Book 1 - Road Safety Engineering

ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES
MANUAL 1
ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING
FOR INDONESIAN ROADS
“Making Indonesian roads safer for all”
REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA
MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS
DIRECTORATE GENERAL OF HIGHWAYS
Preface
Road safety is an emerging topic that has become a global issue and involves not just transportation but
also social/public matters. The importance of this issue is reflected in the Decade of Action for Road Safety 2010-
2020 Program by the United Nations Organisation. Rapid growth in vehicle ownership in recent years, increased
population, and various types of vehicles available have worsened road safety issues. Therefore, road safety has
become the first consideration when determining policies related to national roads.
In Indonesia, road safety is regulated under Law no. 38/2004 on road, Government Decree no. 34/2006 on
road, Law no. 22/2009 on traffic and land transportation, as well as the recently launched National Road Safety
Master Plan. The Directorate General of Highways (DGH), Ministry of Public Works, as the agency tasked to manage
national roads in Indonesia has undertaken various efforts to improve road safety. In line with DGH’s Strategic Plan
2010-2014 aimed at accelerating road safety efforts, these series of technical manuals on road safety engineering
are therefore published.
This technical guide was co-written by Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative (IndII), an AusAID funded project
and aimed to assist planners, supervisors, and workers to establish and maintain traffic signs and road safety traffic
management systems at road works locations. The manuals are also equipped with corresponding DVDs to provide
the necessary information to develop a thorough understanding of traffic management (traffic control and safety
procedures) required at work sites.
I hope with the consistent application of these technical guides, the rate of traffic accidents can be
reduced. I also hope that these manuals will assist in understanding the importance of road safety works by
planners, implementers and all stakeholders.
Djoko Murjanto
Director General of Highways
Ministry of Public Works
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K E M E N T E R I A N P E K E R J A A N U M U M
D I R E K TO R AT JENDERAL BINA MARGA
Jl. Pattimura No. 20. Kebayoran Baru – Jakarta Selatan 12110, Telepon (021) 7200281, 7393928, Fax. (021) 7201760
DIRECTOR GENERAL OF HIGHWAYS’ INSTRUCTION

NO: 02/IN/Db/2012
ON
ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING TECHNICAL GUIDE
DIRECTOR GENERAL OF HIGHWAYS
Considering: a. United Nations declaration in March of 2010 on the

Decade of Action (DOA) for Road Safety 2011-2020
which aims to control and reduce the fatality rates of
road traffic accident victims globally
b. Declaration of the National Road Safety Master Plan on
June 20, 2011 in line with the mandate of Law no.
22/2009 on Traffic and Road Transportation
c. Directorate General of Highways, Ministry of Public
Works is responsible for providing safer roads in
accordance with the second pillar of the National Road
Safety Master Plan and Strategic Plan 2010-2014 to
accommodate road safety improvement program
d. In order to implement the second pillar action plan for
safer roads: planning and execution of safer road works
(including road equipment)
Bearing in mind: 1. Law no. 38/2004 on Roads.

2. Law no. 22/2009 on Traffic and Road Transportation
3. Government Regulation no. 34/2006 on Road
4. Minister of Public Works Decree no. 11/2010 on
Procedures and Requirements of Road-worthy Function
5. Minister of Public Works Decree no. 13/2011 on Road
Maintenance and Inspection Procedures
Intructed to: 1. Director of Implementation Region I

2. Director of Implementation Region II
3. Director of Implementation Region III
4. Director of Planning Affairs
5. Director of Technical Affairs
6. Head of Toll Road Regulatory Agency (BPJT)
7. Heads Executive Central of National Road within the
Directorate General of Highways
8. Heads of Unit Non Specific Vertical within the
Directorate General of Highways.
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To enact:
FIRST: To attain an improved road safety infrastructure for road

users through the National Master Plan Program.
SECOND: To take into account road safety engineering from road

planning stage, construction, and operations.
THIRD: In conducting road safety engineering as defined in the

second dictum, referring to:
• Technical guide 1: Road Safety Engineering
• Technical guide 2: Roadside Hazard Management
• Technical guide 3: Safety in Road Work Zones
FOURTH: Provisions of the Technical Guide 1 Road Safety Engineering,

Technical Guide 2 Roadside Hazard Management and
Technical Guide 3 on Safety in Road Works Zone are listed in
details in the annex which is an integral part of the
instructions from the Director General of Highways.
FIFTH: In order to carry out this instruction with full responsibility.
SIXTH: The Director General of Highways’ instruction comes into

force on the date of enactment.
Copies of this instruction have been delivered to:
1. Minister of Public Works

2. General Secretary of Ministry of Public Works
3. Head of Research and Development Agency for Road and Bridge
4. Secretary of the Directorate General of Highways
Enacted in Jakarta
On 24 April 2012
DIRECTOR GENERAL OF HIGHWAYS,
Ir. Djoko Murjanto, MSc
NIP. 195508261983031002
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Glossary
Abutment: an end support of a bridge.

Acceleration lane: an auxiliary lane (often located on the departure side of major intersections) that is used to
permit vehicles to increase speed without interfering with the main traffic stream.
Adverse crossfall: a slope of the pavement on a horizontal curve that generates forces on a vehicle that
detract from the ability of a vehicle to maintain a circular path on the curve. Adverse crossfall on curves
increases “run-off-road” risk.
Alignment: the geometric form of the centre line of a carriageway in both the horizontal and vertical directions.
Aqua planning: occurs when a tyre becomes completely separated from contact with the road surface by a
film of water.
Arrester bed: a safe facility used to deliberately decelerate and stop vehicles by converting their kinetic energy
through the displacement of aggregate in a sand or gravel bed. Arrester beds are useful safety devices
beside roads in hilly terrain with a history of truck crashes due to brake loss.
Arterial road: a road intended to carry through traffic from one region to another, and which is the principal
avenue of communication for traffic movements.
Auxiliary lane: a lane that is adjacent to the through traffic lanes and which provides for speed change
(acceleration lanes), for overtaking (climbing or overtaking lanes), for slow vehicles (Bus or Truck Lanes) or
for special classes of vehicles (Buses, Bicycles, Trucks).
Batter: the slope of the roadside, expressed as a ratio of 1 vertical unit to X horizontal units. A batter can be
either a “cut” batter (through a cutting in hilly terrain) or a “fill” batter (on a road built up above surrounding
land). Fill batters of 1:4 or less are considered drivable, with 1: 6 slopes desirable for roadside safety.
Bench: a ledge constructed in a cut batter or a natural slope that improves the horizontal sight distance. The
bench may also provide better erosion control, drainage and landslide protection.
Black length: a length of road – usually a few kilometres – along which there has been a history of serious
casualty crashes.
Blackspot: a location (either an intersection or a location on a mid block section of road) with a high number of
casualty crashes.
Braking distance: the distance required for the brakes of a vehicle to bring it from its operating speed to a stop.
Broken back curve: two horizontal curves in the same direction that are separated by a short straight section
of road. Broken back curves are a special type of compound curve, and are generally considered to present
a greater safety risk than other curves.
Carriageway: that part of a road devoted to the use of vehicles, and it includes shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
An undivided road is a single carriageway road, while a divided road has two carriageways.
Channelised intersection: an intersection that is provided with physical islands.
Clear zone: an area adjacent to the traffic lane that should be kept free from fixed roadside hazards.
Climbing lane: an additional lane constructed on the uphill section of a road that allows faster vehicles to
overtake slower vehicles with a greatly reduced risk of head on crashes. Climbing lanes are a particular type
of auxiliary lane.
Compound curve: a curve consisting of two or more curves of different radii curving in the same direction and
which share a common tangent point.
Crossfall: the slope across the road, measured at right angles to the longitudinal alignment of the road.
Cross section: the transverse elements of the longitudinal elements of a road.
Crown: the highest point on the cross section of a carriageway that has two-way cross fall.
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Design speed: the speed fixed for the design and correlation of the geometric features of a carriageway that
influence vehicle operation. The design speed should not be less than the expected operating speed.
Divided road: a road that has a separate carriageway for each direction of travel. A median, a barrier or some
other physical object separates the opposing traffic directions. The term “divided carriageway” is also
sometimes used to refer to a divided road.
Grade: the percentage rate of horizontal rise or fall of a carriageway.
Grade separation: the vertical separation of conflicting traffic movements by the use of overpasses or
underpasses.
Hinge point: the point on the cross section of a road about which the road pavement is rotated for the
development of superelevation.
Horizontal alignment: the bringing together of the straights and the curves in the plan view of a carriageway.
Horizontal curve: a curve in the plan view of a carriageway.
Interchange: the grade separation of two or more roads that has at least one interconnecting carriageway. This
means that at least one carriageway takes traffic from one of the roads to the other. There are many types of
interchanges.
Intersection: the area where two (or more) roads meet.
K value: the rate of change of grade of a vertical curve. It may also be defined as the length needed for a 1%
change of grade on a parabolic vertical curve. Low values of K represent sharp vertical curves (acceptable
only for low speed environments); high values of K represent more gentle vertical curves (necessary for
higher speed environments).
Line of sight: the direct line of uninterrupted view between a driver and an object of specified height above the
carriageway in the lane of travel.
Longitudinal section: a vertical section, usually with an exaggerated vertical scale, showing the existing and
design levels along a road design line, or another specified line.
Median: a strip of road along or near the centre of the road reservation, not normally intended for use by traffic,
which separates the opposing carriageways.
Normal Cross Section: The cross section of the carriageway at locations where it is not affected by
superelevation or widening.
Operating speed: the 85th percentile speed of vehicles at times when traffic volumes are low enough to allow a
free choice of speed within the road alignment.
Overtaking: the manoeuvre in which a vehicle moves from a position behind to a position in front of another
vehicle travelling in the same direction.
Overtaking Distance: the distance required for one vehicle to overtake another vehicle.
Overtaking lane: an auxiliary lane provided to allow for slower vehicles to be overtaken. It should be line
marked so that all traffic is initially directed into the left-hand lane, with the inner lane being used to overtake.
Pedestrians: roads users on foot, including those pulling carts, working on the roads, walking along or across
the road.
PELICAN crossing: stands for Pedestrian Light CONtrolled crossing. This type of crossing looks and operates
similar to pedestrian operated signals (POS) but it has an additional signal phase (a flashing yellow phase)
that is displayed immediately before the green phase opens to drivers/riders.
Pedestrian Operated Signals (POS): these are three aspect traffic signals installed usually at mid-block
locations. They have pedestrian push buttons attached to the primary signal pedestals to detect the presence
of waiting pedestrians. They also have pedestrian signal displays facing across the crossing. They display a
red, yellow and green signal to drivers/riders, and a red standing person or a green walking person to
pedestrians.
PUFFIN crossing: stands for Pedestrian User Friendly Intelligent crossing. This type of crossing looks and
operates similar to pedestrian operated signals (POS) but it has a microwave detector on top of each primary
signal pedestal pointing across the crossing. These detectors detect the presence of slow moving
pedestrians (such as elderly pedestrians). They are able to increase the walk and/or clearance times of the
signals to assist them.
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Reaction time: The time between the driver’s reception of stimulus and taking appropriate action.
Reverse curve: A section of road alignment consisting of two curves turning in opposite directions and having
a common tangent point or being joined by a short length of tangent.
Roadside hazard management: the management of the road and roadside to both reduce the number of run-
off-road crashes and to minimise the consequences of such crashes.
Road safety audit: is a formal examination of an existing or future road or traffic project by an independent
qualified team reports on the projects crash potential and safety performance.
Roundabout: An intersection where all traffic travels in one direction around a central island.
Shoulder: the portion of formed carriageway that is adjacent to the traffic lane and flush with the surface of the
pavement.
Sight Distance:
Approach Sight Distance (ASD) The distance required for a driver to perceive marking or hazards on the road
surface approaching an intersection and to stop.
Safe Stopping Distance (SSD) The distance required for a car driver to perceive a hazard, react and brake to
a stop. For design purposes, wet weather conditions and locked wheel braking are assumed.
Entering Sight Distance (ESD) The sight distance required for minor road drivers to enter a major road via a
left or right turn, such that traffic on the road is unimpeded
Manoeuvre Sight Distance The distance required for an alert car driver to perceive an object on the road and
to take evasive action.
Overtaking Sight Distance The sight distance required for a driver to initiate and safely complete an
overtaking manoeuvre.
Safe Intersection Sight Distance (SISD) The distance required for a driver in a major road to observe a
vehicle entering from a side road, and to stop before colliding with it.
Stopping Sight Distance The sight distance required by an average driver (car or truck depending on design
requirements), travelling at a given speed, to react and stop before striking an object on the road.
Sight Triangle: The area of land between two intersecting roadways over which vehicles on both roadways are
visible to each driver.
Speed:
85th Percentile Speed The speed at which 85 percent of car drivers will travel slower and 15 percent will
travel faster.
Operating Speed of Trucks The 85th percentile speed of trucks measured at a time when traffic volumes are
low.
Section Operating Speed The value at which vehicle speeds on a series of curves tend to stabilise, are
related to the range of radii on the curves.
Sub-standard curve: a curve with a horizontal radius below the minimum radius necessary for the operating
speed of the traffic.
Superelevation: A slope on a curved pavement selected so as to enhance forces assisting a vehicle to
maintain a circular path.
Traffic: A generic term covering all vehicles, people, and animals using a road.
Traffic Control Signal: An electrical device that, by means of changing coloured signals, regulates the
movement of traffic.
Traffic Island: A defined area, usually at an intersection, from which vehicular traffic is excluded. It is used to
control vehicular movements and as a pedestrian refuge.
Traffic Lane: A portion of the carriageway allocated for the use of a single line of vehicles.
Traffic Sign: A traffic management device usually consisting of a flat piece of thin metal on which is conveyed a
message to road users. It should be of a standard shape, size and colour. Signs are located beside, or over,
a carriageway to regulate traffic and warn or guide drivers.
Transition: Transition length for increasing or decreasing the number of lanes.
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Transition Curve: A curve of varying radius to model the path of a vehicle entering or leaving a horizontal
circular curve.
Transition Length for alignment: The distance within which the alignment is changed in approach from
straight to a horizontal curve of constant radius.
Transition Length for crossfall: The distance required rotating the pavement crossfall from normal to that
appropriate to the curve. Also called superelevation development length.
Turning Lane: An auxiliary lane reserved for turning traffic.
Typical Cross Section: A cross section of a carriageway showing typical dimensional details, furniture
locations and features of the pavement construction.
Vertical Alignment: The longitudinal profile along the design line of a road.
Vertical Curve: A curve (generally parabolic) in the longitudinal profile of a carriageway to provide for a change
of grade at a specified vertical acceleration.
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Contents
PART A - An Introduction to Road Safety Engineering 1

1.1 Background 2
1.2 Global road fatalities and injuries 2
1.3 Snapshot of Indonesian crashes 3
1.4 The economic loss of crashes 4
1.5 Human vehicle and environment factors in a crash 4
1.6 Engineers can ‘make a positive difference’ 6
PART B - Technical Knowledge for Road Safety Engineers 7

2.1 Safety at intersections 8
2.2 Roadside hazard management 26
2.3 Signs, line markings and delineation 38
2.4 Safety in Geometric Design 46
PART C - Vulnerable Road Users 63

3.1 Pedestrian safety 64
3.2 Pedestrian crashes 65
3.3 What can you do to improve pedestrian safety? 65
3.4 High risk pedestrians 65
3.5 The three strategies for assisting pedestrian safety 68
3.6 Motorcyclists 72
3.7 Bicyclists and others 73
PART D - Road Safety Engineering Processes 77

4.1 What is a blackspot? 78
Blackspot Reports 87
4.2 Road safety audit 98
Road safety audits 108
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PART A - An Introduction to Road Safety Engineering
PART A
An Introduction to
Road Safety Engineering
ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES 1

MANUAL 1 - ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING FOR INDONESIAN ROADS
In this Part, you will read about:
- The global road safety problem.

