EARTH & LIFE

SCIENCE

QUARTER 1
WEEK 2

JAPET S. UTED
TEACHER

NAME OF STUDENT:
 UNIT 2: ROCKS

I. COMPETENCIES

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

 Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical properties
 Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
 Explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposited
elsewhere

II. DISCUSSION

Rock-Forming Minerals

Rocks are composed of minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is usually
solid, crystalline, stable at room temperature, and inorganic.

There are almost 5000 known mineral species, yet the vast majority of rocks are formed from
combinations of a few common minerals, referred to as ―rock-forming minerals‖. The rock-
forming minerals are: feldspars, quartz, amphiboles, micas, olivine, garnet, calcite, pyroxenes.

Minerals occurring within the rock in small quantities are referred to as ―accessory
minerals‖. Although accessory minerals are present in only small amounts, they may provide valuable
insight into the geological history of a rock, and are often used to ascertain the age of a rock.
Common accessory minerals are; zircon, monazite, apatite, tourmaline, pyrite, and other opaque.

The abundance and diversity of minerals depend on the abundance in the Earth’s crust of the
elements of which they are composed. Eight elements make up 98% of the Earth’s crust: oxygen,
silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and potassium. The composition of minerals
formed by igneous processes is directly controlled by the chemistry of the parent body. For example,
a magma rich in iron and magnesium will form minerals such as olivine and pyroxene (as found in
basalt). Magma richer in silicon will form more silica-rich minerals such as feldspar and quartz (as
found in granite). It is unlikely that a mineral will be found in rock with dissimilar bulk chemistry unlike
its own; thus it is unlikely that andalusite (A l2SiO5) would be found in an aluminum-poor rock such as
quartzite.

Physical properties of minerals

Some minerals are easily identifiable; others can only be recognized only by the use of a
petrographic microscope or by complex analytical techniques. The following criteria are used to
differentiate minerals in hand sample. Most minerals cannot be identified from one particular
property, and so it is advisable to use several of the diagnostic criteria outlined below. A hand lens
will assist you greatly.
Color

Color is one of the most obvious characteristics of a mineral, but generally not the most
useful diagnostic feature. Depending on impurities, individual mineral types may come in a vast
variety of colors. For example, ruby and sapphire are differently colored types of mineral
corundum (Al2O3). The red color of ruby is due to the presence of the element chromium.
Sapphires may come is a vast variety of colors; blue is the most familiar color, but yellow, orange,
green, pink, orange, and brown varieties are also known. Garnets may also come in a large range
of colors, depending on their composition. They can be found with virtually any color, although
blue garnets are exceptionally rare. It is therefore advisable not to rely on color alone to identify
a mineral.

Crystal habit
 Crystal habit refers to the characteristic shape of a mineral unit (either an individual crystal or
an aggregate of crystals). Crystals with well-developed faces are referred to as ―euhedral‖; for
example, garnet crystals are often euthedral. Minerals may also occur as aggregates of crystals; for
example, asbestos is usually found as an aggregate of very fine fibers. The following list gives
examples of different crystal habits and examples of common minerals that may exhibit each habit.
Acicular – needle-like, e.g. natrolite, rutile
Bladed – blade-like, slender and flattened, e.g. kyanite
Botryoidal – grape-like masses, e.g. hematite, malachite
Columnar – long, slender prisms, e.g. calcite, gypsum Cubic
– cube-shaped, e.g. pyrite, galena, halite
Dendritic – tree-like, branching in multiple directions, e.g. pyrolusite, native copper, native silver
Fibrous – very slender prisms, e.g. asbestos, tremolite
Foliated or lamellar – layered structure, parts easily into very thin sheets, e.g. muscovite, biotite
Granular – aggregates of crystals, e.g. bornite, scheelite
Hexagonal – six-sided, e.g. quartz, hanksite Massive –
no distinct shape, e.g. turquoise, real gar Octahedral–
eight-sided, e.g. diamond, magnetite Platy – flat,
tablet shape, e.g. wulfenite
Prismatic – elongate, prism-like, e.g. tourmaline, beryl
Radial or stellate – radiating outwards from a central point, star-like, e.g. wavellite, pyrophyllite

