CHAPTER 2

REVIEW RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

No matter how aware a teacher is of gender biases, eventually what

matters is the actual interaction. Although, teachers may be aware of the need in

gender equality, it is many times inevitable that he or she will treat boys and girls

differently. Sometimes they favor girls and sometimes they favor boys.

The Department of Education responded by issuing a memorandum to

clarify submission requirements and is working to build implementation capacity

(UNESCO, 2015c). Teacher education and codes of conduct can help change teacher

attitudes and behaviours. In South Sudan, the UNICEF Communities Care programme

engaged with teachers to challenge norms that enable sexual violence and brought

about some shifts in teacher attitudes and behaviours (UNGEI, 2017). The Doorways

programme in Burkina Faso, Ghana and Malawi trained upper primary and lower

secondary school teachers on children’s rights and responsibilities, alternative teaching

practices, basic counselling and listening skills, awareness of sexual harassment at

school and teacher code of conduct (DevTech Systems, 2008; Queen et al., 2015).

Boys and girls must feel welcome in a safe and secure learning

environment. Governments, schools, teachers and students all have a part to play in

ensuring that schools are free of violence and discrimination and provide a gender-

sensitive, good-quality education. To achieve this, governments can develop

nondiscriminatory curricula, facilitate teacher education and make sure sanitation

facilities are adequate. Schools are responsible for addressing school-related violence
and providing comprehensive health education. Teachers should follow professional

norms regarding appropriate disciplinary practices and provide unbiased instruction.

And students must behave in a non-violent, inclusive way. (UNESCO 2017)

Activities that encourage participation in the classroom do not always

result in positive student outcomes (e.g., Eddy and Hogan, 2014; Knight et al., 2016;

Ballen et al., 2017a; Cooper et al., 2018a). In particular, individual beliefs and emotional

states influence how comfortable students are in classrooms that encourage

participation (Cohen et al., 2019). For instance, self-efficacy (Galyon et al., 2012) and

sense of social belonging (Wilson et al., 2015) have been shown to influence student

participation. Understanding student affect can help contextualize the outcomes of

participation that occur in active-learning classrooms. Affective measures in active-

learning environments can be influenced by axes of identity that are negatively

stereotyped, marginalized, or underrepresented (Cooper and Brownell, 2016; Henning

et al., 2019). Here, we focus on gender identity and its impacts on student affect in

classrooms. For example, scientific self-efficacy is often higher in men than women in

STEM (reviewed in Eddy and Brownell, 2016), and women often report a higher

salience of gender identity (Picho and Brown, 2011; Cokley et al., 2015). These

differences may help explain observations of gender disparities in classroom

participation. One of the few studies that has quantified student participation found that

women participated less than expected across 23 introductory biology courses (Eddy et

al., 2014). Eddy et al. (2014) found that women made up on average 60% of the

students in the courses, but their voices were only heard 40% of the time in response to

instructor questions. More recently, Ballen et al. (2019) showed equitable participation
between men and women occurred in STEM courses at six institutions in smaller

classes and when instructors used diverse teaching strategies. Other studies have

demonstrated the pervasiveness of differences in participation between men and

women in multiple disciplines (Crombie et al., 2003; Tatum et al., 2013; Ballen et al.,

2018; Neill et al., 2018) and at other stages of academic development (e.g., at seminars

and conferences; Pritchard et al., 2014; Hinsley et al., 2017; Schmidt and Davenport,

2017; Schmidt et al., 2017; Carter et al., 2018).

Gender equality cannot be fully understood without intersectionality.

Women face barriers for a number of reasons besides their sex – including their class,

race, ability, sexual preference, gender identity, and a host of other factors. It requires

that all women, regardless of these other factors, have equal opportunities.

Intersectional feminism is the term that describes seeking equality for all women of

every background.

PHILIPPINE INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (Vicente B.

Paqueo and Aniceto C. Orbeta Jr): The article argues that in the Philippines there is a

need for a more nuanced view of gender equality. Historically, Filipino males were

somewhat more educated than females. Now the males are lagging behind the females

and the education gender gap is widening. This reversal was predictable early on in the

70s before it manifested itself in national statistics. The paper argues that today gender

equality advocacy should go beyond the stereo-typical focus on girls’ education and pay

more attention to issues that are hurting boys’ education. Failure to pursue win-win

strategies to address gender bias in education working against boys will mean the

country is foregoing valuable opportunities to raise equity and economic returns to its
investment in education. To conclude, the paper suggests some experiments to deepen

current understanding of boys’ educational issues and develop tools for effectively

removing existing impediments to schooling and learning.

