This article was downloaded by: [University of Auckland Library]

On: 02 December 2014, At: 13:52

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Hydraulic Research

Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tjhr20

Constant discharge device for field

irrigation
a b
A. P. Larsen & P. K. Mishra
a
University of Karlsruhe , Fed. Rep. of Germany
b
I.I.T. , Kharagpur, India
Published online: 19 Jan 2010.

To cite this article: A. P. Larsen & P. K. Mishra (1990) Constant discharge device for field
irrigation, Journal of Hydraulic Research, 28:4, 481-489, DOI: 10.1080/00221689009499061

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00221689009499061

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or
arising out of the use of the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing,
systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms
& Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/page/
terms-and-conditions
 Constant discharge device for field irrigation
Système de reglage d'un debit constant dans un
reseau d'irrigation
A. P. LARSEN
Prof. Dr. Techn.,
University of Karlsruhe, Fed. Rep. of Germany
P. K. MISHRA
Research Scholar,
I.I.T., Kharagpur, India
Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

SUMMARY
A constant discharge device (module) has been conceived and tested. With design discharges from 2 to 7 1/s
as tested it is suited as afieldoutlet. The discharge rate is kept constant to within maximum deviations of
+ 5% with head variations in a range between 15 and 25 cm. The module has a simple design, no moving parts
and is portable. A construction drawing for a 4 1/s module is shown.
RESUME
On a concu et testé un dispositif réglant un debit constant (module). Testé pour une gamme de debits
comprise entre 2 et 7 1/s, le module convient pour 1'irrigation. Le debit délivré reste constant a 5% prés pour
une charge amont variant de 15 a 25 cm. Le module est de conception simple, sans partie mobile et il est
aisément transportable. Un croquis de principe est présenté pour un module de debit nominal 4 1/s.

1 Introduction
Agricultural production depends to a steadily increasing degree on irrigation. As investment
costs to supply the water also become higher the optimal use of available water becomes more
important. This is further stressed by the fact that in many countries with large populations,
whose supply of food depends on domestic production, water is a severely limited resource.
Mainly due to scarcity of water irrigated land area amounts to a small percentage of the area
feasible for irrigation [1]. Furthermore, industrial needs for water compete with those for domest­
ic use, which in many places results in higher prices for irrigation water.
More than 70% of water for irrigation is being used for surface irrigation. An optimal use of water
in this area is therefore of great importance. Optimal use means, that the right amount of water be
available to the plants at the right time. In this context the correct measurement of water quantity
is a necessary prerequisite to optimal use. The ideal situation is achieved, when each field
receives just that amount of water, which is required depending on soil conditions, crop type and
stage, and climatic conditions.
The delivery of water to the field through a control structure, which maintains a constant flow at
a known rate is employed in many surface irrigation systems. The importance of such delivery
devices has promoted research and development, with the result, that a great many types, each
with its merits and limitations, are available. The advantage of such a device lies in the possibility

Revision received January 30, 1990. Open for discussion till February 28, 1991.

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4 481

 of delivering a prescribed volume of water based on measurement of time. A constant discharge
field outlet is particularly suited to warabundi operation, i.e. rotating take-off, where each farmer
sees to it that he uses his turn.

2 Principles of existing devices (modules)

Structures for controlling flow rate in irrigation systems can be broadly classified in three
categories:
1. Rigid modules.
The rigid module provides a constant discharge which is independent of water levels upstream
as well as downstream from the module. The operating range prescribes the allowable
variation of water levels. Flow regulation is achieved either by incorporation of moving parts
Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

or by variation of the discharge characteristics as a function of head variation. With moving

parts again at least two principles can be recognized, i.e. provision of a constant differential
head or of a variable discharge opening.
Common to these types of modules are the relatively high production costs, need for main­
tenance and risk of clogging or interruption of the moving parts due to debris.
2. Semi-modules.
The semi-modules deliver a discharge, which is independent of downstream but varies with
upstream water level. Whereas with the rigid modules the delivery of a prescribed volume
can be based on measurement of time only, the semi-module requires flow measurement in
addition. Any type of measuring weir or flume which performs independently of the down­
stream water level may be termed a semi-module.
3. Simple outlets.
Simple outlets such as submerged pipes, rectangular or otherwise shaped openings are not
suitable for flow measurement and are used only when the available head is not sufficient for
applying rigid or semi-rigid modules.

