i3

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

.! Introduction
Since its introduction, by ‘Alan Walsh in the mid-1950's,(atomic
absorption spectroscopy has proved
itselfto be the most powerful instmumental technique for the ovantitanive
Sti eee ae
tativedetermination of trace metals in
oT

liquids,This methodprovides a cota! content

ofthe sample and is almost independentof the molecular
forwn of the metal in the
|liquid:)For example, onecan determine the sodium content of a water sample and
in most of the cases it does not matter in what molecular form the sodium exists
Since the work of Walsh, the growth of analytical atomic absorption spectroscopy has been pheno-
mienal. The versatility of atomic absorptiun spectroscepy can be cealized form the fact thst 60-70 elements,
ip“ Iding most of the conunon fare earth metals, nave been cetermuned by this techmique in concentrations
thal range from trace to macroquantities\ Direct application of the technique is limited to metals, with the
exceptions of B, Si, As, Se snd Ve, Several of the non-nielaly have been estimated by indirect methods.)
By this technique, the determinations can be made in the presence of manyother elements, It means
thar it becomes unnecessary to separate the teat ¢lerucnt from the other clernents present in the sampie
and thus it saves a great deal of ime and in the process climinates s2veral sources of erron Atonuc
absorption spectroscopy is not enly resiricted to sclution but alsu to nonaqueous solution®)
As atumic absorption spectroscopy does not demand sample preparation, 11 1s an ideal rool for ner
chemist also, «g.. the engineer, biologist ui vlimeiau are uverested only in tbe significance ofthe results
Atomic absorphon spectroscopy is ¢ method of cieniental analysis. It is particularly useful for
eutn trace jctulsin iiguids and 13 aimost independent of the molecntar form of the metal in the
sample) For example, wecan determine the total cadmium content of a water sampie-it does not matter
whether the cadmium exists as achloride, nitrate, sulfaic, of other salt, The method is very sensitive and
can Jetect different metals in concentrations 2s low 2s and trequently Inwer than | ppoi As an auulytical
technique, it hus become mereasingly imponant because of its bigh sensitivity and the comparative ease
with which quantitative results can be obtained (A disadvantagemethod is thet onlyone clement_
can be determined at a time. Achangein light:source andachangeof
analyticalwavelenythare
renecessary
(6detenmine.a. second element,The method hus limited use for qualitativeanalysis)
fo. 2 or
(the absorption of energy by ground state atoms in the gascous state forms the of atomic absorption
spectroscopy.)
When a solution containing metallic species is introduced into a flame, the vapour of metallic species
wil he obtained. Some of the mem! atoms may be raised to 6n energylevel sufficiently high. to emit the
characteristic radiation of the mesl-a phenomenon that is utilised in the familiar technique of emission
fNeme photometry, But a large percentage of the metal atoms will remain in the non-emumng ground state.
“p These ground state atoms of a pantculsr element are receptive of light radiation of their own specific
\esonance wavelength (in 2general, the same wavelength as pac would oa if excited), Thus, whennats
a
 dltomic Absorption Speewescopy 2.34)
light will beabsorbed andthe adsorption “sillbe proportivmal (0 the density ofie atoms in the flame. Thus,
inalomic absorption specteescopy, one dekermines the amount oflight absorbed. Once dhs value of
mption is known, the cthecommento
proportional to the densuyof the
abi oftheynetalhtcelémertcan
wnedalhe be kaown because
ALS e the absorption |:
in the Flame. Mathematically, the total amount of light absorbed
may be given by the expression as follows: *

es wm ‘ s
yee U the total amouat of light Tbsorbed = ——N/ 13.1
= mc

where e is the charge on the electron of mass m, c the speed of light, N the total number of atoms that
wan absorb at frequency vin lie light path and f the oscillator strength or ability for each 2tom to absorb
at frequency, v. As 2, e, m and c are constants, equation (13.1) can be simplified to the following expression:
— Total amount of high absorbed = constant*N =/ 132
From expression (13.2), it follows that
(a) Firstly, there is no term involving the wavelength (or {fequency) of absorption other than the
7 indication of the actual absorption wavelength.
A(b) Secondly, there is no-term involving the tempe ure
From above, it follows thatRbseriicn by ator is independent of the wavelength of absorption and
the temperature of the atoms. These two. features provide atomic absorption spectroscopy distinct
advantages over flame emission spectroscopy.
In should be pointed out, however, that although the temperature does not affect the process of
absorption by atoms, it does affect the efficiency with which atoms are produced from a sample and
therefcre indirectly affects the signal quite significantiy. Furthermore, some atoms, particularly those of the
alkali metals, easily ionize ct high tempecatures. lons do not adsorb at atomic absorption waveleagtns
Atoms that become ionized are effectively removed from the absorbing pepvlation, resulting in = loss uf
signal.
oo TNE 98 ore omen re tt em or or ee eee