The fight for gender equality has a long history. An important part of this history is

the intensification and widening of the fight for women’s rights after World War II. Due

partly to their valuable work in factories and other activities in support of the war efforts,

respect for women’s rights to equality with men got a huge boost. Improving the status

of women became part of the agenda of many influential international organizations. In

this regard the seventies saw the “women in development” agenda included in the

development programs of the United Nations, its partner agencies, and civil society

organizations. As nations confronted the challenges of development, world leaders

increasingly realized the need to empower women and to ensure that human beings

regardless of gender are treated equally. In many parts of the world addressing this

issue means reducing global education inequality that kept women poor and

disadvantaged. This view was largely influenced by the experience of India, China,

Bangladesh, Africa, the Middle East and other countries where girls and women were

largely underprivileged. Their experience with gender inequality in education was,

moreover, seen as emblematic of gender inequalities in the labor market and other

dimensions of human well-being. On this score, analysts of gender issues have tended

to attribute gender inequality to discrimination imbedded in traditional culture,

institutions and policies.

 (Paqueo and Orbeta, 2017)We tried to call attention to this reverse gender

inequality phenomenon on various occasions in the Philippines and in a few

international form. Paqueo, for example, in discussing a research report on Northeast

Brazil (a poor region) in the 1990s asked for explanations about its finding showing that

the educational status of boys was lagging behind that of girls – pointing out in the

process that a similar phenomenon had been observed in the Philippines. In another

forum, he asked whether there were similar experiences in other countries (perhaps in

their subpopulation groups) to find out the importance of the phenomenon found in the

Philippines and Northeast Brazil. Disappointingly, the participants of the forum showed

no curiosity at all about the question, oblivious to the true meaning of gender equality.

Paqueo and Orbeta (2017)

Gender equity in education means that males and females have equal

opportunities in terms of economic, social, cultural, and political developments. Gender

education has been greatly considered as prime foundation for social, economic and

national development (Philippines Millennium Development Goals (MDG), 2015).

Gender-Responsive Basic Education (GRBE) is inclusive education that ensures girl’s

and boy’s and women’s and men’s equal access to learning opportunities addresses

gender-based barriers and the intersection of different forms of discrimination takes

affirmative steps where necessary to reduce gender gaps and disparities in the

management of the learning process, provides all learners with a learner-friendly

environment that addresses their diverse learning needs and results in the progressive

achievement of gender equality in educational outcomes (DepEd Order No. 32, s.

2017). Philippine Commission on Woman (PCW) found out the gender biases and
stereotyping remain and are still embedded in the curricula, instructional methods,

materials, and leaning media.

Studies have shown that there are still existing challenges in gender-responsive

and sensitive in terms of curriculum, instructional delivery, assessment, facilities, and

training in developing or highly industrialized countries such as the Philippines

(Hernandez and Cudiamat (2017); Kirkup, 2011; Hartl, 2009; and Towery, 2007).

Blumberg (2008) stressed to review textbooks to assess the ender and development in

the classroom, because it may be an obstacle on the road to gender equality in

education which taken-for-granted stereotypes about gender roles that may contribute

to lowering achievements especially in weak schools in poor countries.

UN Millennium Development Goals focuses on providing equal access to

education for girls and boys, but research shows that it is not enough to send girls to

school, policies have to be designed for their retention in school and also the curricula

have to be reviewed to fit a girl’s education (Fernandes et al., 2015).

As a response to these demands to promote gender equity, responsiveness, and

sensitivity, the Department of Education Order No. 32, s. 2017 commits to integrating

the principles of gender equality, gender equity, gender sensitivity, non-discrimination,

and human rights, in the provision and governance of basic education. This is in line

with the DepEd’s mandate to ensure access to quality basic education for all. Likewise,

it aims to promote inclusive education that ensures girl’ and boys’ and women’s and

men’s equal access to learning opportunities, fair treatment in the learning process, and

equitable outcomes as well as access to opportunities in all spheres of life (DepEd

Order No. 32, s. 2017). Mainstreaming gender in curriculum, instruction, and

assessment reiterates to promote the institutionalization of gender-responsive education

in teaching-learning plans, guides, processess, activities, mechanisms, and measures.

Likewise, the RPMS key performance indicator 6 reiterates the use of differentiated,

developmentally appropriate learning experiences to address learners’ gender, needs,

strengths, interests, and experiences. Moreover, DepEd reiterates that curriculum shall

be learner-centered, inclusive and developmentally appropriate, relevant, responsive

and gender-sensitive.

The study of Talon (2016) found out that there is a great extent of gender

inequity in the areas of curriculum, learning materials, physical facilities, programs, and

projects. Furthermore, the study presents the proposed plan to initiate change for

gender and development programs towards gender equity. Gender involves the

differentiation attributed by a given culture to men and women in the following aspects:

(1) social roles, (2) capacities, (3) traits and characteristics and (4) gender equality and

non-discrimination.

