economy more than $4.5
billion each year

Effects on children
Of those women who experience violence, more than 50% have children in their care.
Children and young people don't have to see the violence to be affected by it. Studies show
that living with domestic violence can cause physical and emotional harm to children and
young people in the following ways:
 ongoing anxiety and depression
 emotional distress
 eating and sleeping disturbances
 physical symptoms, such as headaches and stomach aches
 find it hard to manage stress
 low self-esteem
 self-harm
 be aggressive towards friends and school mates
 feel guilt or blame themselves for the violence
 have trouble forming positive relationships
 develop phobias and insomnia
 struggle with going to school and doing school work
 use bullying behaviour or become a target of bullying
  difficulty concentrating
 find it hard to solve problems
 have less empathy and caring for others

8. Violence: Prevention Strategies

Violence is a serious problem that has lasting and harmful effects on individuals, families,
and communities. The goal for violence prevention is to stop it from happening in the first
place. Prevention efforts should ultimately reduce the occurrence of it by promoting healthy,
respectful, nonviolent relationships. Healthy relationships can be promoted by addressing
change at all levels of the social ecology that influence violence: individual, relationship,
community, and society. Here are some strategies:
1. Keep trying prevention programs, scale up the most promising ones, and study how
well they work.
Many researchers believe the best way to deter abuse is to stop people from becoming
abusers in the first place. And several approaches have shown promise.
Broad, cultural messages appear to make a difference—not just what young children see and
hear, from their families and neighbors but also from their role models on television and in
sports arenas, may have an impact. In addition, many researchers think it’s possible to reach
kids more directly, through schools or through their parents. According to these researchers,
themes should include how men treat women—and how they express their own emotions.
“[We should] raise boys and men so they know it’s fine to cry and to show fear or other
‘weakness,’ and that expressing anger is not the only acceptable emotion for males,”
says Nancy Lemon, Boalt Lecturer at the University of California-Berkeley Law School and
author a leading textbook on domestic violence law. Among the ideal targets for the
interventions are the kids most at risk of becoming abusers later in life—the ones who, while
very young, are victims of or witnesses to abuse in their homes.
It all sounds very plausible. And there’s sporadic evidence that some programs have
produced positive results on a small scale—for example, 2000 California high-schoolers who
participated in a program called “Coaching Boys Into Men” said they were less likely to
engage in abusive behavior and more likely to stop a friend from showing abusive behavior.
But overwhelming social science evidence, the kind that undergirds other successful
government and private sector programs, doesn’t really exist—partly because nobody has had
the funds or opportunity to do the necessary, long-term research. “We don’t really know for
sure what works,” says Richard Gelles, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania and
author of The Violent Home.
That’s why, in addition to scaling up the most promising programs, there needs to be
intensive study of them. That means so-called longitudinal studies, in which researchers
follow participants over long periods of time, as well as experiments that create the
equivalent of randomized experiments. "We shouldn't wait for the perfect research to
act," says Kiersten Stewart, director of public policy and advocacy at Futures Without
Violence. “We have programs for very young children that have shown improvements, and
programs that target older kids too. ... But it's true we don’t have data that goes very far out.
We absolutely need more research.”
2. Make penalties for domestic violence consistent and firm.
The Ray Rice case was fairly typical in one sense: It’s customary to offer first-time offenders
an opportunity to choose counseling, and avoid charges. There are a few reasons for this. One
is that some abusers really will respond—either because they have so much to lose by risking
jail time, or because they feel enough regret to be open to what counselors will tell them.
“Most of these programs have about a 21, 22, 23 percent success rate at 12 to 18 months,”
says Gelles. “And that has to do a great deal with readiness to change, plus receptiveness to
intervention.” But precisely because the success rate is relatively low, experts think it’s
important that penalties be tough—and consistent. That’s true for the courts. And it’s true for
private organizations, like professional sports leagues. “Forcing batterers into treatment
works for some, but not for most,” says Tania Tetlow, a former federal prosecutor, a law
professor at Tulane, and director of the Domestic Violence Center there. ”We should offer all
the treatment in the world in case it helps, but not instead of punishment as we tend to do
now."
3. Increase funding for support services.
It’s hard to say exactly how much money government spends on domestic violence today,
because the money comes from so many different places. The primary way that the federal
government spends on domestic violence is through something called the Family Violence
Prevention and Support Act, now in its 30th year. FVPSA is not a huge program: it doled out
$130 million last year. (That’s with an “m.”) And that level was actually a little lower than
the previous year’s. Other federal programs, like Medicaid and funds from the Department of
Housing and Urban Development, end up subsidizing domestic violence services indirectly.
And of course states put in their own money. But it’s still not enough, experts say. Every
year, the National Network to End Domestic Violence surveys local organizations once a
year, to see how many requests for services they got—and how many they were able to fulfill
—on that day. In last year’s survey, more than 9,000 requests nationally went unfulfilled. Of
those, about 6,000 involved requests for transitional housing—space in shelters for families
escaping abusers. The survey is not exactly scientific, but, experts say, the shortage is real—
and maybe even getting worse, thanks to tight state budgets and federal cutbacks from
sequestration. "The demand for services far exceeds the supply," says Stewart.