- The road safety problem facing Indonesia.
- Some crash data from Indonesian roads, including the cost of crashes to the Indonesian community.
- How engineers can make a positive difference in road safety.
This Part encourages you – as someone responsible for the road infrastructure - to make a difference to road safety
in Indonesia. This manual has been prepared to assist you in your work.
By the end of this Part, you will have an introductory understanding of the potential for road safety engineering to
contribute to saving lives on Indonesian roads.
By reducing road trauma, you are not only helping

1.1 Background
individuals and families – you are also making a
Globally about 1.3 million people die each year from positive contribution to the economic well being of
traffic crashes. More than 25 million suffer permanent your country.
disability. This trend is deteriorating in most countries
of the world as more people gain mobility through
motorcycles and cars.
1.2 Global road fatalities and
However, the trend is improving in most western
nations where road safety programs have been actively
injuries
pursued for the past 50 years. High income countries have shown a substantial
Road crashes are predicted to become the fifth most reduction in road crash fatalities by an average of 10%
common cause of death around the globe by 2030 . over the last two decades.
The cost of road crash injuries to society is an However, in most developing countries including
estimated 2% of a country’s gross domestic product Indonesia, the situation is worsening. Without any
(GDP). In Indonesia, to the best of current knowledge, action the numbers will increase significantly.
the cost of road crashes is 2.9% of GDP. Rapidly
Moreover, there are notable differences in the way
motorising developing countries such as many in SE
different road users are affected by road crashes:
Asia, Africa, South Asia and South America are finding
that the cost of crashes is often higher than the - More than half of global road traffic deaths involve
amount of international aid received. Therefore, road young adults between 15 and 44 years of age.
deaths and injuries are not only a public health - 73% of all global road traffic fatalities are males. (In
problem – they impose enormous costs on countries Indonesia this figure is higher – almost 90% of
and communities. known road fatalities are males).
2 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

An overloaded truck that has left the road and struck a house in Central Java
Table 1.1 Traffic injury mortality rate

number of deaths in 2010 was some 31,000. Other
per 100,000 population by region
figures, derived by road safety professionals, suggest it
Low-income may have been above 40,000 deaths.
WHO and middle- High-income
Region income countries
countries Snapshot 1: Deaths by Road User Category
Figures 1.1 shows deaths by road user in Indonesia.

African Region 28.3 -
Motorcyclists are the highest percentage of road
Region of the Americas 16.2 14.8 deaths with 61% of the national fatalities. However in
South-East Asia Region 18.6 - urban areas such as the Greater Jakarta Area
(Jabodetabek) they account for 70% of the total
European Region 17.4 11.0
fatalities. Working for improved motorcycle safety
Eastern Mediterranean Region 26.4 19.0 should be a key objective for road safety engineers in
Indonesia at present.
Western Pacific Region 18.5 12.0
Other vulnerable road users (pedestrians and
Source: Reproduced from World report on road traffic
injury prevention, WHO, 2004 bicyclists) account for about 28% of the total road
deaths on Indonesian roads. Protecting pedestrians and
- Vulnerable road users – pedestrians, bicyclists and bicyclists should also be a key priority in the design
motorcyclists – account for a much greater and management of roads.
proportion of road traffic collisions in low-income
and middle-income countries than in high income Driver 4-wheelers (3%)
Other (4%)
countries. Passengers
4-wheelers (4%)
Many of the families of the deceased are thrown into Pedestrians (15%) Riders motorized
poverty after the crash. With young males being so 2- or 3-wheelers
(61%)
heavily represented in road crashes, the breadwinner
of many families is lost and the family pays a heavy Cyclists (13%)
on-going economic price.
1.3 Snapshot of Indonesian crashes

Source: National Police, based on data collected in 3 provinces,
death at the crash scene only, 2008
It is difficult to detail the magnitude of the problem of
Figure 1.1 Deaths by Road Users Category
road crashes in Indonesia due to the large under-
reporting of crashes. According to Police data, the

It is interesting to note that “four wheelers” constitute Snapshot 4: Crashes by type of Crash
just 7% of road fatalities and yet they consume
Crash data from toll roads in Indonesia is more
engineers thinking when it comes to the design,
comprehensive than from other roads at present.
construction and management of roads.
Single vehicle crashes (roll over/loss of control
crashes) are the most common type of crash on both
Snapshot 2: Deaths by Age Group
Indonesian toll roads and non-toll roads.
Indonesian data confirms international figures which
show that more than half of all global road deaths Toll Roads Non-Toll Roads
occur to people aged between 15 and 44 years.
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
Roll over (70%) Roll over (35%)
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-75
76
Head-rear (22%) Head-rear (19%)
Side-side (6%) Side-side (15%)
Source: Police data, 2008 Multiple crashes (2%) Multiple crashes (3%)
Head-on (20%)
Figure 1.2 Deaths by Age Groups Pedestrians (8%)
Snapshot 3: Deaths by Gender Figure 1.4 Types of crash (%) on Toll and Non-toll Roads
In Indonesia some 90% of road fatalities are male. This

is in line with global figures that show that majority of
fatalities in road crashes are male. 1.4 The economic loss of crashes
Female (23%) The economic loss of road crashes is substantial – it
can hold back economic development and it can
Male (77%)
destroy the welfare of a family when a family member
(especially a breadwinner) dies in a crash. Studies
suggest that up to 63% of families affected by a road
crash fatality lose their ability to maintain their
economic standard.
Source: Police data in North Java Corridor, 2008 1.5 Human, vehicle and
Figure 1.3 Deaths by Gender
environment factors in a crash
The road system consists of three key components - the
road user (human), the vehicle and the road. Each of
these components can contribute individually to
crashes. However, it is more common for a crash to
involve a complex interaction among the components:
- Interaction between vehicles and roads is an issue

in geometric design. It is a major consideration of
road designers.
- Interaction between road users and vehicles is the
human-machine interface. This is a key
consideration of the vehicle industry.
Motorcyclists comprise some 61% of fatalities on Indonesian roads.

Education
Enforcement
Strengthen institutional capacity

Human-Machine Establish lead agency
HUMAN Human Road Safety Develop a national road safety strategy
Interface Factors Management Set realistic and long-term targets
Develop data systems
VEHICLE ROAD
Maintenance Improvement
Maintenance
Improve safety-conscious planning, design,
construction and operation of roads
Safer Roads Introduce the road safety audit process
Assess safety of roads regularly
Expand blackspot programs
Figure 1.5 Human, vehicle and road factors in a crash
Make safety at road work sites a priority
- Interaction between road users and roads is the

field of human factors. This is an under-represented Harmonise global standards
Implement new car assessment programmes
area at present in technical guidelines. Road Safer Equip all new cars with safety features
Encourage managers of fleets to purchase,
engineers often overlook the fact that they are Vehicles
operate, and maintain safe vehicles
working to provide facilities for humans.
For many years now, road crashes have been

acknowledged by the United Nations and its Member
Adopt model road safety legislation
States to be a considerable challenge to the Sustain or increase enforcement
Promote public awareness of risk factors
achievement of health and development goals around Safer Road Call for activities to reduce work-related
the globe. It is only in recent years however that this Users road traffic injuries
Improve driver/rider licensing procedures
global health issue has gained prominence among the
world's most pressing international health and
development concerns.
Develop hospital care systems
Many nations now have their own National Road Safety Develop a nationwide emergency
Post-crash telephone number
Strategy to guide and direct national resources in road Response Provide rehabilitation and support to injured
safety. These national strategies vary from nation to
nation due to the differing national crash problems
and differing stages of national development. However,
they tend to have some common linkages. Most tend to strengthened institutional management capacity in
be structured around 5 pillars, reflecting “safe system” many areas of government. Improving road safety in
thinking: Indonesia involved safer road users, safer vehicles and
- Pillar 1 – road safety management safer roads.
- Pillar 2 – safer roads You and your colleagues have a vital role in developing
- Pillar 3 – safer vehicles safer roads for Indonesia.
- Pillar 4 – safer road users

- Pillar 5 – post-crash response
The goal of a national strategy is to guide and direct

national resources in the most effective manner to
reduce the road toll. Some strategies aim to reduce the
forecast level of road traffic fatalities by 10%, some by
20% some by 50% in a given time period – 3 years, 5
years or 10 years.
Improving road safety in Indonesia is a long term

program linked to standard of living improvements, to
improving effectiveness of government and to
Engineers can make a positive difference in road safety
across Indonesia.

improve road safety is for Police to be stricter and

1.6 Engineers can ‘make a positive
more effective with enforcement.
difference’ These engineers fail to realise that many of the human
The road safety engineering is a fledgling profession at mistakes that are made on the roads are due to failings
present in Indonesia. Although it has been well known by an engineer - a drain that is unnecessarily close to
and respected in the western countries for the past 50 the road, a length of misleading line marking that
years, there are still only a handful of road safety draws drivers/riders into head on conflicts, an obscured
engineers in this country. or incorrect road sign, or a lack of facilities to assist
young pedestrians to cross a busy highway to get to
A road safety engineer aims to prevent crashes from
school.
occurring and/or to reduce the severity of those
crashes that do occur. The roads of Indonesia have far too many safety
concerns at present. They present too many “surprises”
Road safety engineering is a new and growing
to road users. The roads of Indonesia can and must be
profession in Indonesia. A young engineer who decides
improved to save lives.
to enter this profession and who displays energy and
enthusiasm will have a job for life. The road safety You can improve the safety of Indonesian roads – one
problem in Indonesia is becoming a greater community step at a time. You can help drivers/riders to avoid “run-
concern, government agencies are beginning to work in off-road” crashes by providing clear delineation of
a spirit of co-operation and co-ordination, and the fight curves. You can help pedestrians walk safely to their
against road crashes is beginning to receive more destination by providing suitable refuges, good street
resources. lighting, clear footpaths and speed restrictions. You can
design safer intersections and you can seal the
This manual and its matching DVD has been prepared
shoulders of your rural highways.
to introduce you to the road safety engineering
profession. It covers the important areas of signs/ line Engineers can make a difference. Your good work can
marking, intersection safety, geometric design, roadside save lives and prevent injuries. By using the techniques
hazard management, vulnerable road users, blackspot contained in this series of manuals – at low cost – you
investigations and road safety audits. can influence the design, construction, maintenance
and operation of safer roads.
Many engineers in emerging countries such as
Indonesia underestimate the importance of their work The key message that underpins this manual and the
in reducing road crashes. Some of them think that others in this series is that engineers have a vital role
crashes are totally due to the faults and mistakes of to play in providing safer roads for all Indonesians.
the road user. They believe that the only way to

PART B - Technical Knowledge for Road Safety Engineers
PART B
Technical Knowledge
for Road Safety Engineers

This Part contains four of the most important technical issues in road safety engineering. Each topic is relevant to
engineers involved in road safety and traffic matters, as well those who are responsible for the management of
roads.
The four topics are:
- Safety at intersections – detailing relative impact speeds, conflict points, the dangers of Y junctions, roundabouts,
traffic signals.
- Roadside hazard management – providing an introduction to the topic that is covered in more detail in manual 3
of this series.
- Signs, line markings and delineation – including the 6C’s of good signage, safe placement for signs, and the
essentials of line marking.
- Geometric design issues – how these relate to your work as a road safety engineer and how they can help you
during an audit or a blackspot investigation.
By the end of this Part you will be have added knowledge to assist you in your road safety engineering work –
whether undertaking a road safety audit or a blackspot investigation. Remember – you can make a real and positive
difference to road safety in Indonesia. Your work is important for road safety in this country.
2.1 Safety at intersections 2.1.1 Why are intersections important?

Intersections are the location of up to 50% of reported
An intersection is defined as “a place where two or
urban crashes and between 10-20% of reported rural
more roads meet at grade”. Intersections are
crashes in the most countries. This difference in
particularly high risk locations because different road
percentages between urban and rural intersections is
users (trucks, buses, cars, pedestrians and motorcycles)
due to the greater number of intersections in urban
are required to use the same space, and a collision is
areas, and usually higher traffic volumes also. Higher
only avoided if they are separated in time. Experience
traffic volumes equal greater exposure which in turn
in many countries has shown that safety improvements
leads to greater crash risk.
at road intersections produce significant crash
reductions. Your attention to intersection safety is Intersections also present a high risk of serious injury
therefore something to be encouraged and supported. or death when a crash occurs because of their
This Section offers some essential guidance to assist potential for high relative impact speeds. One of your
you in your work. tasks is to design and manage intersections that have
low relative impact speeds. More guidance on this
topic is given in Section 2.1.2 e (below).

Intersections occur in
urban and rural areas.
They may be controlled
or uncontrolled. Those
that are controlled may
have traffic signal
control, roundabout
control or stop/give
way sign control.
Intersections can be categorised into one of four main The main forms of control at intersections are:
groups:
- Road Rules (no physical control) - relying on a
- Four way (cross road) intersections priority rule to indicate right of way;
- T intersections - Priority road designated by ‘Give Way’ or ‘Stop’ signs;
- Y intersections - Roundabout;
- Multi leg intersections - Traffic signals, sometimes with control (full or
partial) of right turning traffic.
Road Rules apply to all forms of intersection control.

For example, traffic entering an intersection has to give
way to the left. Left turning traffic at an intersection
has priority over right turning traffic. Having Road
Rules that are well understood by all road users is
T-Junction Y-Junction
essential to a safe and efficient traffic system. Road
Rules need to be enforced – Police are vital in this.
Engineers need to give the Police every opportunity for
efficient enforcement by constructing and signing
intersections that not only conform to good practice
4 ways Multileg but which also comply with current Road Rules.
Intersection Intersection
Channelisation is used to improve intersection layouts
Figure 2.1 Junction Types

and make traffic movements more orderly. For
example, installing a splitter island on the minor road
approach provides a place for a duplicate Stop sign to

be installed. This assists in alerting drivers/riders on use the intersection;

the side road. - keep it simple;
Intersections vary widely on many factors including: - minimise road user delay.
- The approach speed of vehicles.

a. Adequate sight distance
- The number of legs to the intersection.
The two most important sight distances to consider for
- The angle of intersection.
your intersection are;
- Sight distance on the approaches.
- ASD – Approach Sight Distance
- Alignment.
- SISD – Safe Intersection Sight Distance
- The presence and number of auxiliary lanes.
- Whether or not it has any channelisation.
Approach sight distance (ASD)
- The turning radii.
The first and most fundamental requirement of safe
- Whether or not it has street lighting.
intersection design is to enable approaching
- Lane and shoulder widths.
drivers/riders to recognise the presence of an
- The type of intersection control - rules, signs, signals intersection and the form of the intersection layout.
or roundabouts. Each driver/rider needs to recognise the intersection in
Some intersections are best served by traffic signals, sufficient time to be able to react correctly.
some by Stop/Give Way signs, and some by Every approaching driver/rider needs to be able to
roundabouts. To maximise safety at intersections it is recognise and understand the priority that applies at
important to ensure uniformity of control across all the intersection. They also must be able to clearly see
types of intersections. To achieve uniformity it is the path they should take through the intersection.
important to standardise intersection designs and
Providing Approach Sight Distance (ASD) as shown in
intersection traffic control.
the diagram below is the best way for you to ensure
The following Section therefore explains standardised this fundamental requirement.
design procedures and traffic control principles for you
to follow in order to produce safer intersections. ASD
2.1.2 Basic principles of intersection safety ASD
Whether you are designing a new intersection or you

are investigating an intersection that has become a
blackspot, the principles of intersection safety are the ASD
same. They are:
ASD
- provide adequate visibility of the intersection, and

adequate sight distance to other vehicles
approaching or standing at the intersection
Figure 2.2 Approach Sight Distance
- minimise the number of conflict points;
- reduce the relative speed between vehicles
ASD is the minimum sight distance which should be
- give precedence to major traffic movements;
provided at an intersection. It is defined as the distance
- separate conflicts in space and time; required for a driver/rider to perceive marking or
- define and minimise conflict areas; hazards on the road surface approaching an
- define the vehicle paths; intersection and to stop.The ASD allows drivers/riders
- provide clear indications of right-of-way to be able to see the line marking and kerbing at the
requirements; intersection.
- allow for all vehicular and non-vehicular traffic to ASD is similar to Safe Stopping Distance (SSD) except

that ASD is measured from a driver’s eye height (1.05 SISD is the minimum distance that should be provided
m) to the road surface (0.0 m), while SSD is measured on the major road at all intersections. It is measured
from the driver’s eye height (1.05 m) to a point 0.2 m along the carriageway from the approaching vehicle to
above the road surface. SSD assumes that a driver/rider the point of conflict, and is measured from 1.05 m to
will have to stop sharply due to an object (a box, a 1.05 m (that is, from driver/rider eye height to
motorcycle, a small animal) about 0.2m high on the driver/rider eye height). It provides sufficient distance
road ahead. for a driver/rider on the major road to see a vehicle on
the minor intersecting road moving into a collision
If it is impossible to achieve ASD at your intersection
position (possibly even stalling across the through
on all approaches, make sure that SSD is achieved. To
lane), then to decelerate to a stop before reaching the
do this, make sure that there are sufficient signs and
collision point.
delineators at your intersection standing higher than
0.2 m to define the intersection as far back as possible. The driver/rider on the side road is assumed to be
Your task is to give approaching drivers/riders their stationary 5 m back from the Stop line (or the edge of
earliest possible recognition of the intersection. ASD the road). SISD figures for different speeds are given in
figures for different speeds are given in the Table on the Table on the next page.
the next page.
By providing SISD you will usually be providing
sufficient sight distance for a car to be able to safely
Safe intersection sight distance (SISD)
cross a major road from a side road. If the major road is
As drivers/riders wait at an intersection – to cross the a divided road, it will allow the driver to undertake a
road or to turn through the intersection – it is essential two stage crossing.
that they have adequate sight distance to conflicting
Take care that your design does not compromise the
vehicles so that they can cross or enter traffic streams
ASD or the SISD by the location of structures or signs
safely.
in the intersection.
5m (3m min)
Lip or Edge Line
SISD
(ESD)
SISD
(ESD)
Conflict Point - dependent upon

vehicle paths and carriageway widths
PLAN
SISD SISD
1.05 m Drivers 1.05 m Drivers

