C

Continuum
Mechanics
Summary

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Appendix C: CONTINUUM MECHANICS SUMMARY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
§C.1. Introduction C–3
§C.2. The Strain-Displacement Equations C–3
§C.2.1. The Linear Strain Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . C–3
§C.2.2. The Engineering Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . C–4
§C.3. Compatibility Equations C–4
§C.4. The Stress Vector C–4
§C.5. The Stress Tensor C–5
§C.6. Equilibrium Equations C–6
§C.7. Constitutive Equations C–6
§C.7.1. Elastic Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C–7
§C.7.2. The Strain Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C–7
§C.7.3. Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . C–7
§C.7.4. Hyperelastic Constitutive Equations . . . . . . . . . C–8

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 §C.2 THE STRAIN-DISPLACEMENT EQUATIONS

§C.1. Introduction
This Appendix summarizes the basic relations of three-dimensional continuum mechanics for linear
elastic solids. These include strain-displacement, constitutive and equilibrium equations. Both
indicial and full notations are used.

§C.2. The Strain-Displacement Equations

Let u i (x j ) denote the components of the displacement vector field u(x j ). Then the infinitesimal
strains are given by

ei j = 12 (u i, j + u j,i ) (C.1)
These are the components of the strain tensor [ei j ] = e, which written in full is

∂u 1
e11 = u 1,1 =
∂ x1
∂u 2
e22 = u 2,2 =
∂ x2
∂u 3
e33 = u 3,3 =
∂ x3
  (C.2)
∂u 1 ∂u 2
e12 = 1
(u
2 1,2
+ u 2,1 ) = 1
+
2
∂ x2 ∂ x1
 
1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
e23 = 2 (u 2,3 + u 3,2 ) = 2
1
+
∂ x3 ∂ x2
 
1 ∂u 3 ∂u 1
e31 = 2 (u 3,1 + u 1,3 ) = 2
1
+
∂ x1 ∂ x3

§C.2.1. The Linear Strain Tensor

The infinitesimal or linear strain tensor in the xi coordinate system is
 
e11 e12 e13
e = [ei j ] =  e22 e23  (C.3)
symm e33
In another coordinate system x j related to xi by the transformation

xi = ai j x j (C.4)

the strain components become

ei j = aim a jn emn (C.5)

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Appendix C: CONTINUUM MECHANICS SUMMARY

§C.2.2. The Engineering Notation

The standard engineering notation uses x, y, z for x1 , x2 , x3 and u x , u y , u z for u 1 , u 2 , u 3 , respectively.

Then the engineering strains are related to the displacements by

∂u x
ex x = e11 =
∂x
∂u y
e yy = e22 =
∂y
∂u z
ezz = e33 =
∂z
(C.6)
∂u x ∂u y
γx y = 2e12 = +
∂y ∂x
∂u y ∂u z
γ yz = 2e23 = +
∂z ∂y
∂u z ∂u x
γzx = 2e31 = +
∂x ∂z
The linear strain tensor in terms of engineering strains is

 
ex x 1
γ
2 xy
1
γ
2 xz
[e] =  e yy 1
γ
2 yz
 (C.7)
symm ezz

§C.3. Compatibility Equations

The strain tensor e has 6 independent components. The displacement field has 3 independent
components. It follows that there must be 3 independent conditions between the ei j . These
expressions arise from the condition of compatibility of deformation. In the three-dimensional case
these compatibility equations are

ei j,k + ek,i j = eik, j + e j,ik (C.8)

For the two dimensional case only one equation survives

e11,22 + e22,11 = 2e12,12 (C.9)

which in standard notation is

∂ 2 ex x ∂ 2 e yy ∂ 2 γx y
+ = (C.10)
∂ y2 ∂x2 ∂x ∂ y

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 §C.5 THE STRESS TENSOR

;;
∆t

∆m

;;
n

;;
P

∆A

e
an
pl
ng
tti
cu
Figure C.1. Plane cut through a body for defining the interior force resultants at point P.