Acicular habit (rutile) Botryoidal habit (malachite) Cubic habit (pyrite) Fibrous
habit (sillimanite)
Foliated habit (bio tite) Massive habit (real gar) Hexagonal habit (sapphire) Platy habit
(wulfenite)

Prismatic habit

Chemical Properties of Minerals

The chemical properties of minerals mainly reflect the chemical properties of the atoms
present in each. However, even here these properties depend on the way the atoms are bound in
the mineral's crystal structure. Let us examine the property known as solubility — the ability of a
mineral to dissolve in a liquid, like salt and water.

Nearly all minerals are soluble in water. But most dissolve to such a limited extent as to go
almost unnoticed. A liquid is called a solvent when its action on a solid substance is to break apart
the atoms of the crystal structure, thus dissolving it.

With some minerals, not all the atoms in the crystal structure are taken into solution. The two
specimens at the lower-left illustrate this phenomenon for the mineral muscovite. Fresh crystals in
one specimen contrast with the other, to its right, which look somewhat faded. If the fresh-looking
sample were subjected to running water, potassium atoms originally present in the layered structure
would dissolve, and the muscovite would gradually change from mica to clay minerals. Such is the
mineral illite, the faded-looking sample.

In the series of mineral groups displayed on the right side of this case, different specimens
show variations in chemical properties. The top group represents the range of temperatures at which
the minerals will melt or change to a liquid. The melting point is also known as the fusing
temperature.

Minerals composed of atoms that are not tightly bonded within the crystal structure will melt
at relatively low temperatures. However, much heat may be needed to break the chemical bonds of
other minerals. The mineral quartz, for example, will only melt above 1,610 degrees Celsius, or 2,930
degrees Fahrenheit. The next group of minerals is not found in areas of high rainfall or high humidity
because these minerals dissolve easily in water. Thus, a desert region, such as Death Valley, would be
an ideal place for these minerals to form.

Water is not the only liquid that will dissolve minerals. Several minerals, especially some of the
carbonates, will dissolve readily in dilute hydrochloric acid. When that happens, a chemical reaction
releases carbon dioxide gas. The resulting bubbling, or effervescence, is a useful aid in identifying
some of the more readily soluble carbonates, such as calcite, calcium carbonate, specimen number
12, which is found in limestones, and of which seashells are made.

The next group of minerals shows another kind of solution quite common among minerals.
This is called a solid solution, in which two or more chemical compounds share the same crystal
structure, forming a homogeneous crystalline substance. A mineral that belongs to such a solid
solution has no single fixed chemical composition.
 Rather, its composition is a proportion of the two or more limiting compositions called end
members. Such minerals are commonly named for the end members they most nearly resemble in
composition. However, intermediate members have sometimes been used for naming, as w ith the
plagioclase feldspars. The plagioclases are a solid solution series with the end members, albite,
sodium bearing, and anorthite, calcium bearing, but also with intermediate members, such as
labradorite and oligoclase.

ROCKS CLASSIFICATION

Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification and cooling of magma. This magma can be
derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the
melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes namely; an increase in temperature,
a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Igneous comes from the word ―ignis‖
meaning fire, it is therefore not surprising that igneous rocks are associated with volcanic activity
and their distribution is controlled by plate tectonics. One of the appealing aspects of the plate
tectonics is that it accounts for reasonably well for the variety of igneous rocks and their
distribution (Carlson et al, 2008). Divergent plates are usually associated with the creation of
basalts and gabbros especially in the oceanic crust e.g. in the mid-Atlantic ridges. While in the
intra-continental areas you can have wide a ray of rocks from basic, intermediate to the acidic
rocks. In the convergent plates usually, granites and andesites magmas are produced e.g. In
South America, Indonesia, etc.

Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories: Plutonic (intrusive) rock and volcanic
(extrusive). Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the
Earth's crust. A common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from
magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta, forming rocks such as pumice or
basalt. The chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically form a sequence known
as Bowen's reaction series (Figure 1), after the Canadian petrologist Norman L. Bowen. The Bowens
reaction series explain sequences of crustal formation. The Bowens series is important because it
forms the basis for explaining igneous minerals and textures.

Types of igneous rocks

Igneous rocks can be differentiated according to their texture, color, and composition. The
difference in these three parameters depends on the environment of deposition and chemistry of
magmas. Below is an explanation of each parameter as mentioned above.

Texture
When magma cools slowly large crystals form and rock forms a phaneritic texture on the other
hand if magma cools fast then small crystals form sometime a glassy texture where no minerals form
can be achieved this way. It is based on the textural difference that igneous rocks can be divided
into either extrusive or intrusive rocks. Examples of both extrusive and extrusive rocks are given in
Figure 2 below. Intrusive are rocks that form by magma solidifying before reaching the surface hence
forming coarse-grained texture while extrusive are those that magma solidifies on the surface
forming fine-grained rocks.

Color
A rock with majorly dark minerals forms mafic rocks but with more fractionation during
magma cooling lighter-colored minerals can form based on Bowen’s series. Based on this color
difference the rocks can be either mafic or felsic in Figure 2 below shows that as you move from
right to left you have more ultra-mafic due to fractionation.

Composition
Igneous rocks can also be classified based on chemistry. This is mainly based on silica
content as highlighted in Figure 2 below. When silica is above 75% main minerals that form are
feldspars while with reduction of silica more mafic minerals form, hence basis for rock difference.
 FIGURE 1: Types of igneous rocks based on texture, color, and chemistry (Ehlers and Blatt, 1997).
TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Phaneritic Texture

Phaneritic textured rocks are comprised of large crystals that are visible with or without a
hand lens or binocular microscope. The entire rock is made up of large crystals, which are generally
1/2 mm to several centimeters in size; no fine matrix material is present. This texture forms by the
slow cooling of magma deep underground in the plutonic environment.

Aphanitic Texture

Aphanitic texture consists of small crystals that cannot be seen by the eye with or hand lens.
The entire rock is made up of small crystals, which are generally less than 1/2 mm in size. This texture
results from rapid cooling in volcanic or hypabyssal (shallow subsurface) environments.

Porphyritic Texture

Porphyritic rocks are composed of at least two minerals having a conspicuous (large)
difference in grain size. The larger grains are termed phenocrysts and the finer grains either
matrix or groundmass (see the drawing below and image to the left). Porphyritic rocks are
thought to have undergone two stages of cooling; one at the depth where the larger
phenocrysts formed and a second at or near the surface where the matrix grains crystallized.

Glassy Texture

Glassy textured igneous rocks are non-crystalline meaning the rock contains no mineral
grains. Glass results from cooling that is so fast that minerals do not have a chance to crystallize.
This may happen when magma or lava comes into quick contact with much cooler materials near
the Earth's surface. Pure volcanic glass is known as obsidian.

Vesicular Texture

This term refers to vesicles (cavities) within the igneous rock. Vesicles are the result of gas
expansion (bubbles), which often occurs during volcanic eruptions. Pumice and scoria are
common types of vesicular rocks.

Fragmental (Pyroclastic) Texture

Pyroclastic is rocks blown out into the atmosphere during violent volcanic eruptions. These
rocks are collectively termed fragmental. If you examine a fragmental volcanic rock closely you
can see why. You will note that it is comprised of numerous grains or fragments that have been
welded together by the heat of volcanic eruption. If you run your fingers over the rock it will often
feel grainy like sandpaper or sedimentary rock. You might also spot shards of glass embedded in
the rock.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have experience change due to high pressure and
temperature below the zone of diagenesis. Protolith refers to the original rock, before
metamorphism. In low-grade metamorphic rocks, original textures are often preserved allowing one
to determine the likely protolith. As the grade of metamorphism increases, original textures are
replaced with metamorphic textures and other clues, such as the bulk chemical composition of the
rock, is used to determine the protolith. Below is an examination of the role of two agents of
metamorphism.