13.3 Grotrian Disgrams

Quantum theory defines the electronic vibitals in an alom. For exaraple, sodium is an atom with
complete inner shelis but ons electron in the outer shell. Its configuration is therefore 1s*, 257, Zp* 3s".
This is frequently abbreviated to 3s. In atomic absorption, UV radiation is absorbed that does not have
sufficient energy to excite the inner shel! electrons at the principal quantum numbers | and 2. Consequently,
in sodiura, only the 3s electron, sometimes cailed the optical electron, is involved, This is truc of all
elements: Only the optical electrons are involved in atomic ebsorption
In the case of sodium and all other elements, the upper orbitals predicted by quantum theory are
empty. Thus the 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, and so on, orbitals of as unexcited sodium atom are empty, These empty
orbitals constitute the upper energy levels of the atom. The number of energy levels can be predict*d from
quantum theory. The actual energy differences of these levels has been deduced from studies of atomic
spectra. These levels have been grephed in Groirian diagrams, A partial Gromian diagram for sodium) is
— ee

shown in Fig. 13.1

The energy levels are split because the electron itself may spin one wayor another, results in two
sumilar energy levels and therefore nvo lines (a doublet) rather than a single line (a singlet). For the
transition from the groundstate to the first excited state of sodium, the electron moves fromthe 35 orbital
to the empty 3p orbital. The latter is split into nvo levels p’? and p*? by the electron spin, so nwa
transitions are possible, The differences in energy are (E(3s}-R(3p'*)] = Ay, and [E(3s) — E(3p*?)) = Av,
The wavelengths associated with these transitions are 589.5 and $89.0 nm, the well-known sodium D lines
Suppose that the energy state of a given atom are E,, E,, E,, Ey, E,, , where E, is a ground state
and ©), Bs, Ey, , are excited states. The adsorption frequency may correspond to the traasition fron:
the ground: stale to an excited state The frequency may Conespand to the tumsition doom the g coundstale
doan excited slate The frequency vis given by Ey bas hy, or Ey = E,= bv, or E, - Ep = Avy, and so
—w—=-
 on. [f the fransttion were benneccr avo exciied stares, v would be given by E,-E, = Av, or Ey £, = 2
and 50 on.

ee
2 2 2 2. 2,
eo "1 "2 cd ;
- fi: T “T T 7

V L
$0 /7 Be.

na 3ao :f
& oy:
n PD Rie!

he
= 20} Ifo fay
= 3 if Lf
& EF fh
my 20- fi of f
. fay /
fo) fs/

ote te
oe
gf!
10 ? ie 4

if
’,
o L i i j

Ground state

weer
Fig. 13.1 Partial Grotrlan diagram for sodium.

lee aeens ee
Under narmal conditions atoms exist in their lowest possible energy state, the ground state. Very few
toms are normally in the higher energy-states. For-exaiaple, it can be calculated from the Boltzmann
distribution law that if zine vapor with a resonance line at 213.8 nm is heated to 3000 K, there will be only:
one etom in the first excited state for every 10! atoms in the groundstate. Zinc atoms need a considerable
umount of energy to became excited. On the other hand, sodium atoms are excited more easily dian the
atoms of most other ciements. Nevertheless, at 3000 K only I sodium atom is excited fot every 1000 atoniz
in the ground state. At room temperature the 1etio the number of excited to unexcited atoms is greatly
veduced, In a normal siom population, therefore, there are very few atoms in sistes E,, E,, Ey, The
rota! amount or radiation absorbed depends, among other things, on howmany atoms tere are availabic
to absorb, Consequently the total amount of radiation absorbed at frequencies v,¥,, and s9 on, is
exceedingly small and nut useful aialytically,
For practical purposes, all absorption is by atoms in the ground-state Icvei, This greatly restricts the
yniuber of absorption lines that can be used in atomic absorption. Quite frequently only three or four usef!
luaes are avatiable in the UV spectrai region for each element, and in some cases less than that. The wave-
length of these absorption lines can be deduced from the Grotrian diagram of the element being determined.