3 Constant discharge field outlet

The field outlet is designed to handle low discharges of the order of a few liters per second. Since
there are numerous field outlets in an irrigation scheme the outlet structure must be simple, the
construction cost low and/or the structure must be portable in order that is can be used at several
outlets. Also it should be sturdy, easy to handle and deliver a prescribed flow rate with a fairly
high accuracy with head variations within the modular range. A further advantage would be
simple construction which does not require sophisticated machine operations. Susceptibility to
clogging should be low and oncoming sediment should be conveyed through the device without
impeding the accuracy of delivery.
In short the following requirements were set as goals:
- design discharges in the range from 2 to 7 1/s;
- upstream head varying between 15 and 25 cm;
- no moving parts;
- simple, light weight, inexpensive construction;
- easy to handle, portable.
The modular range, i.e. allowable head variations between 15 and 25 cm, was selected on basis of
experience from Indian field delivery canals.

482 JOURNAL DE RECHERCHES HYDRAULIQUES, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4

 4 Basic principles
The unit width discharge q, through a sluice gate opening of height a depends on upstream depth
h as
q = cAa{2ghf (1)
where the coefficient of discharge, cd is a function of geometry and also varies with upstream
depth, assuming that the flow at the vena contracta is not submerged. The variation of discharge
with the square root of head is in principle the case with any system, where the headloss is a
function of velocity squared, such as sluice gates in series, incorporation of baffle blocks etc. In
order to maintain a constant discharge when the head varies, and the boundary geometry is not
changed, an internal change of the flow structure is required.
The geometry shown in Fig. 1 provides such conditions. As long as the water level is below the
Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

crest of the first baffle water discharges freely below this baffle without touching those down­
stream. With raising level water discharging over the baffle flows down the passage between the
first and second baffles. The weir flow penetrates into the sluice flow, which imparts horizontal
momentum to it and therefore itself looses momentum, i.e. it is slowed down. At some water
level elevation near the crest of the second baffle, the second, smaller sluice gate opening
becomes the controlling one.

FROM FIELD CANAL

— ► TO FIELD
777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777
Fig. 1. Irrigation module, operating principle.
Module d'irrigation. Principe de fonctionnement.

The above described sequence is repeated with the second and third baffles. The number of
baffles which can be employed depends on baffle spacing and the fact, that the opening below the
last baffle must be high enough, that the contracted flow can pass under it.
The flow situation is not amenable to rigorous calculation owing to the fact that the depth at vena
contracta is not known because of the effect of the impinging flow. Therefore determination of
design and performance must rely on experimentation.

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4 483

 The maximum modular range assuming a constant discharge depends on the coefficient of
contraction cc. Equation (1) applied to the minimum and maximum water levels yields

q = cd{a,{2gh,Yn = cilcca,{2gh2)m (2)

or

(3)
*T3U*3
Neglecting the variation of cd with head and taking cc = 0.61 shows that the theoretical ratio of
upstream water levels is approximately 2.7, which is well above that of the modular range chosen
for design:
Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

hy 15

The question arises whether the coefficient of contraction is substantially affected by the
presence of the baffles when more than one is in play.
For the discharge rate not to be influenced from downstream the condition is, that the flow be
shooting. This requirement is fulfilled as long as the water depth is less than the depth sequent to
cca, see Fig. 3. This limiting condition is most severe with the upstream water level at the lower
modular range, i.e. with the minimum momentum flux. The sequent depth thus constitutes a
measure of the maximum allowable water level downstream from the module. It can be com­
puted from
2 U/2
yi 1+8—^-rd -I (4)

where y2 is depth of water in the receiving field measured with reference to the bottom of the
module, and equation (4) is the equation of hydraulic jump sequent depths.

5 Experimental set up
The small dimensions of the module to be tested allowed for a one to one model scale. The layout
of the test rig is shown in Fig. 2. The water level of the 5 m long field canal of width by height 0.3
by 0.34 m was controlled by a flap gate at the downstream end. The canal dimensions were chosen
as representative of a typical field canal designed for a 1 cusec = 28 1/s discharge capacity. The
canal was fed from a stilling box, which received water through an electro magnetic ID 100 flow
meter. The flow rates of branch flows through the module and the field canal were measured with
Rehbock weirs of widths 0.15 and 0.30 m respectively.
The module with dimensions 0.1,0.45 and 1.0 m for width, height and length was constructed of
PVC and Perspex. It was connected to the field canal 3 m downstream from its entrance with the
bottoms flush and with sharp entrance corners. The flow discharged into a 1 m wide box at
constant bottom level from which it was delivered to the 2 m long measuring channel. 31 brass
piezometer taps of 3 mm diameter were inserted in the module bottom. Baffles were made of
1.25 mm sheet metal with 5 mm flanges along the sides. With an exact width of 0.1 m they were
held in place by lateral pressure against the module side walls. Rubber seals prevented possible
leakage. In all tests the first baffle was placed 0.32 m from the module inlet.