Eye Height 1.05 m Drivers Eye Height
Eye Height
LONGITUDINAL SECTION
Figure 2.3 Safe Intersection Sight Distance

Table 2.1 Intersection Sight Distance for Level Grade (Care)
ASD SISD
ESD Approach Sight Distance Safe Intersection Sight
Entering (1.05 m to 0.0 m) Distance (1.05 m to 1.05 m)
Design Speed Sight
Deceleration Distance Absolute Absolut
(major road) Minimum Desirable Minimum Desirable
(km/h) (g)(1) (0.15 m to 2.5 secs 2.5 secs
2.0 secs 2.0 secs
1.05 m)
(m) min min min min
m(2) m(2) m(2) m(2)
K K K K
40 0.56 100 33 5 39 8 66 5 72 5
50 0.52 125 47 11 54 14 89 9 96 11
60 0.48 160 63 19 71 25 113 15 121 17
70 0.45 220 82 32 91 40 140 23 149 27
80 0.43 305 103 51 114 63 170 34 181 39
90 0.41 400 103 51 114 63 170 34 181 39

(3)
100 0.39 500 103 51 114 63 170 34 181 39
(3)
110 0.37 500 103 51 114 63 170 34 181 39
(3)
120 0.35 500 103 51 114 63 170 34 181 39
Notes :
1. Average decelaration adopted, given in terms of acceleration due to gravity (g).
2. The distance used for design should be rounded up to the nearest 5 m.
3. Limiting values of ESD based on the assumption that drives are unlikely to seek gaps greater than 500 m.
4. K = the length required for a 1% change of grade on a parabolic vertical curve.
SISD
Before After
7m desirable
5m minimum
(a) Separation of points of conflict
Conflict point
Figures 2.4 Safe Intersection Sight Distance
b. Minimising conflict points
A conflict point is a point within an intersection where Before After

(Total conflicts = 32) (Total conflicts = 18)
road space required by one line of traffic may be
simultaneously required by another. The more conflict (b) Realignment to reduce the number of points of
conflict and relative speed
points in an intersection, the greater the risk of a crash.
Figure 2.5 Examples of Reducing the Relative Speed
There are four basic types of intersection manoeuvres
and Separating the Number of Points of Conflict at an Intersection
that involve conflicts:
- Diverging ( D ) – where the following vehicle is Converting a cross road intersection to a roundabout
forced to slow reduces the number of conflict points to just four. This
- Merging ( M ) is safer again – all else being equal at the site!
- Crossing ( C )
This does not mean that you must convert every
- Weaving ( W )
intersection to a roundabout, or that you should
It is an important requirement of safe intersections to convert all cross roads to T-junctions, but it does mean
minimise their number of conflict points. The following that you should give thought to all possible ways to
diagrams show that a cross road has 32 conflict points. reduce conflict points in your intersection. Points of
By closing one approach to the cross road intersection conflict can be separated or eliminated by the addition
and creating a T-junction, the number of conflict points of deceleration lanes, or by realignment of the
drops to just 6. This is much safer overall. intersection.

Conflict points can be reduced or eliminated by

altering an intersection. Blocking a median opening in
a divided highway will eliminate many conflict points.
Channelising the same opening so that only selected
Median Median turns are possible will also reduce conflict points.
However – a clear mind is needed when thinking about

Single Right Turn Ban closing a median opening at an intersection. It needs
to take into account several matters. In Indonesia there
is a tendency to close off the centre of large signalised
intersections as soon as any problems emerge. The
Median Median
problems may be safety problems, capacity problems or
driver/rider compliance problems. Whatever the reason,
Double Right Turn Ban
closing the median and directing traffic to the left and
into a U turn is common in this country. Unfortunately
it is usually an inefficient and (sometimes) unsafe
option to adopt.
If the intersection is signalised, ask what needs to be

Double Right Turn Ban done to make the signals work correctly. Ask the same
(alternative method)
if the intersection has a roundabout. If the intersection
Figure 2.6 Right Turn Bans is large, and is controlled only by Stop or Give Way
signs, investigate the suitability of the site for traffic
signals. These cost money. But the Indonesian road
system is an important part of the Indonesian economy
and it deserves to have proper intersections. Indonesia
at present is lacking intersection signals; a long term
program to address this deficiency is called for.
closure
Remember – where there are traffic conflicts there is a
risk of crashes. By denying traffic movements (that is by
blocking or closing intersections) there will be an
immediate reduction in traffic conflicts and an
attendant improvement in safety. However, such
changes are usually at the expense of local access and
they may simply move a crash problem to another site.
As an overall result there may be no net safety
improvement at all across the network. A challenge for
road safety engineers is to strike the best balance
between risk and network performance.
* Intersection closed with barricades c. Reduce the relative speed between vehicles
* Signals switched off
* Traffic directed left to U-Turn Relative speed between vehicles is the resultant vector
This is short term, inefficient approach determined from the velocities of the individual
to an intersection problem. It can
be a temporary step for a week vehicles at a conflict point. Safety at an intersection
or two while the signals are improved.
It should not to be a permanent treatment. depends largely on achieving low relative speeds.
The following figure shows the relative speed between

Figure 2.7 Blocked off intersection with U turns
vehicles that are approaching each other at a standard
speed of 80 km/h at various angles. Most engineers
understand the threat of a head-on collision, but few

appreciate the high impact speeds generated during - Right angle crashes are severe crashes
right angle collisions. This fact is one of the most - Y-junctions present a great risk of severe crashes
important to remember – intersection crashes tend to
- Roundabouts offer real safety benefits
yield very serious outcomes because intersections are
the location of most right angle crashes. When these
d. Give precedence to major movements
crashes occur at high speed (such as on rural roads)
Drivers/riders expect the major road to be given
their severity is very high, and fatalities are common.
precedence at an intersection. This also generally
Crossing a road should take place at or near right
allows the intersection to provide maximum capacity
angles so that driver estimation errors are minimised.
for its users. However, it is not reasonable to expect all
However, this can produce a high relative impact speed.
road users to be able to understand and appreciate
It is therefore necessary to reduce the approach speeds.
which road through the intersection is the major road.
This is not easy but it can be done through altering the
Some drivers/riders are unfamiliar with the road, and
alignment on the approach to the intersection, by
others have no idea about major or minor roads.
channelisation (including roundabouts) or by installing
Sometimes, the major traffic movement makes a right
signs or signals.
turn at an intersection and it can be difficult for road
Other conflicts – weaving, merging and diverging users to appreciate which approaches are carrying the
manoeuvres – should be designed for low relative major streams of traffic.
speed. If relative speeds are controlled, drivers/riders
For all these reasons, ensure that each of your
will accept smaller gaps. This improves capacity,
intersections has clearly displayed traffic control signs
reduces delays and most importantly it improves
that indicate which approaches which are required to
safety. These are all valuable goals to seek.
give way and which approaches may pass through.
The diagrams below show different relative impact
Stop signs and Give Way signs are used for this
speeds for various travel speeds at various intersection
purpose. Without these signs placed on the minor
types. They highlight three things:
roads, an intersection is deemed to be uncontrolled.
The Road Rules then mean that traffic is required to
give way to the left.
B
80 km/h 80 km/h
Relative speed = 0 km/h A
80 km/h 80 km/h A
B
Relative speed = 160 km/h

A = 80 km/h A = 60 km/h
B = 60km/h B = 60km/h
Rel. speed = 118km/h Rel. speed = 85km/h
11
3
km
/h 80 km/h
80 km/h
B
B
Relative speed = 113 km/h
A
80 k
m/h
14 km/h A
10o
80 km/h A = 20 km/h A = 60 km/h
B = 20km/h B = 10km/h
Relative speed = 14 km/h Rel. speed = 10km/h Rel. speed = 62km/h
Figure 2.8 Relative Speed Figure 2.9 Relative Speed at Intersections

Landscape may be necessary to interupt the line of

sight from one side of the intersection to the other or
0m to stop undesirable movements
0m to 12
Length 6
Desirable
“Keep Left” sign
Distance
Stagger
Kerbing is desirable to ensure that traffic
12.0 m Raised splitter island to define approach
carries out the “dog leg movement”
lane, and stop in appropriate movements
Typical stagger distance in the range
“T” junction sign board
of 15m to 30m
Figure 2.10 An example of a cross road converted to a pair of staggered T intersections
(a) Existing
e. Separate conflicts in space and time
Traffic signals are a form of traffic control that

separates conflicts within an intersection in time. By
70 o
controlling which approach is able to enter the
intersection at which time, potential conflicts can be
eliminated – but only if drivers/riders comply with the
traffic signals. Some drivers/riders deliberately Undefined vehicle path and
large area of conflic
disregard red signals (this is a matter for Police
enforcement), but others fail to see the signals (b) After channelisation
(possibly due to trees, buildings, shadows and other

obstructions). It is necessary therefore to ensure that
the traffic signals at your intersection are as 70 o
conspicuous as possible.
A roundabout is a form of traffic control that separates

conflicts in terms of space. The decision making Definition of vehicle paths
process at a roundabout is simple – give way to traffic
already on the roundabout, then proceed. (c) After Realignment
f. Define and minimize conflict areas
Safety is maximised when the conflict area of an

intersection is kept as small as practical. This can be
achieved by:
- Providing only the area needed for the intersection Reduced area of conflict
- Squaring up the intersecting roads Figure 2.11 Minimisation of Conflict Area
- Minimising the number of lanes provided and

marking these clearly

by a combination of alignment, speed control, lane

width and traffic control.
Start by ensuring that each of the entering roads are

correctly signed with speed restriction signs. These
should be a part of a national speed management
strategy.
Then, make sure that the intersection is clearly visible

to road users on all approaches. Drivers/riders must not
be allowed to enter an intersection without knowing it
is there. Such surprises are a recipe for serious crashes!
Use direction signs and warning signs to inform road
users of the presence of the intersection.
Finally, make sure the lane markings are consistent and

clear and that the form of intersection control is
conspicuous.
g. Define vehicle paths

i. Provide clear indication of right-of-way
Drivers/riders need guidance as they travel along a
In general, the need for traffic control at an
road. Lane lines are used for this purpose. When these
intersection increases as the traffic flow increases. In
lines are missing, drivers/riders may drift away from
particular the need grows as the ratio of the minor to
their correct path.
major road flows increase.
When approaching an intersection this becomes even
Safety is maximised at intersections when every
more critical. The actual vehicle path definition
driver/rider knows and complies with the Road Rules
depends on the type of intersection and the traffic
that apply to that intersection. At a roundabout, it
control provided, but is highly desirable to define each
means that every driver/rider will know that they must
vehicle path clearly and positively. For example, this
give way to traffic already on the roundabout - before
means providing lane lines right up to the holding
they enter. Then they can expect to have unimpeded
lines at a roundabout or the stop line at traffic signals.
travel through the roundabout.
It means providing right turn lines to guide
drivers/riders as they turn at signalised intersections. It These situations require an educated and aware
means Stop and Give Way lines at approaches to driving/riding population, an enlightened approach to
intersections controlled by Stop or Give Way signs. Police enforcement and an engineering profession that
has provided exactly the correct form of traffic control
At extra wide intersections, carefully placed reflective
pavement markers can be used to define intersecting
paths. Table 2.2 Safe Intersection Sight Distance
SPEED ON MAIN SAFE INTERSECTION

h. Control approach speeds ROAD (km/h) SIGHT DISTANCE (m)
Speed management is a growing issue for Indonesian
40 66
authorities. As Indonesia works to provide better roads
and highways on which people and goods can travel to 50 89
their destination in less and less time, there will be an 60 113

increasing risk that some speeds will be inappropriate
70 140
for safety.
Drivers/riders should not be permitted to approach, 80 170
enter or pass through an intersection at a speed that is 90 203

clearly unsafe for the conditions. This can be achieved
100 240

This warning sign indicates that the road ahead will take The line marking suggests the main road goes to the left, but there
a sharp bend to the left. A driver/rider will prepare for this. are no direction signs to assist. Some drivers/riders will not know
The road is flat, and there is no indication of an intersection which way to go. Many will not know which vehicle has priority at
anywhere. However, as the driver/rider approaches the bend, this three legged junction.
the road is also seen to continue straight ahead.
From the other approach on the main road this also appears to be To add to the visual deceit, the minor road approaches the main
a simple curve. There is no indication of the minor road on the left. road on a short steep grade, making it impossible to see the main
There is no warning sign on this approach, and no direction road pavement until just 10m away.
signs either.
This large billboard is a roadside hazard close to this busy, This arrangement of Y-junctions has a large monument located
high risk urban Y-junction. in the middle of the intersection.