13,4 Detection of Non-metals by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

Pouensee
(Grotrian diagrams correctly predict that the energy required to reach even the first excited stare of
nonmetals issu yreat that they cannot be excited by ultrs siolet radiction. Their resonance lines are ii the
vacuum UV.Consequently, atomic absorption cannot be used for the direct determination of nonmetals,
alitiough with the use of a capillary discharge larnp, iodine has been measured directly However, nonmeia’:
have been determined by indirect miettods, Forexample,chtoridesprecipitated as silver chloride:
from the subsequent determination of silver, the chloride can be calculated,

IS. * Differences Between Atom*c Absorption Spectroscopy and Flame Emission Spectroscopy
"

The main differences between atomic absorption spectroscopy and flame emission spectroscopy are
as follows
(a) In fame emission spectrascopy, the atonys when’put in a flame, become executed: The exened atom,
which is instable, quickly emits 2 photon of light and retums to'a lowes energy state, event! l\’
—
 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 2343

basis of ame
reaching wv: unexctted sizte [he sigasursment of this-ematted rad:onon forns we
emission spechoscopy. Analytical siqnal ij n flame emission is the Sunn of all erogics ensitied «>
excited atoms dep to the ground som © signal cownes entirely feom the emuinne atone
ly atomic abserpuion spectroscopy, the signal is obtained froin Wie difference between the intensity
of the source in the absence of metallic elements present in the Iiguyd and the decreased intensity
obtained when metallic elements are present m the opticalpath, , os
(b) In flame emisston spectroscopy, the emission Thtensity is dependent upon the number of exciting
atoms and is, therefore, gPeatly influenced by temperature vananons
In atomic absorption spectroscopy, atomic absorption depends upon the number of unexcited atoms
and the absorption intensity coes not depend upon the temperature of the flame directly
(c) In atomic absorption spectroscopy, the relation between absorbance and concentration 1s nearly
linear, that is, Beer's law is obeyed over a wide concentration range. Thisis not true in cases of flame
emission spectroscopy

fos Seventnpes of souk eeSeeeesere eae Emission Flame —Se

_ @) \ The
2atomic
ome Seis meen: because ine atoms ofa ‘panicnta element can¢'
absorb,radiation oftheir owncharacteristic wavelength. Theconverse isbisotrue, 7 e., the light . oF
‘particular
ilarfrequency can easilybe absorbed by the s ecific “element
toto which it is characteristic
Spectral interferences which occur in ‘flame emission spectroscopy Therefore vccur rarely,
(b) Because of the muchlarger number of metalatoms.that contribute to an atomigabsorpnon sign!
variation in flame ttemperatures showsrelatively less effect in atornic absozption spectroscopy i:
flame emission
nspectroscopy
inwhich the smallernumber of atorsare producingdicernkesionssaiek
Inskort,it means that atomic absorption Spectrescopy is independent of flame tempcsarure
(c) In terms of detection limitsatomic adsorption and flame emissiun are quite similar, /.¢, soune eleriz: 1
possess lower detectionlisnits by flarne emission and others by atomic absorption Table 13.1 jives
the list of elements in three categories which are as follows: *
(f) those more
senstave by fame emission,
(i) “those of3about equal sensitivity by emission5 anid absorption, and
(fff) those more sensitive by atomic absorption.

Tabie 13.1 : Comparison of Sensitivity of Flame Emission and Atomic Absorption

More sensitive by About equally sensitive More sensitive by atomic

flame emission absorption
Al Cr Ag
Ba Cu AS
C3 Ma Au
Eu Mo 8
Ho . Pd 8:
tn Rh Cd
K Ni Co
La Vv Fe

13.7 Disadvantages of Atomic anehetine Spectroscopy

Some disadvantages of absorpnion spectroscop: as_follo
follows
(a) A separtte lamp ak sc SBns
An asemipr is hice these days
4o overarmeThis. by waltham eee coh very high yesolusion monochromator
or ahematively 10 produce a |ine source by intoxducing a flame .
 moat gr tere “Pos?

clemer like Al, Ti, We —_-

safuy.for esurmation af elements Mn ti,
(b) This techorque cantut beusedverysucce ations can be cy
eic., because these clernents give mse to oxides in the Mame. However, the estim
out under modified conditions
19 8 itguiisbi c degres,
fc) Ire nmons § Shitons, jeer pre dominant enion affects the Wendl
5 : $

haere 8 ee
ryu2 Ppeteeerecrs tat ieiny

shown in Fig. 13.2. The principle

a

A sebernatic diagram of the-stomic absorption spectraphotomeler ts

ion method s
of the instrumentation is stmular to other spectroscopic absorpt
Chopper
(rotating shutter)
Hollow cathode Prism or grating
lamp

=
Acetylene “7
Air
Phote cell

To drain

Fig. 12.2 ; Arrangement for Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy.

