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What is Chemistry?
Introduction To
Chemistry
1 2
3 4
Branches of Chemistry
1. Organic Chemistry - deals with the
reaction of the study of most carbon-containing
compounds.
2. Inorganic Chemistry – the study of all
substances not classified as organic, mainly
those compounds that do not contain carbon.
3. Physical Chemistry – the study of the
structure of matter, energy, changes, and the
laws, principles and theories that govern the
transformation of matter and their relations.
5 6
What comes to mind when you hear the word
chemistry?
What has chemistry ever done for us?
Branches of Chemistry
Branches of Chemistry
4. Analytical Chemistry – the identification,
separation, and quantitative determination of
the components of different molecules.
5. Biochemistry – specializes in the study of
substances and processes occurring in living
things.
6. Theoretical Chemistry – the use of
Mathematics and computers to understand the
principles behind observed chemical behavior
and to design and predict the properties of the
compounds.
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Branches of Chemistry Branches of Chemistry

7. Agrochemistry – deals with the application
of chemistry for agricultural production, food
processing and environmental remediation.
8. Astrochemistry – study of composition and
reactions of the chemical elements and
molecules founding the stars and in the space
and of the interactions between this matter
and radiation.
9. Cluster Chemistry – involves the study of
the cluster of branched atoms, intermediate in
size between single molecules and bulk solids.
10. Combinatorial Chemistry – is the
chemistry associated with soil, air and water
and of the human impact on natural systems.
11. Geochemistry – study of chemical
composition and chemical processes associated
with the Earth and other planets.
12. Green Chemistry – concerned with the
processes and products that eliminate or
reduce the use of hazardous substances.

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Branches of Chemistry
13. Medicinal Chemistry – chemistry as it
applies to pharmacology and medicine.
14. Nuclear Chemistry – is a branch of
chemistry associated with nuclear reactions and
isotopes.
15. Photochemistry – is a branch of chemistry
concerned with the interaction between light
and matter.
History of Chemistry
9 10

History
ØPrior to 1000 B.C., processing of natural ores to
produce metals for ornaments and weapons and
the use of embalming fluids are already being
used
ØAncient civilizations and technologies formed the
various branches of Chemistry, and has applied to
in several ways:
• extracting metals form ores, making pottery and
glazes, fermenting beer and wines, making pigments
for cosmetics and painting, extracting chemicals from
plants for medicines and perfumes, making cheese,
dying cloth, tanning leather, rendering fat into soaps,
making glass and making alloys like bronze
History
ØThe Greek philosophers were the first to
formulate theories about the behavior of
matter.
ØBy about 400 B.C. they had proposed that all
matter was composed of four fundamental
substances: fire, earth, water, and air
Ø“whether matter is continuous, and thus
infinitely divisible into smaller pieces, or
composed of small, indivisible particles…”