The Role of Temperature

Changes in temperature conditions during metamorphism cause several important processes

to occur. With increasing temperature and thus higher energy, chemical bonds are can break and
reform driving the chemical reactions that change the rock's chemistry during metamorphism.
Increasing temperature can also result in the growth of crystals. In rock, a small number of large
crystals have higher thermodynamic stability than do a large number of small crystals. As a result, the
increasing temperature during metamorphism, even in the absence of any chemical change, will
generally result in the amalgamation of small crystals to produce a coarser-grained rock. It is a fact
that individual minerals are only stable over specific temperature ranges. Thus, as temperature
changes, minerals within a rock become unstable and transform through chemical reactions to new
minerals. This property is very important to our interpretation of metamorphic rocks. By observing
the mineral assemblage (set of minerals) within a metamorphic rock, it is often possible to estimate of
the temperature at the time of formation. That is, minerals can be used as thermometers of the
process of metamorphism.

The Role of Pressure

Pressure, the second of the two physical parameters controlling metamorphism and occurs in
two forms. The most widely experienced type of pressure is lithostatic. This "rock-constant" pressure
is derived from the weight of overlying rocks. Lithostatic pressure is experienced uniformly by a
metamorphic rock. That is, the rock is squeezed to the same degree in all directions. Thus, there is no
preferred orientation to lithostatic pressure and there is no mechanical drive to rearrange crystals
within a metamorphic rock experiencing lithostatic conditions. The second pressure is the directed
pressure; this is the pressure of motion and action. Plate tectonics provides the underlying
mechanical control for all forms of directed pressure. Thus, metamorphism is closely linked to the
plate tectonic cycle and many metamorphic rocks are the products of tectonic interactions. As was
the case with changes in temperature, changes in pressure, either lithostatic or directed, have
important impacts upon the stability of minerals. Every mineral is stable over a range of pressures, if
pressure conditions during metamorphism exceed a mineral’s stability range the mineral will
transform into a new phase. Many of these solid-state reactions involve polymorphic transformation
– changes between minerals with the same chemistry and different crystallographic structures. Just
as with temperature, mineral assemblages within a metamorphic rock can be used as a barometer to
measure pressure at the time of formation.

Classification

Classification of metamorphic rocks depends on textures and their degree of metamorphism.

Three kinds of criteria are normally employed in the classification of metamorphic rock. These are:

Mineralogical - The most abundant minerals are used as a prefix to a textural term. Thus, schist
containing biotite, garnet, quartz, and feldspar, would be called biotite-garnet schist. A gneiss
containing hornblende, pyroxene, quartz, and feldspar would be called hornblende-pyroxene gneiss.
Schist containing porphyroblasts of K-feldspar would be called K-spar porphyroblastic schist.

Chemical - If the general chemical composition can be determined from the mineral
assemblage, then a chemical name can be employed. For example, schist with a lot of quartz and
feldspar and some garnet and muscovite would be called garnet-muscovite quartzo-feldspathic
schist. Schist consisting mostly of talc would be called talc-magnesian schist.
 Texture- Most metamorphic textures involve foliation. Foliation is generally caused by a
preferred orientation of sheet silicates. If a rock has a slatey cleavage as its foliation, it is termed a
slate, if it has a phyllitic foliation, it is termed a phyllite, if it has a shistose foliation, and it is
termed schist. A rock that shows a banded texture without a distinct foliation is termed a gneiss.
All of these could be porphyroblastic (i.e. could contain porphyroblasts). A rock that shows no
foliation is called a hornfels if the grain size is small, and a granulite if the grain size is large and
individual minerals can be easily distinguished with a hand lens.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of material at the Earth's surface and (or)
within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for processes that cause mineral
and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or minerals to precipitate from a
solution. Sediments can be detrital, chemical, or organic sediments. Detrital sediments are
mechanically eroded from pre-existing rocks. Chemical sediments on the other hand are fluid
precipitates or evaporates deposited in various environments. Sedimentary rocks are important
concerning resources like limestone deposits, coal, and oil. They are also important geologically in
the interpretation of the earth’s history (Carlson et al, 2009). Below is table 2 with descriptions of
some common sedimentary rocks which include; sandstone, limestone, shale, conglomerate, and
gypsum.