Light of a certain wavelength (produced by a special kind of lamp), which is able to emit the spectre!
lines correspondingto the energy required for an electronic transition from the ground state to an excited
state, is allowed to pass through the flame, Meanwhile'the sample solution is aspirated into to the flame.
Before it enters the flame, the solution gets dispersed into a mist of very small droplets which evaporates
wiil c=
in the tame to give the dry salt, and then the vapour of the salt. At least a part of this vapour
into atoms of the eleméat io be measured. Thus, the flame possesses free unexcited atoms
‘ated
dissocia
which ar capable of absorbing radiation, from an extemal source when the reciaton corresponds exactly
level.
to the euergy required for a transition element from the ground clectronic state to an upper excited
Then the unabsorbed radiation from the flame is allowed to pass through a monochroma tor which isolates
the exciting spectral fines of light source. From the monochromator the unabsorbed radiation is led into
the detector which is then registered by a photodetector, the outpu: of which is amplified and measured
on a recorder. Absorptionis racasured by the difference in transmitted signal in the presence and absence
of tese element,
For all types of atomic absorption spectrometer, the fcllowing components are required ;
() Radiation Source. The radiation source for atomic, sbsorption spectrophotometer should emif
stable, intense radiation of the element to be determined, usually a resonance line of the element. Preferably,
the resonance spectral lines should be narrow as compared with the width of the absorption lines to be
measured, These lines should not be interfered from other spectral Ines which are not resolved by
spectrophotometer. There should be no general background or other extraneous lines emitting within the
band pass of the monochromator. The problem of using such narrow spectral lines has been solved by
adopting a hollow cathode lamp-as the radiation source
(a) Hollow Cathode Lamp. Hollow cathode lamp is shown is Fig. 13.3. The catho“e cousists of a hollow
cup, In the cup is the element which is to be determined, in this case sodium. The anode is 2 tungsten
Wire. The two electrodes are housed in a tube contsining an inert gas. The lamp window is constructed
of either quartz, silica, or glass. The exact material depends upon the wavelength which is to be
transmitted. When a potental is apphed between the two electrodes, a current in the milliampere pindie
to Uae
arises, the inert gas is charged at the anode, and the charged gas is attracted at high velocity
2
 Atamic Absorption Specnascopy 2:34)

cathode. The impact with the cathode vaponzes sume of the sodium atonis, These are excited and
uon Returning to thegroundstale givetise teHe sedium emissionspectrum
of (he
: The manudacduser’s recommended curred! for the lamp should nat be exceeded or the |)ferime
$ lamp may be considerably shortened. Excess current may alco give misc 4 3 s¢lf-absorpoon process
: wherein the sputtered ground-state atoms absorb some of the emitted energy, resulting ina lessening
of intensity of the emined the (see Figure 13.4), Og she Wcr hand, if the source lamp is run below
the recommended current, a loss of intensity anda corresponding loss of sensinvity wif result,
~~

4
p= Sodium
emission spectrum

Quartz or
glass window >

| Vaporized atoms
inertcarriergas [~~ me
(NQe’ A)
+ ye
Anode “Sy 2h oj. etal cathoda (Na)

AS

:
’

Fig. 13.4 ; Schematle diagram of a hollow cathode source lamp tor atomic absorption of sodium.

1 O40

0.39 -

3
ad
.