Another Y-junction, with a concrete fence within the clear zone, The other end of the island separating these Y-junctions also has
and a large billboard a short distance away along a side road. a roadside hazard within the gore area.
that complies with Indonesian Road Rules. Road safety

is a field that requires close co-operation between Directional Sign
several government agencies if it is to be effective.
An intersection should allow road users to progress

straight ahead, or to turn into another road with
minimum delay and maximum safety. The layout and
operation of the intersection should therefore be
obvious and unambiguous. It should present good
visibility of its traffic control devices as well as of other
road users.
Ask yourself a series of questions:
- Is the presence of the intersection obvious on all

approaches? If not, what can be done to improve
this? Usually warning signs and direction signs on
each approach make a positive improvement.
Directional Sign
- Is priority at your intersection clear to all? If not,
what can be done to improve this?
- Which approaches are to give way?
- Are signs needed? If so, which ones. Usually,
Figure 2.13 A T-Junction created to improved safety.
installing a Stop/Give Way sign and associated line
marking is necessary.
- How do you choose between a Stop and a Give Way time? If so, does the road hierarchy here lend itself
sign? A Stop sign is only necessary on the minor to traffic signals?
road when the Safe Intersection Sight Distance falls - Is the site suitable for a roundabout? Will the traffic
below that required for the speed of traffic on the movements (through and right turning) provide the
main road. The Table below gives an indication balanced flows required for a roundabout to work
when to use a Stop sign. Remember - if Stop signs efficiently?
are “overused”, drivers/riders tend to ignore them.
- Are traffic volumes large enough to require traffic
signals in order to separate conflicts in terms of

j. Minimise roadside hazards It is useful to try to plan ahead. Encroachment should

not be tolerated by local officials and a determined
Roadside hazards are defined as any fixed object with
effort should be made by local authorities to keep
a diameter of 100 mm or more, located within the clear
major intersections (in particular) free of
zone. Road side hazards include power poles, street
encroachment.
lighting columns, trees, rocks, cuttings, buildings, bus
shelters, deep drains, and undrivable side slopes. Engineers have a role to play in preventing
encroachment when they design and manage
At intersections, more than at other locations along a
intersections. Make plans to accommodate waiting
road, there is a risk of vehicles from side roads causing
passengers in shelters located away from the
a disruption to the main flow of traffic. Disrupted flow
intersection. Provide indented lay-bys for the buses to
can lead to run-off-road problems and crashes with
pull into to pick up/set down passengers. Provide wide
roadside hazards.
footpaths with areas at the rear for stalls and food
You can help to minimise this risk by ensuring your
carts to operate without causing pedestrians to walk
intersection meets all of the requirements for a safe
on the road.
intersection (listed above). This will minimise vehicles
Save money by not placing concrete planter tubs with
disrupting the flow of others.
shrubs on the footpath – keep the footpaths as wide as
Then you can apply basic roadside hazard management
possible, smooth with nothing to impede pedestrians.
principles to further minimise this risk.
At your intersection, provide for pedestrians by
- Keep trees as far back from your intersection as
dropping the kerb at each crossing point. Provide cut
possible (this will also aid sight lines).
throughs in medians to show a clear path. Ensure that
- Avoid constructing open drains at your intersection. there is a continuous clear path around the whole
Use covered drains or underground pipes – not open intersection.
drains.
- Do not allow large billboards near your intersection. l. Simplify the driving task
- Use “forgiving” street lighting columns. Street This simply means to make the intersection as simple
lighting columns are dangerous and must either be to use as possible. Keep it open, ensure the line
located outside the clear zone, or be a forgiving marking clearly directs drivers/riders, and that signs
type. More detail about “forgiving” street lighting and other traffic control items are conspicuous, clear
columns is given in Manual 2 of this series. and correct.
- Minimise the use of fixed objects within the
intersection. For example, remove rigid posts used m. Minimize road user delay
to “protect” traffic signals. Ask yourself - would you
Do your best to minimise delays to the road users at
want to be on an “out of control” motorcyclist
your intersection. If drivers/riders accept the time that
heading towards one of these?
it takes to safely negotiate your intersection they are
less likely to abuse the traffic control there.
k. Provide for all vehicular and non-vehicular traffic
To minimise delays requires close you to examine the
Many intersections quickly become centres of activity
traffic volumes on each approach, and calculate the
soon after they are opened – people congregate there
expected delays using a variety of treatment options.
to catch local buses or taxis or becaks or ojeks. When
Some intersections will need additional lanes to be
this happens, industrious individuals set up stalls and
constructed if traffic signals are installed because of
sell food and other items to the waiting people. Before
the need to store vehicles during the red phase on
long, the footpaths have become crowded with stalls
each approach.
and waiting people. Buses stop wherever they can,
sometimes creating major traffic congestion and
presenting a serious risk of rear end collisions. What
started out as a wide new intersection quickly gets
swallowed up by encroachment.

2.1.3 The dangers of Y-junctions Leg 3
Leg 2
Indonesia has many Y-junctions. They are a very simple
form of intersection that evolved when traffic volumes
were much lower than today. However, as traffic
volumes have increased these Y-junctions have
become high risk locations because they do not satisfy
the basic principles of safe intersections:
- They have large conflict areas

- They have high relative impact speeds
- They lack clear priority
For all of these reasons, Y-junctions should not be

designed or built. Existing Y-junctions should be
examined and a national program established to
Leg 1
eradicate (or at least to provide positive traffic control
Figure 2.15 Converting a Y-Junction to a Roundabout
at) existing Y-junctions.
To eliminate Y-junctions, or to reduce the risk at a Y-

junction, you have several options: 2.1.4 Sign controlled intersections
- Close one of the approaches, thus eliminating the The first level of traffic control at an intersection is to
intersection. install a Stop or a Give Way sign to control the traffic.
- Convert the Y-junction to a T-junction by bringing The sign should be located where it can be clearly
the “minor” leg into the major road at a right angle. seen by approaching drivers/riders. It should be on the
- If the Y-junction is in an urban area, consider minor leg of the intersection. It should have a line
installing a set of traffic signals. This will separate marking on the side road to indicate to drivers/riders
the opposing traffic streams in time and will give where to stop or give way.
positive guidance to road users. Traffic signals Stop and Give Way signs have been shown to clarify
should have pedestrian signals included, thereby “right of way” priority and to reduce crashes at cross
assisting pedestrians to cross at these locations. road intersections by up to 30%.
- A roundabout may be able to replace the Y-junction. Maintain all the signs and markings in good order.
Care usually needs to be taken in these cases to Typically the line marking will need to be renewed
ensure that there is sufficient (and relatively equal) annually. The signs may last 10-15 years, provided they
deflection on all approaches. do not get damaged or stolen.
Figure 2.14 Improvement in Approach Speed and Relative Speed This Y-Junction has been signalised to control the conflicting
due to Realignment and Channelisation movements. The option to convert this to a T-junction was not feasible
due to trams using two of the approaches.

2.1.5 Roundabouts a. Basic components of a roundabout
A roundabout is a particular type of intersection A safe roundabout has:

control that includes a central island within the - Three or more approaches.
intersection around which all traffic is required to
- Suitable deflection on each approach – to deflect
travel in a clockwise direction. Drivers/riders are
approaching vehicles to their left as they approach
required by Road Rules to give way to traffic that is
the roundabout. This causes drivers/riders to slow
already on the roundabout before entering.
down and it alerts them to the need to give way
Roundabouts are a proven safe form of intersection ahead.
control because they: - It also directs entering vehicles into the roundabout
- Simplify the decision making process for at an angle that reduces the angle of impact.
drivers/riders. - Splitter islands , either physical or painted on each
- Reduce the relative vehicle speeds of conflicting approach. Splitter islands and strong line marking
movements. are used to deflect vehicles on each approach.
- They reduce the number of conflict points from 32 - A circulating carriageway that is wide enough for
(at a cross road intersection) to just 4 . the number of circulating lanes, plus a sufficient
width to accommodate the overhang of larger
Studies in other countries show that roundabouts
turning vehicles. A single lane circulating
produce positive crash reductions. In Australia, road
carriageway is typically 7 m wide; a 2 lane
authorities have an 85% crash reduction factor for
circulating carriageway is typically 10-11 m wide.
roundabouts. That means, in calculating the Benefit
Cost Ratio (BCR) of the proposal, the engineers - A conspicuous central island. In general larger
estimate that 85% of all the crashes at that diameter roundabouts lead to safer approach
intersection will be eliminated by the new roundabout. speeds. Larger diameters also offer better sight
distance and greater deflection for high speed
Indonesia has numerous roundabouts, but their crash
environments (such as rural areas). Safety at high
record here is open to discussion. While accurate crash
data is unknown for Indonesian roundabouts it is
speculated that there are many crashes at these
locations. This may be due to one or more reasons:
- Drivers/riders do not know how to correctly use the

roundabouts. (Some go the wrong way around the
roundabout, while others fail to give way on entry.
These same drivers/riders then block the circulating Corner Kerb Holding
Radius
carriageway of the roundabout as other entering (Kerb Return)
Line
Exit
Width
vehicles force their way in. Approach Entry
Width Width
Departure
- Some roundabouts are located at intersections Width
better suited to other forms of traffic control.
- Most Indonesian roundabouts have inadequate Circulating
Carriageway Splitter
deflection on the approaches. Deflection is an Width Island
Circulating Central Island
essential requirement to reduce speeds and to Carriageway Diameter
‘
minimise the angle of conflict. Entry Exit Curve
Curve
- Many Indonesian roundabouts fail to have the
correct regulatory signs and markings
Some roundabouts are not lit at night – meaning Approach
Curve
that they present a hazard for traffic to run into.
- Very few Indonesian roundabouts recognise the
needs of pedestrians.
Figure 2.16 Basic component of roundabout

speed roundabouts is more critical than in lower - When traffic signals will generate longer delays and
speed areas, where smaller diameter roundabouts queues than the roundabout.
can be used. - At intersections on local roads where it is not
- Good drainage. It is common to slope the circulating desirable to give priority to one road over the other.
carriageway away from the central island with a 3% - At intersections with more than four approach legs.
crossfall so that water drains towards the outside of
A balanced roundabout is one where all approaches
the roundabout. This is the cheapest option. It is
work “together” to ensure that each approach gets a
also possible to install drainage in and under the
fair opportunity to enter the roundabout. In the above
central island, but this can be expensive. If it blocks
diagram, the vehicle turning right from Approach A
it can flood the circulating carriageway, leading to
causes the vehicle from Approach C to wait, allowing
safety and capacity problems.
the vehicle from Approach D to enter.
- The same number of lanes on the departures as on
If Approaches C and D are heavily trafficked, while
the approaches.
Approaches A and B are only lightly trafficked (for
instance during the AM peak) – the queues along
b. Locations where roundabouts are best suited
Approach D will become very long. If there are enough
International experience has shown that roundabouts
right running vehicles from Approach A or enough
are best suited to the following locations:
through vehicles from Approach B to cause traffic from
- Stop or Give Way controlled intersections that are Approach C to wait, then the queue length on
suffering undue delays for the minor approaches. Approach D will reduce. The roundabout will then be
- At intersections with high volumes of right turning said to be “balanced”.
traffic (unlike most intersections, roundabouts
actually benefit from having numbers of right c. Locations where roundabouts are not suited:
turning vehicles to help to “balance” the flows and A roundabout will generally not be a suitable
to create give way situations). countermeasure if your blackspot intersection is
- At rural cross road intersections that have a high located at one the following types of locations:
speed crash problem.
- Where a suitable safe geometric design cannot be
- At intersections where the major road takes a turn achieved.
through the intersection. This is quite common in
- Where traffic flows on the approaches are
rural towns and villages.
“unbalanced” (See above). .
- At Y and T-junctions of two major roads, and which
- Where a major road intersects a minor road and the
have high numbers of right turning vehicles.
delays on the major road would be unacceptable.
- Where there are high numbers of pedestrians and it
is difficult to provide them with suitable facilities.
A
- At an isolated intersection within a network of
signalised intersections.
- Where peak hour reversible lanes are required.
- Where over-sized vehicles commonly use the route.
D
B d. How can you improve safety at an existing
roundabout?
If you have a blackspot that happens to be at a

roundabout there are a number of things to be looked
at. It will usually be too expensive to alter the
C geometry, so you need to look at the signage and
markings to make changes.
Figure 2.17 Effect of turning Vehicles on Roundabout Operation

Inspect the site – daytime and night time. Look to see e. Design considerations for a safe new roundabout
what the drivers, riders, pedestrians are doing. Is the
Once you have decided on a roundabout for your
site in an urban or a rural location? Ask yourself a
intersection there are some essential design matters to
series of questions:
take into account.
- Is there any risk that there is visual deceit on one or
- Numbers of lanes – only provide the minimum
more approach? Is it possible that some
number of traffic lanes necessary for capacity. Crash
drivers/riders may be getting a false impression
rates increase when more lanes are used.
about the intersection because of other nearby
- Deflection – it is essential to minimise the relative
features. A line of trees, or a row of building, can
approach speeds and also to create shallow angles
make the road appear to continue straight, and may
of impact.
hide the roundabout. Shadows can hide line
- Design the roundabout for all vehicles to give way
markings.
to the right – never consider any situation that
- Are approach speeds low? If not, make sure all
permits entering traffic to take priority! You may
advanced signs fully satisfy the “6 C’s” of good
decide to install additional information signs for the
signage. Consider installing new advanced direction
first six months or so as drivers/riders get used to
signs, at least on the main road.
the new intersection.
- Is approach sight distance and safe intersection
- Street lighting – essential and preferably in the
sight distance satisfied? If not, remove whatever is
middle of central island.
blocking the sight lines – move the warungs, cut
- Strong line marking – especially the give wayline.
back tree branches, prohibit some parking, or
remove advertising signs. - Signage must be correct – regulatory signs at the
holding line, advanced direction signs on the main
- Are drivers/riders giving way on entry? If not, seek
road approaches (and maybe the others as well),
Police assistance with enforcement. Ask the local
and if high approach speeds are involved also
newspapers to publish information about the
install advanced warning signs.
correct way to use the roundabout. Install a sign at
each entry informing drivers/riders to give way to Roundabouts are the safest form of intersection control
traffic on the right. provided they satisfy these basic design elements.
- Are all regulatory signs conspicuous, and correct?
There is only one legally correct and enforceable
2.1.6 Traffic signal controlled intersections
regulatory roundabout sign used in Indonesia. Make
sure there is at least one installed conspicuously on Traffic signals are an important device to improve the
each approach of your roundabout. Consider using safety of intersections and mid-block pedestrian
two on each approach if necessary to highlight the crossings.
roundabout. Traffic signals provide control by separating conflicting
- Are all line markings conspicuous and correct? If movements on a time basis. Pedestrian control should
not, have them all remarked. Place lane direction be incorporated at intersections, or it may be installed
arrows on each approach that has two or more separately at mid-block locations. Push buttons allow
lanes. Be sure that the give way line is clearly pedestrians to tell the traffic signal controller that they
visible. are waiting to cross. The signals should be provided
- Is lighting needed? If the crashes happened after with pedestrian lanterns displaying red and green
dark, there will be a need to upgrade the street symbolic pedestrians.
lighting. Try to place it on the central island, to The key factor in deciding about using traffic signals at
highlight the central island and circulating your intersection is the availability of safe gaps. If
carriageway. there are gaps in the major traffic flow that can safely
accommodate entering traffic from the side road for
most of the time, then you can reasonably decide to
defer traffic signals.

As vehicle volumes increase – either on the major road Your design should be consistent with other signalised
or the side roads – the availability of safe gaps intersections. Drivers/riders tend to establish
diminishes and the need to install traffic signals expectancy with regard to the types of treatments you
increases. provide for them. Here are some key points to bear in
mind:
Vehicle actuated traffic signals offer the best way to
minimise delays for road users. Fixed time signals are - Use vehicle actuated traffic signals if at all possible.
generally inefficient and waste enormous amounts of They reduce delays and increase driver/rider
road users’ time. compliance. They require reliable detectors, and a
sophisticated controller.
Vehicle actuated traffic signals are a much more
efficient form of intersection signal as they respond to - Provide a fully controlled right turn if that right turn
the presence of vehicles on each approach. If there are has to cross three or more traffic lanes. Filtered
no vehicles on that approach, the signal controller right turns at signalised intersections are one of the
skips to the approaches where demand is greatest. most dangerous actions a driver/rider has to make.
Such vehicle actuated signals can accommodate - Ensure your signals can be clearly seen on each
pedestrian push buttons, allowing pedestrians to call approach from at least 100 m in advance. Use at
up their phase at the earliest possible time in the least a primary signal and a secondary signal on
cycle. each approach. If conspicuity of the signals is a
problem on an approach, install either a duplicated
Young and elderly pedestrians in particular (two of the
primary signal or a mast arm on that approach.
most vulnerable group of pedestrians) welcome traffic
signals to assist them. However, when traffic volumes - Maintain consistency by placing the signal pedestals
are low (outside peak hours) and the cycle times are (poles) at the same offset from the kerb and at the
long, some pedestrians may ignore the signals. This same position with respect to the Stop line.
presents a higher risk to the pedestrians and needs to - Always mark a Stop line adjacent to the primary
be factored in to your decision about the form of signal pedestal.
control at the intersection. - Always mark each traffic lane – for a distance of at
When you come to prepare a preliminary design for a least 50 m on each approach. Use lane designation
signalised intersection, you will most likely prepare a arrows – at least two sets – to show drivers/riders in
drawing at a scale of 1:500. It should include which direction they must or may travel through the
fundamental details about the safe and efficient intersection.
operation of the signalised intersection such as: - Where a right turn lane is to be provided, ensure
that this is indented into the median. If the road is
- The lane configuration – number of lanes on each
undivided, prohibit overtaking (via line marking) for
approach, the width of each, and purpose (right,
the last 50 m in advance of the turn lane and
through, left, mixed) of each.
develop a clearly marked right turn lane.
- An approximate location for each signal pedestal.
- Avoid “trap” lanes. That is, avoid providing situations
- A preliminary and indicative traffic signal phasing
where a through lane becomes an exclusive turn
diagram (to minimise the risk that you will design
lane.
an intersection with conflicting movements).
- If a “trap lane” is absolutely unavoidable, make sure
- The size and position of medians and islands
that clear signposting is installed well in advance to
- Facilities for public transport services to, at and
alert drivers/riders of the need to consider changing
through the intersection.
lanes.
- Footpaths, pedestrian facilities and pedestrian
- Avoid merging conflicts at all costs. If there is to be
signals consistently around the intersection.
a right turn phase, there must not be an opposing
- Show that there is adequate space for turning left turn phase or a “Left Turn On Red”.
movements by all vehicles, including buses and
Intersections with traffic signals in urban areas should
trucks.
have pedestrian facilities across each road. You should:
- Show access to abutting properties.