The conception of gender and development program in the classroom adheres to

the overarching goal of the k to 12 curricula to produce holistically developed 21st-

century learners. Advocating for a transformative gender and development program in

the curriculum is vital to sustaining equality for the creation of unbiased policies

(Fernandes et al., 2015). Teachers have implemented a holistic approach by

contextualizing and localizing learning resources integrating gender-sensitive of core

messages and key concepts of learning materials used. They were able to developed

and promote gender-responsive learning resources based on the requirement of the

curriculum, social content guidelines on stereotyping and use of gender-fair and

inclusive language, positive images, and messages.

Moreover, contextualization creates inclusive atmosphere to all learners which

improved their efficiency in various learning activities and promotes more gender-

responsive in a social environment. Thus, to enhance skills in the delivery of pedagogic

instructions in TLE and TVL courses, integrating gender and development in the

implementation of the curriculum was evident to the teachers.

In spite of the Philippines’ stellar position among countries with viable track

records in gender equality, there is still a need to propagate such advocacy to establish

inclusive education as a potential for gender equity (Sumadsad and Tuazon, 2016).

While teachers are moderately aware of gender issues and government agencies

integrating Gender and Development (GAD) plan to programs, projects, and activities,

however, they are aware of gender roles and national mandates and other related laws

(Sumadsad and Tuazon, 2016). Furthermore, this study articulates how participants

experienced the gender and development in the classroom. Their voices were heard

and understood based on their experiences. The narrative in this is supported

participants’ actions and initiatives in the implementation of gender and development in

the classroom program.

The Magna Carta of Women (MCW) also mandates the implementation of

capacity building programs on GAD, peace and human rights education for teachers

and all those involved in the education sector alongside the establishment of linkages

and partnerships between and among stakeholders of the educational system; including
the private sector, churches and faith-based organizationsIt is widely accepted that in

the Philippines that women are more progressive in schooling than men while also

earning lower labor-market wages than men. An earlier study by Yamauchi and Marites

Tiongco of De La Salle University in the Philippines found that girls there tend to receive

more schooling than boys, yet still receive lower wages when they enter the labor

market. That study suggested that parents’ understanding of gender wage inequities

could motivate them to invest more effort in their daughters’ educations, in hopes of

boosting future incomes. Part of this may be self-interest: In the Philippines, daughters

often play an important role in supporting parents later in life; thus, investing in a

daughter’s education could ensure a source of income for parents themselves. The

authors found evidence that this pattern is particularly strong among poorer families.

Synthesis

The research literature confirms that there are different purposes and ways

conducted concerning on gender equality issue. In South Sudan, the UNICEF

Communities Care programme engaged with teachers to challenge norms that enable

sexual violence and brought about some shifts in teacher attitudes and behaviours.

Same goal in South Sudan but in a different way, their Communities Care programme

engaged with teachers to challenge norms that enable sexual violence and brought

about some shifts in teacher attitudes and behaviours. And same as The Doorways

programme in Burkina Faso, Ghana and Malawi whereas they trained upper primary

and lower secondary school teachers on children’s rights and responsibilities,

alternative teaching practices, basic counselling and listening skills, awareness of

sexual harassment at school and teacher code of conduct. As a result, considering

different societies and culture, Activities that encourage participation involving in the

classroom do not always result in positive student outcomes. (e.g., Eddy and Hogan,

2014; Knight et al., 2016; Ballen et al., 2017a; Cooper et al., 2018a). In particular,

individual beliefs and emotional states influence how comfortable students are in

classrooms that encourage participation (Cohen et al., 2019). For instance, self-efficacy

(Galyon et al., 2012) and sense of social belonging (Wilson et al., 2015) have been

shown to influence student participation. Eddy and Brownell focus on gender identity

and its impacts on student affect in classrooms. For example, scientific self-efficacy is

often higher in men than women in STEM (reviewed in Eddy and Brownell, 2016), and

women often report a higher salience of gender identity (Picho and Brown, 2011; Cokley

et al., 2015). One of the few studies that has quantified student participation found that

women participated less than expected across 23 introductory biology courses (Eddy et

al., 2014). Eddy et al. (2014) found that women made up on average 60% of the

students in the courses, but their voices were only heard 40% of the time in response to

instructor questions. More recently, Ballen et al. (2019) showed equitable participation

between men and women occurred in STEM courses at six institutions in smaller

classes and when instructors used diverse teaching strategies.

The present study is new as it is find the differences of teachers’

strategies on how does the gender equality runs inside teaching. It is unique in a

way of we will getting information from the teachers’ POV. The people who’s in

the field, the ones who’s experiencing and following the orders from the

responsible departments can genuinely tell what is going on inside the

classroom.