2 ozo} 3 “

Hoses 0.10} A a

Ae i C; A. paonphies +

2 4 6 & 19 12
1

i: Lampcumert,mA
i| Fig. 13.4; Typical sisorbance vs. lamp current curves ter holice cathose lamps.
mA
| Note that the famp which gives curve C would have an ostimum current at BS

i
| a = Ss —_ *
 When a de vollage of 300-500 V as put across the anode and the cathode, ihe avonis Of th ohh
eas underge ionisation at the anode and are rapidly attracted by the cathode, Then, the fast trove
ions sinke the suriace of the cathoce-and physically displace the surface metal atoms: of tic cut!
into neon (92 agton) gas Further coilisicns of the vaponsed metal atoms from the oathede vii
energetic filled gas jons sesult in excitedmetal atoms which emit the characiessuu speckoum 2) 1
used to constauct the cathode. Thus. the emissisn spectum produced by a holaw athode
Jomp is a sharp line spectrum of the cathode materia! and the filled gas. The neanor het gus tilled
in the hollew cathode lamp performs three functions ;
(7) T¢ is the main source of current-carrying capacity in the hollow cathode.
(ii) It dislodges atoms from the surface of the cathcde.
(iii) tt ts primarily responsible for excitation of the ground state metal atoms.
The pressure maintained in the hollow cathode lamp is | to 5 tort, If higher pressures are mauilsi icc
the discharge tends to be unstable and if lower pressures are maintained, the vaporisation of the hollow
cathode metal increases-and the operating temperature ‘also increases.
The spectral lines produced by the hollow cathode lamp are so narrow that they are completely
absorbed by the atoms. By this method, one can easily detect and measure the atomic absorption.
Rach hollow cathode lamp emits ‘the spectrum ofthat metal which is used in the cathode. , For
exareple, cooper cathode emits the copper spectrum, zinc cathode emits the zine spectrum and soon, Az
he Sails time, the narrow spectral lines emitted by copper cathode are only absorbed by the copper'atoms
present in the sample to be analysed vy atomic absorption spectroscopy. Similarly, zinc atoms will ab orb:
speuitul lines emitted by zine cathode. For this reason, a different hollow cathode lamp has to be js ¢ fo)
cach clement to be analysed by atomic absorption spectroscopy, This is not very convenient
In atomic absorption specirophotometer, gaseous discharge lamps are also used. These zr¢ also
alled arc lamps, Gaseous discharge lamps contain an inert gas ai low pressure and a meta! or mici2) s3h:
these lamps are useful for the alkali metals, zinc, cadmium and mercury.

_—_—...
th) Sleerradetess Discharge Lamp. tis dificult to make stable hellow cathodes from certain elemenits,
curleufarty those ibit are volani¢, such a2 arsenic, germaniwan, of selenium. An alternative light
sources has been developed tn the clectrodeless discharge lamp (EDL). ‘Vhis is tllustrated in Fry. 23 5,

ts
Hy consist: of aa evacuated tube in which the metal of interest is pleced. The: tubeis fitied with arger
| low pressure urid staled off. The sealed tube is then placed in a microwave discharge caviry, Urde.
ese ronditions the argon becomes a plasma and causes excitation of the metal ssated inside the
lute The ¢mission from the meial is that of its spectrum, including the resonance line. she inicus!ly

——
ut thess lamps is very high, and they nave been made quite stable in recent years.

and (b) parma.

ae ene

womes.
 Hene: WOkucounn Spree vcapy 7

(2) Chopper. A totatiog vibect is Uderpased between the hatlew cathode lamp and the time.This
wepingwhei l skeown as choppas ard 1s pntespased tobreak the steady light feom lamp into an
} idtent ot pulsatingThispjves a.pulsaung current in the photocell. ere 15 alse a Steadycyiyen|
steady cyt
hused bylight whichis emitted by a flame. But only the pulsating (or aliermating) curren. is amplified and
pe znd._thus the absorption of light willbemeasured wathout”interference fromth. light enuiiedby
the flame itself. * ;
3. Atomisers. In order t% achieve absorption of atoms, it becomes necessary to reduce the sample
to the atomic state. Thus is done by
(2) flame atomisers
(b) non-flame atomisers.
Flame Atomisers. The most common wayis to use a flame which is used for convernng the liquid
sample into the gaseous state and also for conversion of the molecular entities into an atomic vapour. There
are two types of burners in commonuse, the total consumption burner and the premixed burner.
In the total constrmption burners, the sample solution, the fuel and oxidising gases are passed through
senatate passages to meet at the opening of “2 bes of the flame: As the sample containing nevallic
clement to be estimated by atomic spectrosc7py is a liquid, the flame breaks up the quid sample into
droplets which are then evaporated or burnt, leaving the residue which is reduced to atoms. Total
consumption burners do use oxygen, with hydrogen or acetylene, and give very hot Mames. A rypical tora!
consumption bumeris sllustrated in Fig. 13.6.