- Mark a pedestrian crossing on the road 1m beyond right angle crash will occur. It is always possible that a
the Stop line, at least 2 m wide. driver/rider may drive through an intersection without
- Install a two aspect signal display to face across the knowing it is there – and provided a crash does not
road at the waiting pedestrians. occur that driver/rider may remain ignorant of his/her
potentially tragic mistake.
- provide pedestrian push buttons for pedestrians to
register their wish to cross. The most appropriate countermeasure for overshoot
- Provide dropped crossings and cut throughs at each crashes is to improve the conspicuity (or the visibility)
pedestrian crossing point. of the intersection. You can do this in a number of
ways including:
- trimming obstructing foliage

2.1.7 Countermeasures for intersection crashes
- repainting centre lines and holding lines
Treating intersection crashes should be one of your
- advance warning signs
highest priorities as a road safety engineer. These
- advance direction signs
crashes represent a key target in a traffic safety
programs for a number of reasons. Firstly, they - intersection lighting
comprise a substantial proportion of the overall crash - duplicating the Stop/Give Way sign
problem, both in rural and urban areas. - installing a splitter island on the approach
Secondly, the task of implementing cost-effective On the other hand, “restart” crashes occur when a
countermeasures through changes to the physical driver/rider slows and even stops at the Give Way or
environment is easier and more likely to be successful Stop sign, but then selects an inadequate gap in traffic.
at intersections than at other locations. You might ask why a driver/rider would select such an
Thirdly, certain types of intersection crashes tend have inadequate gap – are sightlines obstructed, are major
high severity because of the absence of effective road speeds excessive, or are major road volumes so
occupant protection measures in many vehicles high that entering drivers feel pressured to take small
involved in side impact collisions, and because of the gaps?
speed differentials inherent in right turn against The most appropriate countermeasure for restart
crashes. crashes is usually more difficult to develop and is often
Finally, the road safety engineering profession has over more expensive. Common treatments include either a
many years developed a range of traffic control devices roundabout or traffic signals, or improving sight lines.
and traffic management techniques which, when Four-leg intersections are characterised by cross traffic
appropriately applied, have proven to be highly cost crashes and can be cost effectively treated by one of
effective in reducing the incidence and/or severity of several countermeasure types, depending on the
intersection crashes. You should take advantage of functional classification of the intersecting roads, the
these successes. types of road users at the location and other physical
You are advised to select and implement the most and/or environmental constraints.
cost-effective solution that provides the best balance

among the competing objectives. b. Right-turn-against crashes
Right-turn-against crashes are a problem at signalised

a. Cross traffic crashes intersections. Efforts to reduce the incidence and
Crashes which take place at crossroads will usually be severity of right-turn-against crashes mainly involve
either “overshoot” or “restart” crashes the use of turn phases for the relevant movements.
Fully controlled right-turn phases (3-aspect arrow
Overshoot crashes are where the driver/rider of the
displays) have proven to be consistently effective in
vehicle on the “minor” road is unaware of the
reducing this crash type, with reductions in the order
intersection and drives into it without slowing. If this
of 65 %.
happens at the time a second vehicle is driving
through the intersection on the intersecting road, a Right-turn-against crashes tend not to cluster at non-
signalised intersections and therefore less is known

about effective countermeasures in this situation. the intersection. Install an additional advance warning
However, common sense suggests that the provision of or advanced direction sign approximately 50 m in
roundabouts would be effective, as would advance of the intersection.
improvements in sight distance to oncoming traffic,
An obvious requirement at traffic signals is for vehicles
through the removal of obstructions and/or the
to stop on the red signal. A consequence is an
provision of separate right turning lanes. Indented
increased risk of rear end collisions. However it is
right turn lanes have the added advantages of
possible to minimise this risk by:
reducing pressure from following road users who may
- Providing conspicuous signal displays that can be
otherwise be delayed by the right turner. Indented
seen well in advance of the intersection from each
lanes also reducing the potential for rear-end
approach lane.
collisions.
- The maintenance of the pavement surface so that it
c. Pedestrian crashes has good skid resistance for both wet and dry
conditions.
A substantial proportion of pedestrian casualty crashes
- The provision of exclusive turn lanes at signalised
occur at intersections . Some of the intersections are
(and also at non-signalised) intersections to reduce
controlled by Stop/Give Way signs in which case the
conflict between vehicles approaching from the
pedestrian must find their own way across.
same direction.
However, at traffic signals, pedestrians can be assisted
in several ways. The most frequent pedestrian crash
type at signalised intersections involves conflict with
left or right-turning vehicles. The presence of
conflicting pedestrians complicates the driving task, 2.2 Roadside hazard management
especially the attention-sharing component in an
2.2.1 Roadside hazards
already demanding traffic environment.
We can never be sure just where or when a vehicle will
At signalised intersections you may use fully controlled
run off a road. And we may not be sure why. It may be
right turn phases or split phase arrangements to
due to many reasons – human error (fatigue, excessive
separate the vehicle and pedestrian movements in
speed, distraction by others), vehicle defect (tyre or
time.
steering failure, brake failure downhill, unstable
At non-signalised intersections, geometric overloading), traffic (interaction with other vehicles,
improvements such as central approach islands or kerb animals, pedestrians on the road) or road (pot holes,
outstands, which either reduce the width of road to be poor road conditions, inadequate warning signs and
crossed or which make the pedestrian more visible, delineation). Bad weather can also add to this list.
have proved successful.
However, when a vehicle does run off a road, it often
does so at speed. The consequences can therefore be
d. Rear-end crashes
severe as there are many hazards beside almost every
Rear end crashes can occur anywhere on the road road for an errant vehicle to hit.
network. However, they are more likely at intersections
As a road safety engineer, one of your roles is to
where a driver/rider makes a decision to stop and a
identify those potential roadside hazards and to
following driver/rider fails to respond in time.
implement safer alternative treatments. You may even
Rear end collisions may happen at intersections decide to initiate a roadside hazard management
controlled by signs (Stop or Give Way). If an program to reduce the frequency and the severity of
intersection displays a history of such crashes you run-off-road crashes. Such programs have had great
should look at the approach and try to determine if the success in reducing the frequency and the severity of
Stop/Give Way signs are conspicuous in adequate “run-off-road” crashes in a number of countries. When
distance. Are drivers/riders reacting too late, and managing such a program it is helpful if you
creating a rear end problem. Do your best to make all understand:
approaching drivers/riders aware of the presence of

- The clear zone concept

- What constitutes a roadside hazard Run-off-road crashes are a
- The steps in the roadside hazard management
serious problem in most
strategy
- The technical aspects of what can (and cannot) be countries.
done to reduce the risk of each roadside hazard.
- The technical aspects of when to use and when not
The concept of the “forgiving roadside” is fundamental
to use a safety barrier.
to the work of road safety engineers who are seeking
This Section will help you to gain an understanding of to improve the safety of their road network. A
these key topics. “forgiving” roadside is one which recognises that
drivers/riders will make mistakes and that some of
a. Run-off road crashes are major problem them will run off the road as a result. It tries to
“Run-off-road” crashes are amongst the most serious “forgive” them for these mistakes.
type of crash in most countries. They are a problem for
Indonesia, although reliable crash data is difficult to b. Roadside hazards
obtain. This problem is likely to worsen in the near A roadside hazard can be defined as any fixed object
future as speeds increase with more duplicated with a diameter greater than 100 mm that is located
highways, more toll ways, and more urban flyovers and on the roadside within the clear zone. There are other
localised traffic capacity improvements. roadside hazards too, including deep sided drains and
Drains, trees, fences and houses Undrivable side slopes
Steep slopes/cliffs but no delineation or line marking Large billboard supporting poles

undrivable side slopes. But it is useful to start your Your next step is then to reduce the severity of the
roadside hazard work by using a 100 mm diameter as a “run-off-road” crashes. There are a variety of ways to do
basic starting point. this, and these are listed below. The roadside hazard
management strategy provides guidance in this work.
Collisions with roadside objects are a concern not only
because of their frequency but also because of their
c. The Clear Zone Concept
severity. This type of collision results more often in a
fatality or serious injury than most other crash types. The “clear zone” is an area alongside a road which
You can work towards reducing the frequency of these should be kept free of hazards. The width of a clear
crashes, or you can work towards reducing the severity zone depends on traffic speed and volume, as well as
of these crashes. roadside geometry (the radius of a curve and extent of
any side slopes). Figure 1 (below) is used to determine
Some of your most effective work can be done by
appropriate clear zone widths for various traffic
improving the road so that vehicles never leave the
volumes and speeds on straight roads with flat
road. If the signs and line marking on your road are
roadsides. It is based on studies of “run-off-road”
excellent, if there are sealed shoulders and well
crashes from the United States by AASHTO.
delineated curves, and if your road is maintained in
good condition (well swept and free of potholes), the In the example below, a straight section of road with a
risk of driver/riders leaving the road is greatly reduced. traffic volume of 3000vpd (one way) and with 85%ile
The frequency of “run-off-road” crashes on your road speeds of 100 km/h will require a clear zone of 7.5 m. If
will be reduced. You should work towards such the section of road has a curve or a side slope there
objectives. are multiplying factors to accommodate the likelihood
Unshielded bridge parapets Unshielded bridge parapets
Roadside drains Information signs on a rigid post within a gore area

One way AADT

10 (veh/d)
(approach volume)
>_ 5000
(measured from edge of traffic lane)

8
4000
3000
Clear zone width (m)

2000
6 <_ 1000
0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
85th percentile speed (km/h)
Figure 2.18 Clear Zone Distance - for straight sections of road
Examples:
1. The desirable minimum clear zone width in all cases is 3 m.
2. If one way AADT is 4,000 vehicles/day and the operating speed is 80 km/hour, the required clear zone width is 6 m.
Concrete barricades incorrectly used Large trees; undrivable side slopes
High barrier kerbs on the island; the archway Billboard supporting pillar

that an errant vehicle will travel further off the road in e. The Roadside Hazard Management Strategy
those situations.
To make decisions about how you can best reduce “run-
However, the clear zone concept is still new in off-road” crashes you need an understanding of all of
Indonesia, it is suggested that it be kept simple and the options that are available to you.
easy to understand for now. This graph should be
The roadside hazard management strategy can assist
therefore used to provide guidance on clear zones as a
you in your thinking about how best to provide a safer
starting point in roadside hazard management.
roadside. The strategy has five steps:
Firstly, manage the road and traffic to keep vehicles on

d. The “forgiving” roadside
the road.
The ideal “safe” roadside is one with wide, flat run-off
Then either:
areas and with sufficient clearance to roadside hazards
to allow all errant drivers/riders to regain control of - Remove the hazard, or
their vehicle before colliding with a hazard. - Relocate the hazard to a safer location, or
You should try to eliminate all hazards that are in the - Alter the hazard to reduce impact severity, or
agreed clear zone for your road. The roadside hazard - Install safety barriers to shield the hazard
management strategy (below) offers you a method to
The installation of safety barriers is the option of last
assist you in this task. Will you remove the hazard, or
resort – explore all other options before resorting to
alter (weaken) it? Will you use barriers to shield it, or
barriers. They are expensive, they require maintenance,
will you relocate it. These are your options, and the
they are a hazard in themselves, and they must be
strategy will help you in your thinking.
Roadside monuments Concrete barricades not connected, steel barricades, and a 1m deep excavation
Steel reinforcement for concrete piers Pedestrian overpass structures

correctly installed (in full compliance with - Shield – use safety barriers to shield the poles. This
manufacturer’s standards) in order to function properly is often difficult in urban areas because of the
when needed. problems of limited lengths available, deflection
widths and multiple end treatments.
f. How to make roadside hazards safer - Delineate – delineation of individual poles (with
As you work through the roadside hazard management hazard markers or reflective tape) may be used as a
strategy for one of your sections of road you will reach last resort
a time when you ask what you can best do to treat a
ii. Lighting columns
hazard. Many engineers immediately jump towards
installing safety barriers. But these are not always the A frangible pole is one that will yield or break when
best or safest solution, as mentioned earlier. Explore impacted by a vehicle. They are an option to be used at
all options and only agree to a barrier if it is clearly the locations where poles do not carry live overhead
only practical option and only it can fit the site electricity services. There are two types of frangible
correctly (length, width, height, offsets). lighting poles available: slip base and impact
absorbing.
The following list of roadside hazards and options for
treating each may help you in your thinking. Slip base poles - A slip base pole is designed to separate
from its base when struck, allowing the vehicle to pass
i. Power poles over the base and underneath the falling pole. Since
There is no acceptably safe design for frangible power the mechanism is designed for the pole to fall to the
poles carrying live overhead services. This is due to the ground, slip base poles are most appropriate to use in
disruption that can be caused by power outages (for higher speed areas, clear of overhead services, with few
example a hospital does not want to lose power when pedestrians, and little car parking. They provide a
a power pole collapses on the road outside). It is also positive safety benefit for occupants of cars, trucks and
because the presence of live wires on/near the ground buses, but are less likely to reduce injuries to
after a collision may present a greater danger to motorcyclists.
passers-by than the pole itself presents to road users. Impact absorbent poles - An impact absorbent pole is
Therefore your options for treating these poles are designed to collapse progressively, absorbing the force
restricted to: of an impacting vehicle by wrapping itself around the
vehicle and decelerating it to a controlled stop.
- Remove – replace a particularly hazardous pole
Because the pole remains attached to the base this
with one or two poles in less vulnerable locations,
type of pole is most suited to locations where vehicle
or place the power cables underground.
speeds are lower, or pedestrian volumes and
- Relocate – to an area outside the clear zone.
development activity are higher.
(a) SLIP BASE POLE (b) IMPACT ABSORBING POLE
Figure 2.19 Collapse Model of Slip-base and Impact Absorbing