§C.4. The Stress Vector

Consider a continuum body and an interior point P(xi ). Make a cut through P with a plane with
exterior normal n, as illustrated in Figure C.1.
The stress vector at P for direction n is defined as

t
tn = lim
, (C.11)
A→0 A
where A is a differential area surrounding P on the cutting plane (see Figure C.1).
The couple stress vector for direction n is

m
mn = lim . (C.12)
A→0 A
It is optional to include mn in the theory of stress. Doing so leads to the so-called polar material
models. In classical continuum mechanics it is generally assumed that mn = 0, which corresponds
to non-polar materials. Polar material models are generally considered only when continua are
subjected to strong electromagnetic fields.

§C.5. The Stress Tensor

Consideration of the equilibrium of an elemental tetrahedron at P whose faces are normal to x1 ,
x2 , x3 and n leads to the expression

ti = σi j n j , (C.13)
where ti is the component of t in the xi direction, and n j are the components of n. The nine values
σi j are the components of the Cauchy stress tensor

σ11 σ12 σ13
σ = [σi j ] = σ21 σ22 σ23 . (C.14)
σ31 σ32 σ33

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Appendix C: CONTINUUM MECHANICS SUMMARY

For non-polar materials this tensor is symmetric. That is, σi j = σ ji .

§C.6. Equilibrium Equations

Consider the equilibrium of a body of volume V and surface S subject to the following actions
(a) Body force field f of components bi in V
(b) Acceleration field a = d 2 u/dt 2 = ü (t = time) of components ai in V
(c) Stress vectors t of components ti on S
Dynamic equilibrium along any direction xi requires

ti d S + bi d V = ρai d V, (C.15)
S V V
where ρ is the body density. Substitute ti = σi j n j in the surface integral:

σi j n j d S + bi d V = ρai d V. (C.16)
S V V
To transform the surface integral to a volume integral we use Gauss’ divergence theorem. For any
vector field a:

a.n d S = div.a d V. (C.17)

S V
or in component form

∂a j
ajn j dS =
d V. (C.18)
S V ∂x j
Consequently the equilibrium integral (C.15) may be reduced to

[σi j, j + bi − ρai ] d V = 0, (C.19)

V
for an arbitrary volume. Because the volume is arbitrary we must have
σi j, j + bi − ρai = 0. (C.20)
These are the three differential equations of dynamic equilibrium, which are obtained by setting
the free index i to 1, 2 and 3. These are also called the internal equilibrium equations, or balance
equations. If the medium is at rest or moving uniformly with respect to an inertial frame, the
accelerations vanish and we obtain the equations of static equilibrium
σi j, j + bi = 0. (C.21)

Example C.1. If i = 1 the first static equilibrium equation along axis x 1 is

σ1 j, j + b1 = 0 (C.22)
or, written in full
∂σ11 ∂σ12 ∂σ13
+ + + b1 = 0. (C.23)
∂ x1 ∂ x2 ∂ x3
In conventional (engineering) notation:
∂σx x ∂τx y ∂τx z
+ + + bx = 0. (C.24)
∂x ∂y ∂z

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 §C.7 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

§C.7. Constitutive Equations

Constitutive equations characterize the behavior of the material of mechanical bodies. These
equations are relations that constrain the space of deformations of a body (as defined by the strain
tensor) and the state of internal forces (as defined by the stress tensor). The relations hold at each
point of the body. They are generally partial differential equations, or even integrodifferential
equations, in space and time.
The simplest type of constitutive equations are homogeneous linear algebraic relations that connect
the stress and stress tensors at each point. This type of constitutive equation characterize the linear
elastic solids, which are the only ones we shall consider in this course.

§C.7.1. Elastic Solids

An elastic solid is a body characterized by two configurations:

(1) The natural state or undeformed state, which is taken by the solid in the absence of applied
forces

(2) The deformed state, attainable by any reversible process.