TABLE 1: Examples of sedimentary rocks

Rock name Description

The rock is classified as chemical or organic sediment
depending on how it forms. It is composed primarily of
calcium carbonate. The rock can form in two ways either by
organically from the accumulation of shell, coral, algal, and
Limesto fecal debris or from chemically from the precipitation of
ne calcium carbonate from lake or ocean water. Limestone is
used in many ways. Some of the most common are:
production of cement, crushed stone, and acid
neutralization
This is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains large (greater
than 2 millimeters in diameter) rounded particles. The space
between the pebbles is generally filled with smaller particles
and/or chemical cement that bind the rock together.

Conglomerate
This primarily a clastic sedimentary rock made up mainly of
Sandst sand-size (1/16 to 2 millimeter diameter) weathering debris.
one Environments where large amounts of sand can accumulate
include beaches, deserts, flood plains, and deltas

Coal This purely organic sedimentary rock that forms mainly from
plant debris. The plant debris usually accumulates in a
swamp environment. Coal is combustible and is often mined
for use as a fuel.
WEATHERING

Weathering is a term that describes the general process by which rocks are broken down at
the Earth’s surface into such things as sediments, clays, soils, and substances that are dissolved in
water. The process of weathering typically begins when the earth’s crust is uplifted by tectonic
forces. After the physical breakup and chemical decay of exposed rocks by weathering, the loosened
rock fragments and alterations products are carried away through the process of erosion. Erosion
relies on transporting agents such as wind, rivers, ice, snow, and downward movement of materials to
carry weathered products away from the source area. As weathered products are carried away,
fresh rocks are exposed to further weathering. Over time, that mountain or hill is gradually worn
down.

There are two types of weathering:

(a) Chemical Weathering results from chemical reactions between minerals in rocks and external
agents like air or water. Oxygen oxidizes minerals to alteration products whereas water can convert
minerals to clays or dissolve minerals completely.

(b) Physical Weathering is when rocks are broken apart by mechanical processes such as rock
fracturing, freezing, and thawing, or breakage during transport by rivers or glaciers.

ACTIVITY 1

Rock-Forming Minerals Identification and Rocks Classification

The following tests are used by experts to classify rocks and minerals.

Hardness Test – Minerals are scaled in range from 1 to 10, with 1 being softest and
10 hardest. The method of determining hardness is the scratch test. Fingernails have a hardness of
2.5, coins 3.0, nail 5.5, quartz 7. Test the rock by seeing if it will scratch or be scratched by
any of the above materials.

HARDNESS SCALE

SOFTEST HARDEST

(1) talc (3) calcite (5) apatite (7) quartz (9) corundum
(2) gypsum (4) fluorite (6) orthoclase (8) topaz (10 diamond
feldspar

Color Streak Test – different rocks will make distinctive color marks on porcelain, tile, or
paper.
Talc, anthracite, and gypsum will make color streaks on the paper.

Acid Test – used to identify rocks that contain calcium carbonate. Limestone, marble, calcite,
and chalk will fizz in the presence of vinegar.

Magnetism Test – rocks which contain iron such as galena or lodestone (magnetite) will
respond to a magnet.

Materials

 Nail (2-4 inch.)

 Vinegar

 Magnet

 5 rocks sample

 Plastic cup

PROCEDURES

1. Collect 5 rocks in your backyard

TEST I: HARDNESS

Rocks are scaled in hardness in a range from 1 to 10, with 1 being the softest and 10
the hardest.