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History
ØThe latter was supported by Demokritos* of
Abdera (c. 460–c. 370 B.C.) and Leucippos,
who used the term atomos (which later
became atoms) to describe these ultimate
particles.
• However, because the Greeks had no experiments to test their
ideas, no definitive conclusion could be reached about the
divisibility of matter.
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
Ødevelopment of systematic metallurgy
(extraction of metals from ores) by a German,
Georg Bauer (1494–1555)
• medicinal application of minerals by a Swiss
alchemist/physician known as Paracelsus (full
name: Philippus Theophrastus Bombastus von
Hohenheim [1493–1541]).
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
ØThe phenomenon of combustion evoked
intense interest in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Georg Stahl (1660–1734) suggested that a
substance he called “phlogiston” flowed out
of the burning material.
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History
ØExperimental Chemistry originated from
alchemy, a mystical chemistry devoted to
things such as converting common metal into
gold. The philosophers called the followers of
alchemy as alchemists.
ØAlchemy was referred to as a pseudoscience
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
• Robert Boyle (1627–1691) – carefully
measured the relationship between the
pressure and volume of air. Published his book
“The Skeptical Chymist” in 1661, paving way
to give birth the quantitative sciences of
physics and chemistry.
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
ØThe phenomenon of combustion evoked
intense interest in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) – an English
clergyman and scientist discovered oxygen
and was found to support vigorous combustion
and was thus supposed to be low in
phlogiston.
• In fact, oxygen was originally called “dephlogisticated air.”
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
ØBy the late 18th
century, combustion had been
studied extensively; the gases carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen had been
discovered; and the list of elements continued
to grow.
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
ØJoseph Proust (1754–1826) – showed that a given
compound always contains exactly the same
proportion of elements by mass.
• For example, Proust found that the substance copper carbonate
is always 5.3 parts copper to 4 parts oxygen to 1 part carbon (by
mass).
ØThe principle of the constant composition of
compounds, originally called “Proust’s law,” is
now known as the Law of Definite Proportion. A
given compound always contains exactly the same
proportion of elements by mass.
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
• By 1869, the concepts of atoms and molecules
were well established, and it was possible for
Mendeleev and Meyer to describe different
forms of the periodic table.
• In 1896, Becquerel discovered radioactivity, and
another area of study was opened.
• Studies of subatomic particles, spectra, and
electricity finally led to the atomic theory of Bohr
in 1913, which was soon modified by the quantum
mechanics of Schrodinger and Heisenberg in 1926
and 1927.
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
ØAntoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) – a French chemist
who finally explained the true nature of
combustion. His experiments suggested that mass
is neither created nor destroyed (Law of
Conservation of Mass).
ØIn 1789 Lavoisier published the first modern
chemistry textbook, Elementary Treatise on
Chemistry, in which he presented a unified
picture of the chemical knowledge assembled up
to that time.
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History
vMODERN CHEMISTRY
ØJohn Dalton (1766–1844) – an English
schoolteacher thought about atoms as the
particles that might compose elements.
• Law of Multiple Proportions – when two
elements form a series of compounds, the
ratios of the masses of the second element
that combine with 1 gram of the first element
can always be reduced to small whole
numbers.
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Famous Foreign Scientists
1. Isaac Newton – father of modern
science
2. Marie Curie – discovered the
radioactive elements (Radium and
Polonium)
3. Robert Boyle (father of Chemistry) –
the first scientist who gave the first
process definition of a chemical element,
reaction and chemical analysis
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Famous Foreign Scientists Filipino Scientists

4. Henry Cavendish – he discovered the 1. Julian Banzon – researched methods of
producing alternative fuels.
hydrogen gas and found out that water
2. Dr. Benjamin Cabrera – developed
was composed of two gases, hydrogen innovations in drug treatments against
and gases diseases caused by mosquitoes and
agricultural soil.
5. John Dalton – known for the discovery
3. Paulo Campos – built the first
of modern atomic theory radioisotopes laboratory in the Philippines.
6. Ernest Rutherford – proposed that 4. Ernesto del Rosario – best known for his
atoms are mostly empty with a positively achievements in biotechnology and applied
physical chemistry.
charged nucleus

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Filipino Scientists
5. Armando Kapauan – specialized in
environmental chemistry.
6. Luz Oliveros Belardo – researched the
phytochemical properties of plants in the
Philippines for natural products.
7. Alfredo Santos – noted researcher in
the chemistry of natural products.

MATTER
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Properties of Matter MATTER

Extrinsic Property
Are the physical properties of
matter which may vary from
time to time.
Not the characteristics of the
substance itself
Depends on the amount, also
called extensive properties.
Examples are height, weight,
temperature, size, shape,
volume, etc.
Mass Weight
Intrinsic Property
Constant at any place and time Varies, depends on the amount
Are the properties of matter
which are constant.
of gravity
a measure of the quantity of Refers to the downward pull of
Give the characteristics of the matter in an object the objects towards the center
substance its unique identity.
Those which do not depend on
of the earth; the force that
the amount, also called gravity exerts on an object.
intensive properties. When travelled to the moon, When travelled to the moon,
Examples are boiling point,
the mass of an object will still the weight of an object will only
freezing point, melting point,
viscosity, refractive index, etc.
be the same be 1/6 of its weight on earth
Can never be zero Can also be zero

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Classifications of Matter Classifications of Matter

I. Pure Substance
- kind of matter possessing definite, fixed, and
unvarying composition with unique set of properties
- are made up of only one kind of matter.

a. Elements
b. Compounds

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Classifications of Matter
In the earth’s crust
a. Elements
- simplest form of substance that cannot be
decomposed by chemical means.
- building blocks of matter

a.1 Metals – elements characterized by their

brilliant luster, ductility, malleability and are good
conductors of heat and electricity.
a.2 Non-metals – possess the characteristics
opposite of metals. In the human body
a.3 Metalloids – elements which possesses the
characteristics of both metals and non metals.