Where there is a history of collisions with roadside

Roadside hazards are many trees, and you have done all that is possible to keep
vehicles on the road, you might try to selectively
and varied. Any fixed object remove the trees within the clear zone over a period of
that is within the clear zone a decade or so. This time frame allows the
establishment of replacement trees at a more
presents a risk to road users. appropriate offset from the road. This technique allows
the desired clear zone to be achieved over a period of
time without the difficulties associated with a
For roads with operating speeds below 80 km/h,
concentrated program of tree clearing.
impact absorbent poles should be the first option for
all lighting columns. For higher speed roads, including Where there are large and significant trees close to the
toll ways and expressways, slip base poles should be road that will never be able to be removed, the use of
used. roadside barriers may be warranted.
In some mountainous parts of rural Indonesia, where

iii. Sign supports
traffic volumes and speeds are low, there is some
Signs need to be seen and for this they need to be benefit to use trees on the downhill side of a road to
placed near the roadway. This may sometimes place act as “crash barriers” and also a simple form of
them in areas of conflict that are well within the clear delineation. It may be safer if a slow moving vehicle
zone. In general, all your larger sign supports should runs off the road into a clump of trees rather than to
be fully collapsible. This may include break-away or drop over a steep mountain side. In such locations you
slip bases for larger signs. Plan the sign location should exercise discretion – will the trees be a hazard
carefully and avoid placing large rigid sign supporting or a possible saviour? The speed environment will help
poles in gore areas or median noses of high speed you in your deliberations. While vehicle speeds are low
roads. Such locations are high risk and are difficult to (under about 40 km/h) such trees possibly will provide
correctly shield with barrier. Some questions to ask positive road safety inputs. However, as speeds increase
with regard to signs, sign supports and sign placement in time with better and wider roads the safety benefits
are: of retaining such trees will need to be carefully
- Is the sign necessary? reviewed.
- Is the sign support safe? Even small galvanised
v. Drains
pipes for small signs are a significant hazard to
motorcyclists, and sometimes to bicyclists. Deep, steep sided open concrete drains are a common
feature beside Indonesian roads. They are so common
- Can the sign be located on existing poles/posts or
that many engineers do not even see them as being
behind existing safety barrier?
roadside hazards. Unfortunately they are a very real
- Are slip base or break away mechanisms installed
hazard. In particular they present a threat to
correctly?
motorcyclists and other small vehicles that are forced
- Should the supports be shielded by a safety barrier? from the road.
iv. Trees Options for treating hazardous drains include:
Deciding what to do about existing trees located - Remove – replace the drain with underground
within the clear zone is a difficult and sensitive task. piping.
Any proposal to indiscriminately clear a strip of mature - Relocate – to an area outside the clear zone. The
trees will create public and environmental concerns. further from the road the safer the drain will be.
When faced with this dilemma, you may need to - Alter – all drains should be covered – for road safety
consider other options, to increase the safety of the and for pedestrian convenience. Concrete drain
section of road. covers are common, but these tend to be broken
Have you done everything to help the road users to quite easily. Steel covers are also possible, but it is
remain on the road? alleged these get stolen. Perhaps it is time for an

innovative engineer to develop a pre-cast drain and To eliminate pocketing you should:
cover that can be locked in place and can only be
- Reduce W beam post spacing’s closer to the bridge;
removed for maintenance?
and
- Shield – use safety barriers to shield the drains. This
- Connect the W beam barrier firmly to the bridge
is often difficult in urban areas and it can block
parapet.
pedestrian paths.
Standard designs require a gradual stiffening of the
- Delineate – delineate the drains (with guide posts)
approach guardrail (from the normal 2.5 m post
as a possible low cost but temporary treatment.
spacing to a stiffened section with 1 m post spacing)
vi. Bridges and firmly attaching the barrier to the bridge parapet.
This transition from a semi rigid barrier to the rigid
There are many bridges in Indonesia. They are an
bridge parapet is essential to redirect the vehicle past
essential part of the road network. They also present
the end post where it could otherwise snag.
special safety concerns – they create squeeze points on
the road and they also present a variety of roadside vii. Culverts
hazards.
Large culverts present similar problems to bridges
Bridge end posts are common roadside hazards in except that they are usually not as expensive to
Indonesia. The accepted way to protect road users from construct. Therefore they offer an opportunity for the
these hazards is to install W beam barrier on each structure to be lengthened – ending outside the clear
approach to the bridge, securely connected to the rigid zone.
bridge end post. This is one thing that is not done
Options for treating hazardous culverts include:
safely in Indonesia at present. Most small bridges do
not have any barrier to shield the end posts. If W beam - Remove – remove the culvert but this will adversely
barrier is installed on the approach to a bridge it affect drainage. Remove the end wall and thus make
usually ends before the bridge. This creates a major the structure less hazardous..
safety concern. - Relocate – relocate the end of the culvert to an area
outside the clear zone. The further from the road
Why? Because an errant vehicle that strikes the W
the safer the culvert will be.
beam barrier a few metres before a bridge parapet will
cause the barrier to deflect backwards. At the same - Alter – install a driveable end wall across the end of
time the barrier will try to re-direct the vehicle back the culvert to minimise the deceleration forces on
towards its original path. However, this will be directly the occupants of an errant vehicle.
into the rigid bridge parapet. This problem is called - Shield – use safety barriers to shield the culvert.
“pocketing”. This requires a minimum length of about 30m of
barrier plus terminals.
Standard guardrail - Delineate – delineate the culvert (with guide posts)

and posts Concrete Parapet as a low cost treatment.
Rail not fixed

to parapet
2.2.2 Safety barriers
Safety barriers are the last resort in roadside hazard
Guard rail deflects and leaves management. They are used to shield a hazardous
the parapet exposed
object that could injure or kill any road user that hits it.
Barriers should only be used when the consequences

of hitting the barrier will be less than the
consequences of striking the hazard. This is because
safety barriers – despite their name – are also a
Figure 2.20 Pocketing can cause serious and fatal consequences
roadside hazard. During an impact, a crash barrier can
cause serious damage/injury to those in small vehicles

and to motorcyclists. Consequences depend on the

dynamics in each case.
3x80
Large vehicles such as trucks and buses with high
centres of mass may not be safely contained by a 780
barrier – often they break through or drop over the
barrier. Safety barriers are tested (generally) to restrain 480
cars, but are not tested as often or as intensely for
restraining trucks or buses.
It is important that barriers be used only where Paving to Control

450 Vegetation Growth
appropriate and that their installation be undertaken
correctly. Safety barriers are costly to install and
maintain. During design therefore every effort should Figure 2.21 Flexible Barrier
be made to eliminate the need for roadside barriers.
Their use and installation should always be audited
DELINEATOR. RED SIDE
critically and carried out according to manufacturer TO FACE TRAFFIC
instructions.
178mm
178mm
A decision to install a roadside barrier should also take
account the increased likelihood of a collision because BLOCK BOLT STEEL POST
of the installation of 30 m (minimum length required POST BOLT
354mm
for correct performance) of barrier to protect a hazard STEEL POST
(that may be only one metre wide!) 710mm 500mm min
But not all safety barriers can be eliminated. There are 300mm 86mm
OPTIONAL CONCRETE
many locations where a barrier is the only option
available to improve safety. There are three groups of
barriers, classified by their rigidity into the following
1000mm
types:
- flexible: wire rope safety barriers

- semi rigid: steel W-beam guard fence
Figure 2.22 Semi-rigid Barrier
- rigid: concrete barrier
a. Flexible barriers b. Semi-rigid barriers

Flexible wire rope barrier systems are used extensively The most common barrier on the roads of the world is
in many countries. They consist of (usually) three or the steel W-beam guardrail. Blocked out W-beam
four wire ropes held in place by steel posts at spacing’s barrier is made up of a number of components each
of 2-3 m. The ropes deflect when struck by an errant with an important part to play in the successful
vehicle, guiding the vehicle along the barrier while the operation of the guard fence during a collision. These
posts progressive collapse. The posts absorb the kinetic components are:
energy of the vehicle, slowing it down.
-The W-beam rail, this must be strong enough to
Wire rope safety barriers are a very forgiving form of withstand the stresses which develop as the kinetic
roadside barrier, but they need adequate width energy of the vehicle is dissipated (through distortion
between the barrier and the hazard to accommodate of the vehicle, the rail and the soil) during impact. Each
the deflection of the ropes. As a rule of thumb, allow 2 section of rail (typically 5 m each) must also be
m for deflection between the wire rope safety barrier securely connected to the next section, and overlapped
and the hazard you are shielding. This offset is about away from the direction of the oncoming traffic to
twice that required for W beam steel barrier. avoid snagging.
-The posts (which may be timber or steel) provide

210 fixtures, but pre-cast units that are placed on the

roadway are increasingly used to provide short term
125
60 protection (for instance at road works sites or for traffic
management reasons in large intersections).
1100
555 Pre-cast units must be held together to form a
810 continuous “chain”. They must never be used as
individual units as these have no strength and are
180
simply hazards in themselves.
75
While concrete barriers can be very effective, care is
F-Shape Barrier Constant Slope Barrier required to ensure that the ends of the barriers are
correctly protected. There have been many recorded
Figure 2.23 Rigid barriers
incidents of vehicles striking the unprotected end of
rigidity to the whole system and hold the W-beam rail concrete barriers, often resulting in fatalities. Common
at the correct height before and during an impact. ways to end a rigid barrier include curving the barrier
through a radius of 40 m (or greater) to end outside
-The block-outs prevent snagging on the posts and
the clear zone, or fitting a crash cushion.
help to avoid vehicle rollover by providing restraining
forces above the centre of gravity of the vehicle. 2.2.3 Maintenance
-The terminals are essential for the W-beam to develop As you manage your roadside hazard management
its full tensile strength by providing a restraining force program remember the importance of maintenance in
at either end. A common anchorage is an adaptation of road safety.
the original Breakaway Cable Terminal (BCT). The BCT All road devices must be maintained when in use. The
incorporates slotted W-beam rails that crumple if the maintenance crews responsible for this need training
barrier is stuck end-on, reducing the possibility of the about the proper installation and maintenance of
rails spearing a vehicle. barriers and other roadside hazard treatments.
Maintenance crews are on the roads every day. They

c. Rigid (concrete) barriers
see the results of recent crashes and they can alert you
Concrete barriers are used at locations where no early to any developing blackspot location. Make sure
movement of the barrier can be tolerated. This includes your maintenance crew know how important they are
locations such as narrow medians on high volume in road safety engineering. Ensure they are trained and
expressways, or on overpass structures. Concrete encouraged in technical aspects of this work.
barriers are generally constructed as permanent road
How do you keep vehicles on the road?

The first part of a roadside hazard management
strategy is to keep all the vehicles on the road at all
times. If you succeed in this there can be no run-off-
road casualties.
First task – make sure your road is free of pot holes,

and is swept free of sand, gravel or mud. Vehicles
swerving around pot holes often threaten on-coming
motorcyclists who have nowhere to go but off the road.
Small vehicles and motorcycles also can slide and lose
control when gravel, mud or sand is left on a road.

Overtaking on a national highway without the safety benefits of A road that is free of pot holes, with strong line marking and with
sealed shoulders increases the risk of on-coming vehicles being forced wide sealed shoulders has a lower risk of run-off-road crashes.
from the road. This is a major contributor to head on crashes and
also to run-off-road crashes in Indonesia.
Tactile edge lines help to alert tired drivers/riders that they are
Delineation of curves will help drivers/riders to remain on the road.
about to leave the road. Having a sealed shoulder adds greatly to
Most curves in Indonesia need stronger and clearer delineation.
the benefit of the tactile edge line. In this case there is almost
Chevron Alignment Markers (CAMs) such as these are effective to
no time for a person to react before dropping onto the unsealed
assist road users to negotiate sub-standard curves.
(and dangerous) shoulder.
Second task – check that the line marking is well maintain, continuous and correct. On highways and other main
roads, edge lines are a proven means of helping drivers/riders to stay on the road.
Third task – check that all warning signs, speed restriction signs and direction signs meet the 6C’s of good signage.
Every sign along your road network should be:
- Conspicuous – the sign has to be seen. If a sign cannot be seen, how can it be effective?
- Clear – the shape and colour of the sign, as well as the legend/symbol, have to be readily identified.
- Comprehensible – the sign has to be able to be understood. A sign written in Swedish on a highway near
Surabaya will not be understood by many road users.
- Credible – the message conveyed by the sign has to be believable to drivers/riders otherwise they will tend to
ignore it. A kangaroo warning sign on a National Highway in Sumatra will be quickly ignored because it will lack
credibility.

Strong delineation of curves is helpful in keeping vehicles on

the road. These concrete guide posts provide good mid range
delineation. They are well maintained and they offer a small
reflective strip for better night time delineation.
However, they are roadside hazards themselves (more than 100mm
diameter and within the clear zone). They will cause serious injuries
if struck, especially by a motorcyclist.
There are safer options – concrete guide posts should be replaced with
plastic, flexible low cost alternatives.
In this first local example, a PVC pipe has been sawn in half, a reflective strip
has been stuck around the top and it has been used to guide traffic on
one of the nation’s busiest highways. If struck by a motorcyclist these posts
will not cause injury.
In the second local example, a reflector is held up by a flexible metal rod.
This guide post would be better if it was wider, and painted white
to stand out.
- Consistent – identical traffic situations should be managed by the use of the same sign. This reduces driver
reaction times, and improves driver understanding. Road signs have agreed standard shapes, colours, legends or
symbols. They should be located in consistent locations too.
- Correct – some signs have similar appearance to others, and their meanings are sometimes similar. But there will
only be one sign that is strictly correct for a situation. Make sure you use the correct one.
Fourth task – widen and seal the shoulders of your road. One metre wide sealed shoulders have been shown to
reduce crashes by 12%. Sealed shoulders will also assist motorcyclists to avoid head-on collisions and pedestrians
to avoid being struck from behind. By adding a tactile edge line you can expect to reduce crashes along the road by
a further 35%. Tactile edge lines help to alert tired drivers/riders by making a loud sound when the vehicle tyres
cross the edge line.

You need to keep just a few key points in mind to

2.3 Signs, line markings and
achieve positive safety results with signs and line
delineation markings.
Drivers and riders receive about 90% of their necessary

driving/riding information visually - through their eyes.
2.3.1 The Six C’s of good signing practice
They receive a little information via their hearing
(horns, rumble strips) and through feeling (tactile edge Start by remembering the 6C’s of good signage in your
lines, rough roads). But the overwhelming amount of road safety engineering work. If your sign or line
their information is gathered visually. marking meets all the six C’s of good practice then it
will be sure to assist drivers/riders to safely use the
The two most common devices that engineers use to
road. The 6C’s require signs (and markings) to be:
provide them with that information are signs and line
markings. Both are so commonly used on the roads - CONSPICUOUS – the sign has to be seen. For
that they are often taken for granted. This has led to instance, do not place your warning sign amongst
some signs and line markings being used incorrectly, the branches of a tree. Make sure the sign is
inefficiently or unsafely. reflective at night.
- CLEAR – the words and symbols used on signs must
Experienced road safety engineers know that signs and
be clear and legible. Minimise the number of words
line markings, correctly used, offer the best value road
and ensure that symbols are clear when viewed
safety for the roads of a country such as Indonesia.
from a distance. Shape and colour are important for
Signs and line markings are low cost. Wisely used, they
clarity to help drivers/riders to make correct
offer great benefits to all road users.
decisions earlier.
Safety Tips for Indonesian Road Safety Engineers:

Road Signs and Markings
CONSPICUOUS CLEAR COMPREHENSIBLE CREDIBLE

The sign must be able to be seen. The sign has to be able to be readily Signs must be able to be understood. The message conveyed by the sign
This warning sign is not well located identified and read. These direction signs The top sign is quite understandable has to be believable to the drivers.
because it is mixed in with the roadside are at an intersection – but who can but the lower sign is difficult to Drivers learn to disregard signs that
market. Drivers/riders could easily read them? Directions signs are for understand. Remember that drivers/riders are not credible.
miss seeing this warning sign. people who need help to find the way – only have 2 seconds in which to see, This “Pedestrian Crossing Ahead”
this sign fails to provide any help. understand and act on your sign. warning sign is credible as there is
a crossing ahead. This sign will
therefore add to driver/rider
respect for all signs.

- COMPREHENSIBLE – the sign has to be understood. use standard signs and markings you will be making a
- CREDIBLE – the message conveyed by the sign has positive safety impact.
to be believable to the drivers/riders otherwise they At the same time engineers need to be alert to know
will tend to ignore it. when and where to exceed the standards. There will be
- CONSISTENT – identical traffic situations should be occasions when more signs or larger signs will be
managed by using the same sign and/or marking. called for. There may be other occasions where fewer
Consistency reduces driver/rider reaction times and but clearer signs will work better. To determine the
improves driver understanding. difference comes from experience and judgement –
- CORRECT – there is only one sign that is strictly valuable assets for any road safety engineer.
correct for a given situation. Some signs look similar, Remain objective about using signs to solve a problem.
and may have almost similar meanings – but only If a safety problem does exist, search first for the cause
one is strictly correct for a situation. of the problem. Many problems require physical
changes to a road in order to bring about a solution to
the problem. For example, a hazardous intersection
2.3.2 Start by following standards
may be better treated by improved traffic control rather
The use of standard signs and markings on all the than by warning signs. This may be a much more
roads of Indonesia is to be strongly encouraged. expensive solution, but a road safety engineer needs to
Drivers/riders react more quickly and more correctly to decide what will work and what will simply be a waste
standard signs than they do to non-standard signs. of resources. Warning signs may provide some
Quicker and more accurate decision making is one of temporary benefit while you should work towards the
the key ingredients of safer traffic. By taking time to ultimate solution to the problem.
Signs provide 90% of the information needed by drivers/riders.