The concepts just outlined are closely associated with the idea of stored energy, strain energy or
stress energy. This expresses mathematically that the behavior of an elastic solid is independent of
the preceding history of the material. In other words, the state of stress depends only on the state
of strain, and not on the path followed to get to that strain.

§C.7.2. The Strain Energy

Let us define U as the strain energy per unit of deformed volume, also called the strain energy
density. This is generally a function of position (xi ) and of the deformation of the body at that
position. Since in linear elasticity the deformation may be characterized by the strain tensor i j

U = U(xi , ei j ). (C.25)
Additional properties of this function are:

(a) U is a scalar invariant: it is unaffected by rigid body displacements and by the orientation of
the global RCC system.

(b) If U is independent of xi over a volume V , the material is said to be homogeneous in V .

(c) The material is said to be isotropic if the stress-strain law is independent of directions in the
material. If the material is isotropic, the strain energy density must be a function only of the
invariants of the strain tensor.

Remark C.1. Isotropy must not be confused with invariance. All materials in classical mechanics satisfy the
invariance principle (material properties do not depend on the observer), but not all materials are isotropic.

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Appendix C: CONTINUUM MECHANICS SUMMARY

§C.7.3. Principle of Virtual Work

Consider a body in static equilibrium. The principle of virtual work (PVW) states that the virtual
work done by all forces acting on that body during a virtual displacement* δu must be zero.
Mathematically,
δWi + δW = 0, (C.26)
where Wi and W are the virtual work done by the internal and external forces, respectively. The
principle can be derived mathematically by taking the equilibrium equations and stress boundary
conditions
σi j, j + f i = 0, σi j n j = tˆi , (C.27)
multiply the first by δu i , integrate over V and apply the divergence theorem which for symmetric
σi j yields

(σi j, j + f i ) δ ū = [−σi j δ 2 (u i, j + u j,i ) + f i δu i ] d V + σi j n j δu i d S = 0.

1
(C.28)
V V S

Split the surface integral over St ∪ Su . The integral over the latter vanishes. The former can be
transformed using the second of (F.3) weighted by δu i and integrated over St to produce

σi j δei j d V = f i δu i + tˆi δu i d S. (C.29)

V V St

But δWi = −δU , where U is the total stored strain energy:

U= U d V. (C.30)
V

Comparing with (C.5) we get

δU = σi j δei j d V, δU = σi j δei j . (C.31)

V

§C.7.4. Hyperelastic Constitutive Equations

For a homogeneous linear elastic body possessing a strain energy density (such material is called
“hyperelastic” in the literature)
U = U(ei j ). (C.32)
∂U ∂U ∂U
δU = δei j = δe11 + δe12 + · · · = σi j δei j . (C.33)
∂ei j ∂e11 ∂e12
Since δU = σi j δei j we must have
∂U
σi j = . (C.34)
∂ei j

* A virtual displacement is a change in the geometric configuration of the body compatible with all kinematic constraints,
made while keeping all forces and stress acting on the body frozen.

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 §C.7 CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

These are the constitutive equations of a linear hyperelastic material.

For an isotropic linear elastic material, U must be a quadratic form in ei j that preserves the invariants
of the strain tensor. It is shown in books on elasticity that this condition leads to the generalized
Hooke’s law
σi j = λeii δi j + 2µei j . (C.35)
Here λ and µ are called the Lamé coefficients; both of which have dimensions of stress. In
engineering applications the material coefficients E, G, and ν (modulus of elasticity, shear modulus,
and Poissons’s ratio, respectively) are more commonly used. These are related to λ and µ by

µ(3λ + 2µ) λ E
E= , ν= , G= . (C.36)
λ+µ 2(λ + µ) 2(1 + ν)
Conversely,

Eν E
λ= , µ=G= . (C.37)
(1 + ν)(1 − 2ν) 2(1 + ν)

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