Hardness can be tested by trying to scratch a rock with a substance or another rock.

1. Scratch your rock samples using your fingernails if your rock sample scratched kindly mark a check
in the table below.

2. Repeat step 1 using coins and nail.

Rock Samples Fingernail ( talc, Coins (calcite, fluorite) Nail (apatite, feldspar)
gypsum) SEDIMENTARY METAMORPHIC
METAMORPHIC
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

TEST II: ACID TEST

Some rocks contain calcium. These rocks will fizz in the presence of acid. You will use vinegar as
the acid for this test.

1. Fill your plastic cup, half full of vinegar.

2. Put the rock sample in the cup.

3. Observe the rock for fizzing or bubbles. Record the results on your DATA LOG.

Rock Samples Presence of bubbles ( Calcium Carbonate)

(SEDIMENTARY)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
TEST III: MAGNETISM

Some rocks contain metals that will attract a magnet.

1. Select one by one of the rocks and touch it with the magnet.

2. Is the rock attracted by the magnet? Record your results on your DATA LOG.

Rock Samples Attract by the magnet ( magnetite) ( IGNEOUS)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Use your data chart information and rock keys to classify each of your rocks and complete the
table below.

ROCK SAMPLES TYPE OF ROCKS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ACTIVITY 2

Direction: Make a simple illustration of how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion
and deposited elsewhere.

III. EVALUATION

Encircle the letter of your correct answer.

1. Metamorphic rocks are formed by .

A. Heat and Pressure B. Melting and Cooling

C. Weathering, Erosion, and Pressure D. Heating, Melting, and Pressure

2. The two types of metamorphic rocks are...

A. Intrusive and Extrusive B. Foliated and non-foliated

C. Sedimentary and Igneous D. None of the above

3. Which is NOT a property we can use to identify minerals?

A. None of the above B. luster C. shape D. hardness

4. Which is NOT a type of sedimentary rock?

A. organic B. detrital C. Chemical D. none of the above

5. Which of the following is what rocks are generally composed of?

A. pieces B. mud C. minerals D. fossils

6. Which type of rock is produced by weathering, erosion, and pressure?

A. Mineral B. Sedimentary C. Igneous D. Metamorphic

7. Which type of rock is formed from the evaporation of mineral-rich water such as the sea or the
water from geysers?

A. Chemical B. Extrusive C. Organic D. Foliated

8. Which type of rock can be extremely light because it was formed by the cooling of the lava and
trapped gas bubbles?

A. Extrusive B. Chemical C. Foliated D. Intrusive

9. Which is true?

A. Minerals are made from plants. B. Cleavage is when minerals break off along rough
edges.

C. Ores are rare minerals. D. None of the above

10. Which is NOT true of magma?

A. It can form igneous rock when it is cooled down.

B. It can cool down to become intrusive rock.
C. It is made of minerals and melted rock.
D. It is hot melted rock material on the surface of the earth

IV. REFERENCES

 https://geologyglasgow.org.uk/local-rocks/rock-forming- minerals/#:~:text=The%20rock
%2Dforming%20minerals%20are,%2C%20garnet%2C%20calcite%2 C%20pyroxenes.
 https://reviewgamezone.com/mc/candidate/test/?test_id=235&title=Chapter%203%20Rocks%
20And%20Minerals
 https://www.gk-questions.leadthecompetition.in/questions-on-rocks-and-minerals.html
 https://geology.com/rocks/
 https://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/permanent/planet-earth/how-do-we-read-the-rocks/three-
types#:~:text=There%20are%20three%20kinds%20of,They%20accumulate%20in%20layers.
 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-geophysical/chapter/weathering-
processes/#:~:text=Weathering%20is%20the%20process%20that,away%20from%20it's%20origin al
%20position.&text=Water%20is%20responsible%20for%20most%20erosion.