4. Change the way family courts handle cases involving domestic violence.
Divorces frequently involve allegations of domestic violence. But, historically, the judicial
system would handle the issues separately—with one judge presiding over the divorce,
another hearing the criminal domestic violence case. This was tough on the victims, who had
to deal with multiple sets of legal proceedings, each with a different process (and, sometimes,
each in a different courthouse). It also meant that family court judges, hearing the divorce
cases, might not have full information about the domestic violence allegations.
5. Help women to be economically independent.
“So many women stay in destructive relationships because they will be homeless, with their
children, if they leave—or can’t support themselves and their children,” says Joan Meier, a
George Washington University law professor and founder of the Domestic Violence Legal
Empowerment and Appeals Project. “Divorce financial distributions need to be much fairer,
taking into account the ways women give up economic capacity to raise kids. Nowadays
women almost never get alimony (by a judge) and child support is often minimal, especially
if the father fights and wins joint custody.” Of course, policy changes that tend to help
women financially—raising the minimum wage, guaranteed paid family and medical leave—
can make a difference too.

9. Domestic Violence and its link to Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology guidelines used to assess domestic violence

First of all it must be stated that the assessment of the dynamics of the development and
quality of the relationship between the alleged perpetrator and his victim is for the time being
an atypical assignment. Classic psycho-diagnostic methods do not offer sufficient support to
resolve it. In this regard the sworn expert’s opinion is in a way a scientific forensic
psychological study. To answer the assigned question it is necessary to work with the current
state of relevant knowledge, e.g. domestic violence theory that delimits diagnostic symptoms
and also the classification of various types – starting from abuse and ending with e.g.
separation violence. Comparison of patterns defined in theory with the assessed case enables
the expert to reach a conclusion whether the partners’ cohabitation shows the proper
symptoms and the case may amount to severe domestic violence and/or abuse. The expert
must keep in mind that it is not his/her prerogative to state opinions concerning legal issues
and he/she may not resort to legal assessment of the found facts. In their assessment experts
may merely state what forms of repeated violence (physical, mental, sexual, etc.) occurred in
a given relationship, whether they developed based on relationship asymmetry and what is
the corresponding pattern or type of domestic violence.
Generally speaking, assessment of abuse in partnerships may be referred to the developing
scientific field of psychotraumatology. This field of study describes subjective and objective
trauma symptoms among other things. Differentiation between trauma type I and trauma type
II is made also. Abuse for its repetitiveness and long-lasting duration is a typical illustration
of trauma type II.
Particia A. Resick is one of the pioneers of psychotraumatology. She drew attention 30 years
ago with her study of rape consequences. In her 2003 psychotraumatology publication she
stated that first of all, stress and trauma need to be distinguished. Lack of money, divorce or
losing one’s job are examples of highly stressful life situations. Also partnership quarrels,
various willful acts and disputes fall in the category of stress. The term trauma is used
exclusively for situations that exceed stress dimensions. What characteristics must a situation
have to be labeled traumatizing? The degree to which the continuity of an individual’s life is
endangered is considered a key indicator. Trauma is life-threatening or it threatens an
individual’s mental or physical integrity leading to strong feelings of fear (dread),
helplessness and terror. For example, incest or sexual abuse threatens an individual’s mental
identity, and therefore they are metaphorically called “murder of the soul”. An interesting
symptom is the so-called trauma tongs. This term denominates the hopelessness of the
situation through the victim’s eyes, i.e. the victim doesn’t have or doesn’t see any option to
escape the threatening traumatizing situation. Because abuse is a traumatizing situation, a
specific case must meet the above criteria. Abuse includes such forms of violence that are
threatening to the victim’s life continuity (or healthy development).
When this knowledge is applied to domestic violence, it means that the tyrant controls
information received by the victim and the victim’s physical and emotional state. It is
expected in a battered woman that she was exposed to situations when she experienced
justified fear for herself (and the children). It is also expected that she experienced the trauma
tongs. During an expert examination a battered woman should spontaneously report
corresponding experiences. For example, in the course of a structured interview on
partnership cohabitation with an alleged tyrant the victim should describe incidents that got
stuck in her memory, forming experience dominants. Exactly these experience dominants
may then be analyzed and assessed under the criteria set by domestic violence theory and/or
psychotraumatology. The following example will illustrate this issue:
The victim filed a criminal complaint against her husband for abuse of a person living in a
common home. During the first expert assessment she underwent a test to examine her
personality with the conclusion that the woman shows a typical profile of battered women
and suffers from long-lasting and severe mental consequences. The second examination
followed after a relatively short time. During the examination the woman stated that
• she is not afraid of her ex-husband and she has never been afraid of him, after all, he
was not even able to complete his suicidal attempt, he just wanted her to feel sorry
• now she’s happy at work and she’s got a wonderful boss
• she enjoys tranquility with her children, they go on trips, she goes swimming, she
enjoys life
• she has a “friend” and also her son would like a new daddy
• she sleeps well and doesn’t have any health problems
Neither the other methods confirmed the outcome of the original expert opinion. E.g. the test
of relationship asymmetry showed that the victim was able to determine her life and the life
of the family (e.g. she was allowed to take the children on trips on her own, she decided
about her job, both partners shared household chores). Furthermore, in describing her
cohabitation with her husband she stated that the manifestations of violence were preceded by
mutual conflicts and quarrels. After the first conflict due to her alleged cheating she left their
common bedroom. From that time on the cohabitation of the spouses continued to deteriorate.
She considered the following instances the most serious manifestations of violence and the
worst incidents:
• he kept yelling at her and the children all the time
• he threw a cup of tea at her
• he followed her, controlled her, called her at work with extreme frequency
• he slapped her on Valentine’s Day
• he shuffled his slippers
• he opened the window at her
The above manifestations were subjectively perceived by the victim as abuse of her person.
She was undoubtedly unhappy in cohabitation with her husband. Yet it is obvious that the
described violence does not meet the criteria for a traumatizing experience. The development
dynamics and subsequent collapse of the partnership do not correspond with the picture of
partner abuse as described by current theory. In this case, even important definition signs of
severe domestic violence were missing.