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Classifications of Matter Classifications of Matter

b. Compounds b. Compounds
- are substances whose molecules are made up of - are substances whose molecules are made up of
two or more kinds of atoms combined in definite two or more kinds of atoms combined in definite
proportions. proportions.

b.1 Ionic compound b.4 Organic compound

b.2 Covalent compound b.5 Inorganic compound
b.3 Metallic compound b.2.1 Acids
b.2.2 Bases
b.2.3 Salts
b.2.4 Oxides

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Classifications of Matter Classifications of Matter

II. Mixtures II. Mixtures
- composed of two or more substances. - composed of two or more substances.

a. Homogenous c. Solutions
b. Heterogenous d. Colloids
e. Suspension
f. Emulsions

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Differences between
Methods of Separating Mixtures
Compounds and Mixture
1. Filtration – uses the filtration set-up; includes
COMPOUNDS MIXTURES filter paper, funnel, iron ring and iron stand. Works
Always have a definite composition Components may be present in any with particles that are significantly different in
by weight. proportions. size, sand and rock with water.
Preparation shows evidence of It is prepared with no evidence of 2. Distillation – can also be used if two liquids are
chemical action taking place. any chemical reaction taking place. mixed but have different boiling points.
Components can be separated by
Components do not lose identity. 3. Centrifugation – processes rely on densities.
chemical means
Separates constituents by difference in their
Constituents can be separated by Components may be separated by
weights.
chemical means mechanical means.
4. Sedimentation – is similar, but it happens when
Composed of two or more Composed of two or more
particles of different densities have settled within
substances that are chemically substances that are not chemically
a liquid.
combined. combined.

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Changes in Matter Changes in Matter

1. Physical Change 2. Chemical Change
- change in the physical properties of substances - change in the chemical composition and
without changing its chemical composition
constitution of the substance
- no new substance is produced, although there
may be a change in state or density or both - original identity of the substance and its
Process
properties are altered.
Substance Accompanying changes - change in which at least one substance
Involved
Water Evaporation When liquid change to gas changes composition, forming new
Paper Tearing Change in size and shape substance
Dress Folding Change in size and shape
Chalk Pounding Change in size and shape
Hair Cutting Change in size and shape

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Changes in Matter States of Matter

States
2. Chemical Change
of Shape Volume Examples
Process
Substance Accompanying changes Matter
Involved
Tables, chairs,
When the metal changes its color Solid Definite Definite
Iron Rusting rocks, pen
from bright to reddish brown
Water, alcohol,
The meat tenderizes and changes Liquid Indefinite Definite
Pig’s Pork Cooking gasoline
its structures
Gas Indefinite Indefinite Air, steam
When the fruit juice with the aid Actually a gas at a very high temperature
Wine Fermentation
of an enzyme from yeast changes Plasma but the particles carry electrical charges.
to ethyl alcohol and carbon
dioxide (CO 2)

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General Properties of the States General Properties of the States

of Matter of Matter
A. Solids B. Liquids
1.Rigidity, hardness and mechanical 1. Definite volume, indefinite shape,
follows the shape of the container
strength 2. Constant boiling points
2.Definite size, shape and volume 3. Viscosity
3.Exerts vapor pressure 4. Evaporation
4.Sublimation 5. Vaporization
6. Volatility
7. Surface tension
8. Density

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General Properties of the States General Properties of the States

of Matter of Matter
C. Gas D. Plasma
1. No definite shape, size and volume 1. Uses
o Best electrical conductor
2. Expands when heated
o Consists of ionized gases
3. Exerts pressure 2. General methods to produce plasma
4. High compressibility o Cascade process
5. Diffusibility o Thermal ionization process

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Brief History
• Democritus (460-370 BC)
- “atomos”
- aka “discontinuous matter”

• Plato and Aristotle

- “there can be no ultimately indivisible particles”

ATOMS and
ISOTOPES
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1. Elements are composed of extremely
small particles, called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are

identical, having the same size, mass,
and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms
of all other elements.

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory

3. Compounds are composed of atoms of
more than one element. In any
compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present
is either an integer or a simple fraction.