Remember to use the 6C's of good signage
CONSISTENT CORRECT LINE MARKING LINE ARROWS

Each sign for one issue should look The sign you install must be the A low cost way to direct drivers/riders They help drivers/riders to select the
the same and be placed in a similar correct one. This group of signs has two along their correct paths. Line marking is correct lanes to use approaching
position to the other sign(s) for regulatory signs – but the pedestrian an essential part of good road safety intersections. Lane arrows are
that issue. crossing sign does not have any road engineering. regulatory – drivers/riders must obey
Direction signs are important to assist markings near it. It is not the correct This hilly part of Indonesia experiences them. The turn arrow in this photograph
drivers to find their way to their sign to use. A symbolic “PEDESTRIANS” a lot of foggy weather. Edge lines would legally requires drivers/riders in this
destination. This sign is certainly not warning sign would be more appropriate. help to guide drivers/riders in lane to turn at the median opening.
clear and it is in an unusual location this location. This arrow has been used for advisory
for a direction sign. purposes but it is causing a regulatory
problem here. Most drivers/riders
ignore it and this leads to disregard
for pavement arrows overall.
The correct marking is a shared
through/right arrow here.

2.3.3 Some principles for signs Warning signs are grouped into the following series:
There are two main signing conventions in the world – - Alignment Series - these are signs warning of a
American and European. In Europe (plus many sharp curve or series of curves. The advisory speed
countries which were once European colonies) warning sign indicating the safe speed of a curve may be
signs are black on white within a red triangle. used below the sign. The safe speed is determined
Regulatory signs are within a red circle when they using an instrument such as a ball bank indicator
prohibit or limit something, or on a blue disk if they that measures centripetal acceleration or sideslip.
permit something. - Intersection Series - these give advance warning of
In America, and those countries which have chosen to intersections where the road layout, sight distance
follow the US convention of signs, warning signs are or other devices are inadequate to warn the
black on yellow diamond shaped signs. Regulatory driver/rider of the existence of an intersection, and
signs tend to be black on white rectangular signs. where there is reason to believe that drivers/riders
may approach it ill prepared unless warned in
Indonesia tends to follow the US sign convention for
advance.
its warning signs, and the European convention for its
Pedestrian/bicyclist/animal series – these warn of
regulatory signs. This is perfectly acceptable. The most
locations where pedestrians, or bicyclists or animals
important aspect of this is for engineers across
may be expected on the road ahead.
Indonesia to consistently use the correct sign for the
task. Drivers/riders demand consistent information and - General warning series – warning of issues such as
this is one thing that engineers should work towards. structures, obstacles, rough surfaces, and other
hazards ahead. Warning signs are usually
a. Regulatory signs permanent, but some may be used on a part time
basis to warn of intermittent hazards.
Regulatory signs inform road users of traffic laws. They
are enforceable. They must be obeyed. For this reason Remember that warning signs should be specific. The
every one used must comply with the Indonesian Road “Hati Hati” warning sign used widely across Indonesia
Rules. is an ineffective sign because it is not specific. It fails
to tell the driver/rider exactly what hazard lays ahead
To be truly effective, regulatory signs need to be self
– instead the driver/rider has to guess. Therefore one
enforcing to a large extent. For example, it must be
has to ask - what value does this sign add?
practicable to keep left of a symbolic “KEEP LEFT” sign
without placing the driver in danger; the alternatives Because it is ineffective, drivers/riders have learnt to
must be obvious where NO ENTRY and ONE WAY signs ignore this sign. Unfortunately this leads to a possible
face a driver. Some regulatory signs have special general disregard not only for these warning signs but
shapes and colours to emphasise especially important for all warning signs.
restrictions such as STOP and GIVE WAY signs. Instead of using a “hati hati” sign, it is better and safer
to give a specific warning. There is a need for an
b. Warning signs increased number of warning signs to be available to
Warning signs are used to warn road users of engineers in Indonesia. As an alternative in the
potentially hazardous conditions on or adjacent to the meantime, placing a supplementary plate beneath the
road. In Indonesia they are black on yellow diamond “hati hati” sign will assist drivers/riders to appreciate
shaped signs. the hazard ahead.
In addition to satisfying the 6C’s of good signage, a

c. Guide signs
warning sign should be specific – it must warn the
approaching driver/rider about the hazard ahead. It is These signs inform and advise road users about the
not acceptable to simply say SLOW DOWN, or to say direction and distances to destinations in the road
DANGER. The warning sign must give a clear indication system, inform them of services or features of interest
of what the hazard is. along the road, and give instructions. Although not
regulatory, these instructions should be obeyed.

2.3.4 Sign design and selection

The required size for a sign depends on the legibility All signs of course should face
distance of the legend and the time required reading it. the driver/rider.
A sign must be visible and legible over the whole of
the travel distance equivalent to the reading time. The
maximum distance at which a sign can be read, 2.3.6 Longitudinal placement
assuming that some intervening object does not
obscure it, can be calculated. The minimum distance at Certain signs, in particular most regulatory signs,
which it can be read depends on its angular indicate by their location the point at which the
displacement from the driver’s straight-ahead line of corresponding control or regulation takes effect.
vision. Studies have shown that once a sign falls Certain other signs (such as intersection direction
outside a line of vision 10 degrees either side, or 5 signs) mark the point at which an intersection or other
degrees above the driver’s straight-ahead line of vision, potential hazard occurs. The longitudinal location of
it can no longer be read comfortably. these devices is fixed, so their positioning and size
must be carefully selected to allow drivers/riders time
The travel time at the prevailing traffic speed between
to notice and read the signs, and to react to them.
these maximum and minimum distances must be
sufficient for the driver to read the message. Reading Other signs give advance warning of hazards, decision
times are generally taken as from 0.3 seconds per word points and regulatory controls. Standard distances for
for short, simple, familiar words (such as those on these signs in advance of the hazard or decision point
regulatory or warning signs) up to 0.7s for unfamiliar are usually given in the range 50 m (urban) to 200 m
words such as names on direction signs. (rural) depending on approach speeds and the nature
of the hazard.
As a general rule,
- allow 2 seconds for any sign to be read.

2.3.7 Some principles for pavement markings
- allow 2 seconds travel time between sequential
signs. There are three groups of pavement markings:
- limit all direction signs to a maximum of 5 lines of - longitudinal lines
information.
- transverse lines
- use only standard fonts.
- pavement word or symbol markings.
- always use reflective materials for the sign face.
The real value of pavement markings is that they are
placed on the road surface, where the driver’s/rider’s
2.3.5 Lateral placement and sign height eyes are fixed for most of the time. Pavement markings
provide, in the case of longitudinal markings, a
The minimum requirement for the lateral placement of
continuous delineation of the vehicle path.
a sign is for it to be clear of damage from passing
traffic. But, it should not be displaced laterally more However, pavement markings may not be readily
than necessary as it will lose prominence and lose visible under adverse weather conditions, and
effective reading time. especially at night. Raised reflective pavement markers,

and tactile edge lines can help to overcome this
For side placed signs, the minimum height in rural
problem.
areas is governed by the need to see the sign above
roadside vegetation and to be clear of mud splash. In Pavement markings are also prone to being scrubbed
urban areas, it is the need to be able to see the sign out by vehicle tyres, and they suffer from the effects of
above parked cars and stalls. The underside of the sign strong sunlight and heat. Thermoplastic line marking
should be high enough (more than 2.2 m) so not to can help to overcome this problem.
cause a hazard for pedestrians. Signs placed It is necessary to have a reliable maintenance regime
unnecessarily high may lie outside the headlight beam in place to routinely remark all the pavement markings.
at night, or may be obscured by street trees as a result. You and your colleagues can address that.

a. Longitudinal lines markings can be significant, especially on summit

vertical curves.
- Separation Lines - these are usually a 100 mm wide
broken line with stripes about one half of the gap - Pavement markings may be temporarily obscured by
length. They mark the separation of opposing other vehicles ahead. For instance, pavement arrows
directions of traffic on a two-way carriageway. are obscured by a waiting queue of traffic.
- Barrier Lines - these comprise a pair of 100 mm - A film of water on the road will reduce the
lines either double unbroken, or unbroken and reflective efficiency of line marking at night.
broken. Crossing or driving to the right of a barrier Therefore, do not place too great a reliance on the
line is illegal; they are commonly used to prohibit effectiveness of pavement markings, especially at
overtaking on two-lane two-way roads. locations of hazard. Supplement them with:
- Edge Lines - these are solid 100 mm lines located at
- Signs on the roadside
the edge of the carriageway. They improve
- Raised reflective pavement markers. These stand
delineation for highways in both rural and urban
above the film of water on a wet road, but require
areas. Studies have shown that edge lines reduce
continual maintenance to keep them effective.
night time crashes by up to 35%.
- Elongation of transverse lines, word and symbol
markings in the direction of viewing to make them
b. Transverse lines
more legible. Typically, 500 mm wide letters would
- Markings at STOP and GIVE WAY Signs - these are
need to be from 2.5 m long (urban), up to 5 m long
used at intersections and crossing points to indicate
(higher speed rural).
the place at which vehicles must stop in compliance
- Repeating markings such as pavement arrows that
with the traffic control. They are single unbroken
may be obscured by stationary queues of vehicles.
lines 600 mm wide.
- Pedestrian Crossings - this is the familiar ‘zebra’
crossing. These are 600mm wide white lines marked 2.3.8 Some principles for delineation
parallel to each other in a row across the road.
Delineation is the term given to the provision of signs,
line marking and other traffic devices in order to guide
c. Word and symbol markings
drivers/riders, especially on substandard curves.
Words and symbols can be applied to the road surface Delineation is used to:
to convey a message – usually in advance of a decision
- Control the movement of vehicles by supplying
point. For example, the “X” marking is generally used in
visual information to the driver/rider about the safe
advance of rail level crossings. Care needs to be taken
limits of the way ahead,
that they are applied using materials that will not
- Regulate the direction of travel, as well as lane
become slippery.
changing and overtaking,
Pavement Arrows - these legally prescribe the turning
- Mark lanes or zones where manoeuvres such as
movements permitted for various lanes at an
turns or parking are permitted, required or
intersection approach.
restricted,
- Improve lane discipline, particularly at night, and
d. Visibility of pavement markings
- Help in identifying potentially hazardous situations,
Remember that the visibility of pavement markings can
such as narrow bridges and sharp curves.
be affected in a number of ways:
Delineation is critically important to the safe and
- Drivers/riders view pavement markings from low
efficient operation of the road system. Delineation is
angles. This does not generally affect longitudinal
vital in enabling the driver/rider to locate their vehicle
lines except at horizontal curves and at summit
on the roadway and to make decisions about where to
vertical curves where obviously a driver will only
travel (navigation) and at what speed (control). Good
see the marking if the road surface can be seen.
delineation enables the driver/rider to keep the vehicle
- The effect on transverse lines and word or symbol within the traffic lane (short range delineation), and

plan the immediate forward route-driving task (long posts used on many Indonesia roads are unsafe. It is
range delineation). preferable to use other materials, including plastic,
timber, fibreglass or aluminium/thin steel.
Long-range delineation enables the driver/rider to plan
the forward route, and thus it needs to be consistent These posts may be provided as isolated devices (for
and continuous. It has application to a road as a whole. example to mark a culvert) but they are most effective
The curve characteristics of direction and curvature installed continuously along an extended length of
may need to be assessed up to 9 seconds ahead. road. For good long range delineation, drivers/riders
Detailed tracking data for actual curve negotiation is should always be able to see at least two and
required 3 seconds ahead of the curve. preferably three pairs of guideposts in their range of
vision.
Delineation devices fall into two groups - pavement
markings and roadside devices. Guideposts should have a reflective device attached,
often referred to as a post-mounted delineator (PMD).
a. Pavement markings These assist long range delineation at night, and are
made from reflective sheeting or from moulded plastic.
Pavement markings are usually applied using either
They should be wide enough for good visible at long
paint or a thermoplastic material. Because they are
distances, especially at night, and be high enough to
required to operate at day and night, they should be
avoid being soiled by road splash.
highly reflective, e.g. through the use of glass beads
mixed into the paint. They also need to be skid-
Hazard markers
resistant and durable. The message they convey must
These are black and white chevron boards. They may
be clear and not lead to confusion, and since any given
direct traffic to the left, to the right or in both
symbol may be visible for only a very short time, the
directions.
message must be simple and clearly understood.
Hazard markers may be used at any location where
Raised reflective pavement markers
improved delineation is required. They may be used on
Raised reflective pavement markers (RRPM’s) are small islands noses, median noses and on the side of roads
reflective devices that are glued to the road surface. around curves.
Being raised slightly they present a reflective face to
Chevron alignment markers (CAMs)
oncoming traffic. RRPM's provide better night time
delineation than painted centre lines and edge lines, These are a single post-mounted chevron with highly
especially under wet weather conditions. Crash contrasting black on yellow colours. The use of CAMs is
reductions of 15-18% have been reported by using restricted to those locations where drivers need
these reflectors. additional strong delineation to guide them through
curves which are substandard compared to the
b. Roadside devices adjacent curves. They are not to be used at
Roadside delineation devices include devices used

continuously along a road (such as guideposts), and
devices used at individual locations (such as bends or
bridges).
Guide posts and post mounted delineators
Guideposts are lightweight posts between 0.9-1.2 m

high, located typically 1 m (between 0.6-3 m) from the
edge of the road. They should be low cost, easy to
transport, and cheap to install and replace. In
Indonesia they need to withstand heat and humidity
and heavy rainfall. Most importantly they should not
present a safety hazard to road users. The concrete
A Chevron Alignment Marker

inappropriate locations (such as on traffic islands, or

roundabouts - these should use a hazard marker). CAM’s
have been shown to provide good long-range
information on curves. They have a crash reduction
potential of 30%.
CAM’s are placed in series around the outside of

substandard curves, placed approximately 1 metre off
the edge of the shoulder. The first CAM is located at or
near the tangent point, and subsequent CAMs should
be placed so that at least three CAMs are visible at any
one time to an approaching driver/rider.
Width markers are black and white diagonally striped

signs that provide reflective delineation of specific
hazards. These markers are applied in pairs to hazards A Width Marker, For Use On Bridge End Posts
such as bridge abutments, underpass piers, culverts,

and hazards in the road that create a squeeze point.

Signs
Maintain signs and markings properly; replace when worn out.
Avoid excessive numbers of signs. Always ask:
- Are certain signs really needed?

- Do they serve any practical function?
- Can an excessive number of signs be replaced by fewer but larger signs?
- Is a particular type of sign being used too often for insignificant purposes that its value in solving more serious
problems is degraded? In Indonesia the symbolic “Bridge” warning sign is over used. It should be reserved only
for bridges that create a squeeze point.
- Use positive signs. A good example is a regulatory “All Traffic Left” sign. It is clear and simple. Try to avoid using
“double negative signs”. An example is one sign that prohibits right turns and another sign that blocks the
through route. The only direction to go is to the left. Both signs could be replaced by an “All Traffic Left” sign.
- Signs need to be of an adequate size and properly located, so that drivers can read and act upon the message.
Spacing should be such that a driver can comprehend the messages on successive signs. As a general guide,
successive signs should be spaced at least 0.6 V metres apart, where V is the 85th percentile speed of vehicles
past the signs, in km/h.
- Signs should provide adequate advance warning of hazards or decision points. Locate the warning sign not too
close, and not too far away.
- Avoid complex word messages and symbols.


Delineation of curves
Generally, for wider roads, delineation devices should be implemented in this priority order:
1. Separation line
2. Edge lines
3. Reflective delineators on guideposts and safety barriers
4. Chevron hazard markers (black and white)
5. Chevron alignment markers (CAMs)
However, separation lines should not be implemented unless the sealed pavement is at least 5.5 m wide, and edge
lines should only be implemented if there is a separation line. Providing edge lines (with or without separation
lines) on narrow roads runs the risk that drivers will be guided by the edge line on their left and this runs a greater
risk of vehicles having head-on crashes.
For roads with a seal width less than 5.5 m, guideposts would be the first device to be implemented.
On roads in mountainous terrain, edge lines may be used on the drop-off side of the roads as the first level of
delineation of the hazardous drop-off.