10. Recommendations
The problems of domestic violence have generated hundreds of separate interventions in
social service, health, and law enforcement settings. This array of interventions has been
driven by the urgency of the different types of family violence, client needs, and the
responses of service providers, advocates, and communities. The interventions now constitute
a broad range of institutional services that focus on the identification, treatment, prevention,
and deterrence of family violence.

The array of interventions that is currently in place and the dozens of different types of
programs and services associated with each intervention represent a valuable body of
expertise and experience that is in need of systematic scientific study to inform and guide
service design, treatment, prevention, and deterrence. The challenge for the research
community, service providers, program sponsors, and policy makers is to develop
frameworks to enhance critical analyses of current strategies, interventions, and programs and
identify next steps in addressing emerging questions and cross-cutting issues. Many
complexities now characterize family violence interventions and challenge the development
of rigorous scientific evaluations. These complexities require careful consideration in the
development of future research, service improvements, and collaborative efforts between
researchers and service providers. It is recommended that the following research questions
should be addressed. It should be noted that the 'effectiveness' in this context relates not only
to the size of the effect, but also to cost effectiveness and duration of effect. It also takes into
account any harmful or negative side effects.

● How effective are programmes that aim to prevent domestic violence and abuse from
ever happening in the first place? This includes media-based public health awareness
campaigns. It also includes social movements to establish people's rights, and
community-building and primary prevention activities that tackle underlying
assumptions in society. (Examples of the latter might include the role and status of
women.)

● How effective are combinations of interventions to deal with domestic violence and
abuse in the short, medium and long term? Are the outcomes sustainable and do they
have a beneficial effect on quality of life and health in the longer term?

● How effective are the following interventions in the short, medium and long term,
across various levels of risk and including diverse and marginalised groups:
● advocacy
● domestic abuse
● recovery programmes
● perpetrator programmes
 ● psychological or social interventions modified for domestic violence and abuse,
including programmes for those who have suffered multiple forms of abuse and those
who are still experiencing it
● interventions for primary carers apart from mothers (for example, fathers,
grandparents)
● interventions for other family members?

● What are the most appropriate ways to collect and manage data about domestic
violence and abuse across the health, social care and criminal justice sectors? Is there
value in collecting anonymised aggregate data, or is there a more useful method of
data capture?

● What type of interventions (including training and referral pathways), in diverse

health care settings, provide the most effective support for practitioners working with
people who are experiencing, or have experienced, domestic violence and abuse?

11. Conclusion
Government has also made and enforced domestic violence act. Law gives an effective
shelter and deals strictly with the culprits. But making a law is not sufficient. People will
have to be awaken and rise. They have to be told about their rights and duties. Every human
being deserves the basic honour and respect. No one is entitled to take law in his hands.
Besides, the law enforcement, domestic violence has deeper roots. It is the mentality of the
society that covers an overhauling issue. Society is in-turn nothing but the constitution of
individuals. Every individual should make the necessary amendments and the society will
change. It is high time to raise voice against the injustice happening to self and others.

Domestic violence has no place in modern society and should be strongly dealt with.
To conclude, domestic violence is a pattern of abusive behaviors by one or both partners in
an intimate relationship such as marriage, dating, family, friends or cohabitation. Domestic
violence has many forms including physical aggression (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, and
restraining, slapping, throwing objects); it can also be sexual or emotional. The main causes
of domestic violence will depend on the abuser back ground such as: Witnessed abuse as a
child, Was a victim of abuse as a child, abused former partners, and may be because of
Unemployed or underemployed, Poverty or poor living situations.