4. A chemical reaction involves only the

separation, combination, or
rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction.

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Modern Atomic Theory Structure of Atoms

1. Atoms may be disintegrated. In • ELECTRONS
nuclear reactions, atoms are being üDiscovered by Joseph John Thomson
transferred into atoms of single üWas the first component of the atom to be
elements in a process known as identified
nuclear transmutation. üA mass of 9.109 x 10-31 kg
2. Not all atoms of any given element are üA charge of -1.602 x 10-19 coulombs
alike.
3. Not all atoms of a given element pose
identical properties except in mass.
4. Atoms of different elements have
different properties.
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Structure of Atoms Structure of Atoms

• PROTONS
üOne of the components of a nucleus
üDiscovered by Eugene Goldstein
üA mass of 1.673 x 10-27 kg
üCharge of +1.602 x 10-19 coulombs
• NEUTRONS
üAnother component of a nucleus
üDiscovered by James Chadwick in 1932
üA mass of 1.675 x 10-27 kg
üHas no charge

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Atomic Structure Atomic Structure

1. Thomson Model 2. Rutherford Model
• Atoms is a spherical mass • It is based on additional
containing electrons and experimental evidence of
that this spherical mass is “alpha scattering
positive but is made experiments”.
neutral by the electrons
embedded in it.

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Atomic Structure Atomic Structure

3. Bohr Model of an 4. Rutherford-Bohr Model
Atom • In this model, the
• In this model, protons atoms are in elliptical
are in the nucleus and orbits of increasing
the electrons are in number.
the orbital motion
around the nucleus.

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Atomic Structure Atomic Structure

5. Heisenburg Uncertainty Principle
• This principle states that simultaneous
determination of the exact position and exact
momentum of electron is impossible.
6. Wave Mechanical Atom
• In this model, the nucleus is a
single cluster of particles at
the center of the atom while
the electrons are everywhere
in rotating motion.

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Atomic Structure Atomic Structure

7. Schroedinger “Quantum Model”
• This theory makes the assertion that
electromagnetic radiation like X-rays, gamma
rays, radio waves and light rays are made up
of small bits of energy.
• Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
• Quantum Numbers:
Ø Principal Quantum Number (n)
Ø Azithmuthal Quantum Number (l)
Ø Magnetic Quantum Number
Ø Spin Quantum Number
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8. Orbital Theory
• This theory states that the number of orbital
types in a given shell is equal to the shell
number.
• Orbitals have a three dimensional region in
space where the probability of finding the
electron is greatest.
Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
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Atomic Structure
Atomic Structure
9. Electronic Configuration Theory
• According to this theory:
1. The 1st main energy level

2. The 2nd main energy level

3. The 3rd main energy level

4. The 4th main energy level

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69 70

Atomic Number (Z) Mass Number

• number of protons in the nucleus of an atom • total number of protons and neutrons on the
of an element nucleus of nucleons, therefore:
• also the number of electrons in an atom
• This quantity is fundamental to the identity of mass # = # of protons + # of neutrons
each element because it is related to the
electrical make-up of atom, therefore:

Atomic # = # of protons = # of electrons

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NUCLEAR NOTATION Isotopes

!A • atoms of the same element with the same

atomic number, but different mass numbers.
-Mass number • In other words, they have the same number of
!N protons and electrons but different number of
neutrons.
-neutrons
• Many elements exist as two or more stable
!Z isotopes, although one isotopes is usually
-atomic number present in greater abundance than another
isotopes.

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Isotones The Periodic Table

• Atoms of different elements having the same
number of neutrons.

Isobars
• Atoms of different elements having the same
atomic mass.

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Chemical Bonds
• are forces of attraction that exist
between a positive ion and a negative
ion or between molecules.

CHEMICAL BONDS
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Octet Rule According to Gilbert Lewis

• an atom other than hydrogen tends to • atoms combine to achieve a more stable
form bonds until it is surrounded by electron configuration.
eight electrons. • Maximum stability results when an atom
is isoelectronic with a noble gas.