\
\
2
=
Gu
o «

e <+—— Oxidantin
° Laceianbeut
é <— Fue! in
“a
S
=i

Sample

Fig, 13.6 ; A ictal consumption burnar.

A total coasumption burner is noisy and hard to use. The efficiency of this burner 13 not very good
A typical permixed burner is illustrated in Fig, 13.7
In the premuxed hurnsr, a mixture of the sample (liquid) and premixed gases (C,H,+0,) is allowed to
enter the base hf From the base M, the pases enter the region A From the region A the unbunt
hycrocarbor woscous mixture and liquid droplets are allowed to enter the region B which is.a region of
free heating and about linn in thickness In tie region B, the Wiquid uw esaporated leaving a residue VAs
heating in uus region is dom: by uve heat phtained ffom tae tegion C by cofluction and convecnon aad
 = uu FU ALI PUOR OPEC LON

{3.14 Typical Analyses

a Solid Samples
Types of s
In general, solid samples ninst first be Giesolvesd and the sojurign hes arsalyzed
have been analyzed after disswlution include metals, alioys, soils, antimat tissue, piaat nrotertal, fectil ore
nin judy neuen Gearcah. dee Darts 357

b. Liquids
Frequentlyliquids can be analyzed. Typical samples that have been analyzed directly include blood,
urine, electroplating solutions, petroleum prot:acts, Wines, and pollutants in water. A calibration curve
should always be prepared from @ solution of the same solvent as the sample. If the samples are too
concentrated, they may be diluted prior to analysis. If they are too dilute, they may be evaporated down
or concentrated by, solvent extraction.

¢. Gas Samples
{n conventional samples the metal components mustfirst be collected from gas sainples by absorption
or by wapping in a solution. The absorbant or solution may then be analyzed. Metais in air samples have
been analyzed by atomic absorption after first trapping the metal componentin a sustable solvent,
Hydride Analysis. Some mews are first converted to a gascous hydinde, These are introduced directly
into the atomizer and analyzed the normal way using special equipment, Metals commonly analyzed this
way include arsenic, selenium, and ‘2!sriun.

Ts15 Applicationsof Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

‘

a. Atomic absorption spectroscopy finds valid applications in every branch of chemical analysis, The
ee)is already a firm!;established procedure in analytical chemistry, ceramics, mineralogy, biochemistry,
ies, metaliurgy and soil analysis. Some of these uses are discussed below:
Qualitative Analysis. In atomc absorpuonspectroscopy,2differenthollow.cathoc is to be
used for each element tobetested. [t means that auS elemect which is ised in the construction of cathode
ot the bofiowcathode iamp, can be derected only As qualitative analysis involves the checking of one
slement ata_tme, it means shat the processisverylaborncus. Theretore, atomic absorption spectroscopy
Se caateneee
is scldon: used in practice for dis]purpose.
,GQuaatitativeAnalysis. The technique of quantitative analysis is based on the determination of the
amount of radiation absorbed bythesample. If the value of radiation absorbed 1s substinited in equation
43,1. tievatieofN, the number ofabsorbing atoms ia the light path, can be determined. As the efficiency
of producing atoms from a sample cangot be ksnown, it means Gat N cannot be used to calculate the
concentration of the element in the sample, In practice, quantitative measurements are generally based on
calibration curves. ; 4
Calibration Curves. The first job in quanntative analysis is the preparation of colibration curve. In
order to prepare this curve, the read-out device should be adjusted to 109% transmittance with a blank
and 0% wansmittance when no radiant energy is entering the monochromator slit. The same type of
adjustment js also made if the read-out device is a cclart recorder. A series of standard samples of that
element which is to be determuned quantitatively is aspirated into the burner and percentage absorpnion
measured. Then, the absorbance values are plotted vs concentrations as shown in Fig, 13.24, If a linear
calibration curve is obtained, the slope of the calibration curve can be obiained end then and concentrations
of unknown solutions can be calculated by using the following equation,
A= mc
Or, Absorbance ™ Slope x Concentration
It is inyportant to remember that the sa ipie whose concentration is to be measuredis atomnised and
absorbanve treasured under exactly the same conditions as those used when the calibration curve was
prepared

@,, :0:5gh
-