484 JOURNAL DE RECHERCHES HYDRAULIQUES, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4

 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC FLOW METER
MODULE WITH BAFFLES

ADJUSTABLE WEIR

FIELD CANAL AND MODULE

OF PERSPEX, PVC AND SHEET METAL
WATER LEVELS AND PRESSURES l \ \ SKWEIR
MEASURED WITH PRESSURE TAPS
CONNECTED TO MANOMETERS OR
POINT GAUGES.

Fig. 2. Experimental set up.

Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

Dispositif experimental.

In concluding tests after the baffle dimensions and configuration had been determined, baffles of
10 mm thickness with bevelled upper and lower ends were tested in a module designed for 5 1/s.
This was done to investigate whether baffles constructed of other materials, such as wood, can be
employed.

6 Tests and their results

Extensive tests were done to determine the discharge coefficient for flow under a single baffle.
The energy equation applied to sections 1 and 2, see Fig. 3, neglecting the energy dissipation and
with Coriolis coefficients equal to one, reads:
,2 „1
h + —j 2 = cca+— TJ (5)
2gh ' 2g{cca)
Using equation (1) and solving for cd

i
c d = ~, 7TT/2 (6)
\\+cc
h
This relationship is shown in Fig. 4 as curve No. 2 with cc-values from Rouse [3] as shown in the
same figure as curve No. 1. Alternatively cd may be based on the momentum equation:

I2 Q2
\Qgh2 + Q — L 2
- = L22Qg(h - a)2 + \Qg{c
2
\Qg(ccca)2 + \\qg
Qg — (7)
h cca
with the friction force along the bottom neglected and the Boussinesq coefficients set equal to
one. Solving for cd as defined in equation (1):

\ l/Cc-a/A /
The pressure force on the sluice gate has been overestimated by assuming a triangular pressure
distribution as indicated in Fig. 3. Introducing a correction factor k < 1 to the first term on the
right hand side of equation (7) yields

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4 485

 x 1/2
'\-k
— +k{2-alh)-c\ajh
Cd- (9)
\jce-afh

O
I
Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

CD
i 1 ; c"cc a

Fig. 3. Definition sketch for energy and momentum equations.

Schema de definition pour les equations d'énergie et de quantité de mouvement.

With k = 0.953, i.e. less than 5% reduction of the pressure force curve No. 3 in Fig. 4 is obtained.
Although the agreement with the cd-curve based on the energy equation is remarkable, this is
merely a curiosity, which shows that the deviation from hydrostatic pressure on the gate is not
substantial.
The results of the tests are shown as curve No. 4 in Fig. 4. Measurements were made with
upstream depth increments of approximately 1 cm for each opening height which in turn was
changed in steps of 0.5 cm in a range from 1.5 to 8 cm. The regression curve
0.075
cd = 0.489 (10)

fits the data with a correlation coefficient R = 0.999.

Curve No. 5 in Fig. 4 represents experimental results of Henry as reported by Nago [2]. Also
experimental results by Nago show satisfactory agreement with equation (10).
For design purposes in order to conveniently solve for a-values the data were plotted in the form

■=1.489 (11)
h(gh)1
with R = 0.999 for 0.05 < ajh < 0.7.
Baffle dimensions and spacing were fixed based on preliminary tests. These tests indicated that
3 baffles would suffice and that the spacing for most design flow rates could be kept at 2 cm. The
crest level of the first baffle was set at the minimum upstream water level, i.e. 0.15 m above the
module bottom, and that of the second baffle at 0.194 m above module bottom. The top of the
third baffle was well above maximum upstream water level. The height of openings below the
baffles was determined from equation (11). All design measures were rounded to nearest mm-
value.
Systematic measurements were performed with module configurations for design discharges

486 JOURNAL DE RECHERCHES HYDRAULIQUES, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4

 a/h

Fig. 4. Discharge and contraction coefficients.

Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

Coefficients de debit et de contraction.

from 2 to 7 1/s with steps of 0.5 1/s. With a set flow rate in the field canal greater than the module
discharge, the water level was varied in small steps. When the upper limit of the modular range
was reached the water level was lowered in small steps in order to determine hysteresis effects
which might be expected.
Two typical examples of results are shown in Fig. 5, where data have been plotted for both raising
and falling water level within the modular range. The design discharges of 2 and 5 1/s are shown
and broken lines indicate deviations of ± 5%. It is also seen, that only slight variations of
measured discharge between rising and falling stage occur.
The study showed that for design discharges in the range from 2 to 71/s a flow rate within ± 5% of

± 5%

O RISING STAGE + FALLING STAGE

2L

E
a
- 22
Q
<
LU
li
X 20
O

< 18
cc
LU
Q_
O

LI
U
2 3
DISCHARGE i/s
Fig. 5. Discharge vs, head for two selected design discharges.
Debit en fonction de la charge pour deux valeurs choisies du debit nominal.

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4 487

 the attempted value can be achieved. Small deviations from attempted design discharge with
some of the modules could be referred to the procedure of rounding to the nearest mm in setting
the opening height. However, knowing the actual discharge, delivered volume of water to the
field can be computed to within + 5%.
The module with 10 mm thick baffles designed for 5 1/s showed the same characteristics as
described above. The preliminary studies included, in addition to an investigation of baffle
spacing, also a study of the effect of tilting the baffles. It was anticipated, that inclining the baffle
in the downstream direction might enhance the control effect. It turned out, that the benefit of
this effect would not justify the more complicated construction.

7 Structural aspects
Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

The internal width of the module and the baffle dimensions require accurate construction,
which, however, could be achieved satisfactorily in most village shops. A possible design is shown
in Fig. 6. It is presumed that the field canal outlet is supplied with two sets of slots, an upstream
set for a slide gate and the second set for placing the module. When the module is not in use the
gate is closed, when in use the gate is withdrawn to form a skimmer wall to prevent floating debris
from entering. The module should seat at the bottom of the field outlet and on a pole rammed to
predetermined level as indicated in Fig. 6. The weight of the module shown in Fig. 6 is less than
10 kg.
Modules for design discharges outside of the range tested can be constructed by changing the
width of the module.

r^A

" " ■ ; - " , " ■ ' : ■

B-B ^RUBBER SEA 1

LW A-A
LSUPPORT

1.5mm GI SHEET
L60»60 7
HANDLE 02b

t. 100 I

SCREWED OR RIVETED JOINTS

Fig. 6. Module for 4 1/s design discharge.

Module pour un debit nominal de 4 1/s.

488 JOURNAL DE RECHERCHES HYDRAULIQUES, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4

 8 Conclusions
A module for field outlets has been designed and tested in the Theodor Rehbock Laboratory.
With a module width of 0.1 m design discharges between 2 and 71/s could be handled within ± 5%
with water level variations in the field delivery canal between 0.15 and 0.25 m.
The module has a simple design and contains no moving parts. It is portable considering that the
weight is less than 10 kg.
The module would pass sediment without interfering with its performance. Larger water logged
debris should be prevented from entering into the module.

Acknowledgements
Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 13:52 02 December 2014

The second author received financial support from the German Academic Exchange Service
(DAAD) for a two year stay in Germany. The Institute of Hydraulic Structures and Agricultural
Engineering with the Theodor Rehbock Laboratory, University of Karlsruhe, financed construc­
tion of the test stand and provided guidance throughout the study program. Special thanks are
due to Dr. Robert J. Keller, senior lecturer at Monash University, Clayton, Australia, who
significantly contributed during his 7 months stay at the Institute as a Humboldt stipendiate.

References / Bibliographie
1. FRAMJI, K. K., GRAG, B. C. and LUTHARA, S. D. L., Irrigation and Drainage in the World, Vol. I, ICID,
1981.
2. NAGO, H., Scale effects in a free efflux from an underflow, 1AHR Symposium on Scale Effects in Model­
ling Hydraulic Structures, H. Kobus, (ed.), 1984.
3. ROUSE, H. (ed.), Engineering Hydraulics, John Wiley & Sons, 1950.
4. Discharge measurement structures, Delft Hydraulics Laboratory, publication no. 161, May 1976.
5. MISHRA, P. M., Baffle-sluice modules for efficient on-farm water management, Ph.D. thesis submitted to
the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India, 1989.

JOURNAL OF HYDRAULIC RESEARCH, VOL. 28, 1990, NO. 4 489