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Three Types of Interatomic Bonds

• Ionic bond
• Covalent bond
• Metallic bond

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A. Ionic Bond A. Ionic Bond

• Or electrovalent bond Sodium Flouride (NaF),

• the electrostatic force that holds Electron configuration
ions together in an ionic compound
• formed by the transfer of electrons Na + F à Na+ + F
from an atom of low ionization Na = 1s22s22p 63s1 2–8–1 1s22s22p 6 1s22s22p 6
energy (alkali and alkaline earth F = 1s22s22p 5 2–7

metal) to a more electronegative

element (halogen and oxygen)

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A. Ionic Bond B. Covalent Bond

Sodium Flouride (NaF), • bond in which two electrons are

Lewis Dot Symbol shared between atoms
• Covalent compounds –formed when
electrons are shared equally
between two atoms with the same
or almost the same
electronegativity

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B. Covalent Bond C. Polar Covalent Bond

• Only two electrons participate in the

formation of Cl2. • This is formed from sharing of electrons
• Non-bonding pairs are called lone pairs. between two atoms with different
• Lone pairs – pairs of valence electrons that electronegativity.
are not involve in covalent bond formation

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ELECTRONEGATIVITY D. Multiple Bonds

• the ability of an atom to attract toward itself
the electrons in a chemical bond.
•Atoms can form multiple
• property that helps us distinguish a nonpolar
covalent bonds
covalent bond from a polar covalent bond • Single
• Double
• Triple

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D. Multiple Bonds D. Multiple Bonds

•Single Bond •Double Bond

• two atoms are held together by • two atoms share two pairs of
one electron pair electrons
CO2
CH3CH3

C2H4

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D. Multiple Bonds E. Coordinate Covalent Bond

•Triple Bond • A bond formed wherein one

• two atoms share three pairs of furnishes both the bonding pair of
electrons electrons.
H2SO4
C2H2 H1 1s1
S16 1s22s22p63s23p4
O8 1s22s22p4

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E. Coordinate Covalent Bond E. Coordinate Covalent Bond

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E. Coordinate Covalent Bond F. Metallic Bond

• consists of group of cations held in

a fixed position in the metal and
the valence electrons which are
free to move about among the
different electron clouds.

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Intermolecular Bonds Intermolecular Bonds

• Intermolecular forces – attractive • Van der Waals – Very weak forces of

forces between molecules attraction between non-polar
• Van der Waals molecules
• Hydrogen Bond
• Dipole Bond F2 F2 CBr4 CBr4
• Resonance CH4 CH4 C6H6 C6H6

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Intermolecular Bonds Intermolecular Bonds

• Hydrogen Bond – is an attractive force • Dipole Bond – is an attractive force

that exists between the hydrogen of one between polar molecules
molecule and the more electronegative
portion of another molecule (such as O, F, and
N)

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Intermolecular Bonds Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

1. Van der Waals
a. London/DispersionForces
• Resonance – The use of two or more Lewis b. Keesom Forces
Structures to represent a particular molecule.
c. Debye Forces
• Resonance Structure – is one of the two or
more Lewis Structures for a single molecule 2. Hydrogen Bonds
that cannot be represented accurately by only
one Lewis Structure.
3. Ion-Induced Dipole

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103 104

3 Types of Van der Waals

Dipole-Dipole
Forces
• Two polar molecules align so that
1) dipole-dipole OPPOSITE CHARGES are matched
2) dipole-induced dipole (electrostatic attraction)
3) dispersion

K Br K Br

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Dipole-Induced Dipole Example

• A dipole can induce (cause) a
temporary dipole to form in a non-
e- e- e e- e- e-
-
polar molecule d+ee- - ee- -e- Ar e- - e- - e- d-
d+ H Cl d-
• The molecules then line up to e- e- e e
match opposite charges INDUCED
non-polar
A DIPOLE DIPOLE
(it’s polar)

Dipole – Induced Dipole

(weak and short-lived)

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Dispersion Forces Dispersion Forces

• A temporary dipole forms in a non-
polar molecule which leads to a
e- - e-- e e- e-- e- - -
-
e- e- e e- e e
- -
temporary dipole to form in
Cl-Cl e ed-
-
d+ Cl-Cl
ee- ee- --
- e- ed-
- ee- ee
d+- e e
ANOTHER non-polar molecule e e- e- e- e-
-
e- e- e- e-
• Dispersion is the ONLY TEMPORARY INDUCED
non-polar
intermolecular attraction that non-polar
DIPOLE DIPOLE
occurs between non-polar
molecules
Dispersion
(weakest and very short-lived)

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