Ending a Divided Road
CORRECT – any sign used should be the correct sign for Notice the unsafe line marking. Both directions of traffic It is suspected that this sign has been used to warn
the purpose. It is usually better not to use a sign than to can use the middle lane – a high risk location for head drivers/riders not to overtake because of the safety
use the wrong sign! on crashes. When a multi lane divided road ends, it is vital problems caused by the line marking. If so – it should
This warning sign is conspicuous, but it is also incorrect. to reduce the number of lanes to match the number in the have been a warning sign, and it should have been
The sign warns that both lanes narrow. undivided road. This has to be done before the divided located back along the highway by some 200m.
In fact, the undivided two lane two way road gets wider section ends. The safest option of all is to line mark this
beyond the sign, then it becomes a divided four lane road. Notice also the regulatory “No Overtaking” sign. Highway as shown.
This is placed just as the road becomes four lanes, and
about 100m before the median starts. Most drivers/riders
would say this is the best place to consider overtaking!

investigating a blackspot, you need a good

2.4 Safety in Geometric Design
understanding of the basic safety principles involved in
The geometric design of roads is a detailed field that the geometric design of roads. You need to be able to
involves thinking in three dimensions within the discuss geometric issues with designers and at times
natural terrain so that the needs of the road users are you may need to decide when a design is positively
met safely. assisting safety, or is simply complying with out of date
There are a number of technical guides for road or unsafe practices. This is not always an easy task.
designers to use, many of which include a wide number Geometric design standards serve three main purposes:
of equations, charts and tables. The aim of this section
- they help to maintain a degree of uniformity and
is not to repeat those equations, charts and tables but
consistency in roads, especially across
rather to briefly outline how and why some aspects of
administrative borders.
geometric design are so important in road safety
- they help to ensure satisfactory road designs are
engineering. As a road safety engineer, you are not
produced, even in jurisdictions where there is little
expected to be a road designer and you are not
design experience.
expected to be an expert in geometric design
standards. - by avoiding excessive designs, they tend to ensure
that scarce road funds are not mis-spent or wasted.
But, whether you are undertaking a road safety audit or
Some common mistakes with signs
- Not enough warning signs for schools, mosques, villages and other places where pedestrians gather
- Not enough speed restriction signs to make clear to drivers/riders what the maximum speed limit is.
- Misuse of similar warning signs. “Road Narrows on Left” and “Left Lane Ends” are often misused. “Pedestrians” and
“Pedestrian Crossing Ahead” are also misused.
- Mixing signs in with trees – or allowing trees to be planted after good signs are installed.
- Using warning signs in a regulatory role.
- Not replacing signs when they are damaged, worn or have lost reflectivity.
- Over use of “hati hati” sign.
- Over use of “Bridge” warning signs - often at bridges that are wider than the road!
Bridge warning sign is unnecessary – the bridge cross section is Do not mix warning signs with regulatory signs. If 30km/h is an
the same as the rest of the road. advisory speed, use a black and yellow supplementary plate
beneath the curve warning sign.

The first two of these in particular impact directly on realistic? In Indonesia, rural highways are typically
road safety; they are good reasons why geometric designed with a 60-80km/h design speed, and urban
design standards should be followed. roads and lesser rural roads are designed with a 40-
60km/h design speed.
There are five basic elements of geometric design that
impact on safety: The design speed is not the speed limit for a road.
While the two should be close in value, there are many
- Design speed
existing roads that have a design speed 10km/h or
- Cross section (including drains, medians, sealed
20km/h above the speed limit. This has usually been
shoulders)
done for safety reasons – to build in a “margin for
- Sight distances
error”. However, this theory is now challenged by many
- Horizontal alignment (including superelevation) experienced road designers because it leads to more
- Vertical alignment expensive roads (bigger curves, more land acquisition)
and it encourages some drivers/riders to exceed the
speed limit.
2.4.1 Design Speed
The design speed for a new road (or road realignment)
One of the first considerations of an auditor is to should depend on road hierarchy, traffic volume and
assess the design speed of the proposed new road. Is it gradient. It may also depend on existing alignments
The Hati Hati warning sign is too general. This sign mentions that This direction sign is on a gantry above a two way two lane road.
the location has many crashes. But what should a driver/rider do to However, drivers/riders could think this is a one way road because
reduce the risk of being involved in a crash. Warning signs need the sign suggests that. The sign should be located only on the left
to be specific. side of the gantry. A centre line should be painted here.
Some common mistakes with road markings

- -Not using line marking!
- Inconsistent line marking – stopping and starting.
- Not replacing lines after re-sheeting of a road.
- Line marking that directs opposing streams of traffic into each other.
- Inadequate line marking used where four lane divided roads revert to two lane two way roads. The marking used
either encourages late overtaking or direct opposing streams of traffic into each other.
- Using lane arrows as a guide for road users, but they are regulatory.
- Poor maintenance and a failure to preserve existing markings.

and the proximity of fixed constraints (such as bridges, 2.4.2 Cross Section
structures, notable trees or high voltage power pylons).
The cross section of a road is a section of the road
If it is not possible to realign a bridge, or to remove a
taken at right angles to the direction of the road. It
notable tree, designers sometimes accept a lower
includes shoulders, lanes and medians (if any).
design speed in order to minimise radii of curves and
other geometric requirements. In this way, the design Ideally, all road cross sections should include wide
speed then affects parameters such as sight distance. If sealed shoulders, consistent and generous width lanes,
sight distances are reduced too far because an and a wide central median. All drains should be
excessively low design speed is adopted, auditors underground and there should be no roadside hazards
should look closely at all possible safety consequences. (such as rigid poles or trees) within the clear zone (see
Section 2.3).
A starting point in checking road safety in such
situations is to ensure that drivers/riders will be However, roads take land and wider roads take more
presented with a reasonably consistent speed land. Therefore, compromises are usually taken to keep
environment. Having frequent changes of design speed the main road function and to provide safe operation,
is not good for driver/rider expectancy. while meeting environmental and cost constraints. As a
road safety engineer, it is one of your tasks to
The next factor is to check that the design speed
determine if/when these compromises are acceptable
adopted is not too low. Good road design is achieved
for safety, or whether they exceed what a reasonable
where the design speed is equal to the operating
driver/rider can safely handle.
speed. An indicator of an appropriate design speed may
be obtained by measuring the existing 85th percentile
speed, when traffic is flowing freely. (The 85th
percentile speed is the speed at or below which 85% of
the traffic is travelling at).
Table 2.3 Typical Lane Widths
Location Function Lane Width Remarks
Duplicated Road Wider letf lane will be apply

Urban 3.50 m
if there is no hard shoulder
Through Lane 3.00 - 3.50 m
Right Turn Lane 2.50 - 3.50 m
Single motorcycle lane 2.00 - 2.50 m
Expressway Through Lane 3.00 - 3.65 m If a lane is reduced to 3.00 m you

(toll road) should give careful consideration
Single lane entry and exit to the operating speed of the traffic.
3.50 m
A strictly applied lower speed
restriction will be needed.
Single Loop Ramp 4.00 m This allow for some vehicles
“tracking” within the lane and
for a small amount of overhang
from a large turning vehicle.
Rural Through Lane 3.00 - 3.50 m

Single motorcycle lane 2.00 - 2.50 m
TIP
Cross section elements should be consistent along a given road segment, within the constraints offered by the
terrain. This is an important factor to encourage consistent speeds along the road which in turn is a key element
of a safe road.

TIP
If you need to change the cross section of a road, ensure that the transition allows sufficient distance in which
drivers/riders can adapt to the new environment. For example, if a four lane divided road becomes a two lane,
two way undivided road, you should provide sufficient advanced warning signage, appropriate tapers with strong
delineation, and consistent line marking to mitigate the impact of the change and to reduce the risk of head-on
crashes.
This location is a blackspot. It occurs where a four lane divided road becomes a two lane two way undivided road. There has been a history of
head–on collisions in the two way section of the Highway because drivers/riders exiting the divided section do not realise the cross section of the
highway has changed. This warning sign informs drivers/riders that the road narrows. It does not say that the divided road ends, and that four
lanes become just two. It should be treated with strong line marking, advanced warning signs and good delineation to inform and assist
drivers/riders to form into a single lane before entering the undivided section.
Sealed shoulders are good for safety

Sealed shoulders provide an initial recovery area for any vehicle that has lost control and has begun to leave the
road. In this way, sealed shoulders can reduce ‘run-off-road” crashes and also “head on” crashes as well. Sealed
shoulders are good for safety. They also offer other benefits including:
- a refuge for stopped vehicles at a safe distance

from traffic lanes;
- access or parking for emergency or maintenance
vehicles;
- lateral support for the pavement and to assist with
maintaining the sub-base.
What should you do if drivers/riders use the sealed

shoulder as an additional lane? Firstly you should
look closely to see if this is creating any safety
problems. If motorcyclists are the only users, that is
probably good for safety. They may see it as a “lane”
for their use, which gives them space from larger
An example of a national highway in a rural area with a generous
vehicles. It is not a “lane” for their use but if they use road cross section – there are 3.5m wide lanes and 2.0m sealed
shoulders. The line marking is good and the cross fall is about 2% -
enough for sideways runoff of rainwater.

it wisely, and if they watch for pedestrians walking

on the shoulder, it may be a safe option for them.
In some locations (with high volumes of pedestrians

and motorcycles) there may be merit in signing the
sealed shoulder as a motorcycle/pedestrian lane.
If cars and truck and buses are using it however, you

need to seek enforcement from the Police. It is
dangerous to drive on a sealed shoulder because of
the risk of colliding with a broken down vehicle, or
with pedestrians. Sealed shoulders also provide
emergency vehicle access to crash locations and
In difficult terrain, a designer may have to reduce the cross section.
they must be kept open and clear for those
In this case the lanes are 2.75m wide and there is no shoulder.
occasions. In such cases it is important for safety to ensure that strong
delineation is provided (guide posts and line marking) and that
operating speeds are managed at a suitably low level.
Drains
To drain the road, it is normal to provide a
carriageway cross fall of 2.0%. However in areas with
known high rainfall intensity, the crossfall is often
increased to 2.5% to drain the road more quickly. This
helps to reduce the risk of aqua planning (where the
vehicle wheels lose contact with the road because of
a film of water between the tyre and the road
surface). Aqua planning is dangerous as the
driver/rider has no control over braking or steering at
that time.
Longitudinal drainage takes the run-off from the road When water does not drain quickly from a road and it builds up on
the road pavement, there is a risk of aquaplaning. This is especially
and transfers it into the drainage network. The
hazardous for motorcyclists.
widespread use of open roadside drains creates one
of the most common roadside hazards along
Indonesian roads. They provide a severe risk to motorcyclists and the users of small cars in particular.
Open drains should be avoided on new road projects, and should gradually be removed (covered or relocated) on
existing roads. If you are auditing a new road proposal, make sure there are no open drains proposed within the
clear zone. It you are investigating a blackspot where a drain is involved, do your best to cover the drain.

2.4.3 Sight distance react much more quickly than others. Older
drivers/riders and those affected by fatigue, alcohol or
An important aim of road design is to ensure that
drugs will be slower to react.Young drivers/riders will
drivers/riders, while travelling at or below the design
be quicker to react (although their lack of experience
speed, are able to see potential road hazards in
may lead them into making incorrect decisions).
sufficient time to take avoiding action. Humans take
time to react, and they need distance in which to take Knowing the operating speed, and using a 2 second
avoiding action. The faster they are travelling when reaction time, it is possible to determine the required
they first see the hazard, the greater is the stopping sight distances. Note that the selection of extreme
distance needed. This is where the concept of sight values for every parameter is not appropriate, as the
distance is vital in road safety. probability of all factors occurring together is
extremely low, and the resultant designs would
This concept is based on several assumptions about
become impractical.
hazards, about reaction times and corresponding
driver/rider behaviour. When determining sight distance, the following
assumptions are made about the following elements:
A hazard is assumed to be large enough and within the
driver’s field of view so that it causes a driver/rider to - Object height - assumed to be 0.0m (to see
take evasive action. Typical hazards include large pot pavement markings), 0.2m (to see a small object on
holes, animals, overtaking vehicles, entering vehicles, the road) or 0.6m (to see rear tail lights on vehicles)
pedestrians and many others. depending on the sight distance in question.
Reaction times are based on typical times for average - Driver/rider eye height - assumed to be 1.05m for
drivers/riders. A general 2 second reaction time is cars, 2.4m for trucks.
assumed for driver/riders although in practice there is - Driver/rider reaction time - 2 seconds for an average
a distribution of values. Humans vary and some will non-alerted driver/rider.
Medians
A median is the reservation that separates one Table 2.4 Minimum median width and its function
carriageway from another at or near the centre of a

Median Function Minimum Width
divided road. Medians are generally good for safety,
because they separate traffic flows, and thus prevent
To separate traffic flow
head-on and side-swipe collisions. In addition,
medians also can be useful; - continuous rigid barrier 0.7 m
- to control crossing and turning movements; - road concrete separator 0.6 m
- to shelter turning vehicles at intersection; To shelter small sign 1.2 m

- to provide a safe refuge for pedestrians crossing
To shelter street lamp pole 2.0 m
the road;
To shelter pedestrian 2.5 m
- to provide space for planting which can decrease
light glare and improve aesthetics. To shelter crossing vehicles 7.0 m
One of the most important safety considerations if you For planting 10.0 m
are considering building a median is to make it wide
enough to provide sheltered right turn lanes.
Indonesia has too many medians with openings that are accessed directly from the median side lane. This
increases the risk of rear end collisions and is also inefficient as drivers/riders are held up unnecessarily.

ASD
ASD
ASD
ASD
Figure 2.24 Approach Sight Distance
SISD
7m desirable
5m minimum
Conflict point
Figures 2.25 Safe Intersection Sight Distance
The most important sight distances for safety at cross or enter traffic streams. This is why Safe
intersections are: Intersection Sight Distance (SISD) is essential for safe
operation. It helps to reduce the risk of “restart” crashes
- Approach Sight Distance (ASD)
at intersections.
- Safe Intersection Sight Distance (SISD)
Information about ASD and SISD is provided in Section
A fundamental requirement of safe intersection design
2.1 in this manual.
is for approaching drivers/riders to be able to
recognise the presence of an intersection and its The two most important sight distances for mid- block
layout, and have time to react appropriately. locations are:
Approaching drivers/riders should also be able to - Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
understand the priority that applies and clearly see
- Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD)
their path through the intersection. This is where
Approach Sight Distance (ASD) is necessary – it helps
Stopping Sight Distance
to reduce the risk of a driver/rider “overshooting” the
Stopping sight distance is the distance required to
intersection, not knowing it was there!
enable an alert driver/rider, travelling at the design
It is also essential that drivers of vehicles standing at
speed on wet pavement, to perceive, react and brake to
or turning through intersections have adequate sight
a stop before reaching a hazard on the road ahead.
distance to conflicting vehicles so that they can safely
This distance is considered to be the minimum sight

Stationary object
on road (object height 0.15 m)
Driver Eye Height (1.05 m)
Reaction Distance Braking Distance
Stopping Sight Distance
Figure 2.26 Stopping Sight Distance
d1 d2 d3 d4
Phase1 Phase2 Phase3 Phase4
Continuation Sight Distance
Establishment Sight Distance
Figure 2.27 Full Overtaking Maneouvre
d1 is the distance that the overtaking vehicle travels during the early phase of overtaking manoeuvre and drivers can either abort or
continue overtaking movement.
d2 is the distance of completion of overtaking manoeuvre. Usually it is assuming that vehicle commences overtaking below the design
speed and accelerates uniformly reaching the design speed at the end of overtaking movement.
d3 is the safety margin distance between overtaking vehicle and opposing vehicle
d4 is the distance travelled by opposing vehicle, assuming travelling at the design speed.
distance that should be available to a driver/rider. permission. The absolute minimum is the figure that
the designer may use only after obtaining approval to
To improve safety at locations which have sight
do so from a senior official.
distances below the SSD you have several options:
Indonesia does not use this approach at present. In
- Improve sight lines by reducing vertical curves.
your road safety work, you should always consult the
- Increase sight lines across horizontal curves -
Indonesian Standards. Be alert however to the fact that
sometime by cutting back vegetation on the inside
some Standards may be old; always be prepared to
of the curve, sometimes by removing illegal
discuss the safety merit of distances (such as SISD)
buildings/structures, and sometimes by increasing
contained in other national guidelines.
the radius of the curve.
- Reduce the operating speeds – with good speed
Overtaking Sight Distance
restriction signs and Police enforcement.
Overtaking sight distance (OSD) is the distance
- Improve the skid resistance of the road pavement so
required for a driver/rider to safely overtake a slower
that vehicles may stop in a shorter distance.
vehicle without interfering with the speed of an
Some countries have desirable minimum and absolute oncoming vehicle. It is measured between the
minimum distances in their standards and guidelines. driver’s/rider’s eyes of the overtaking and oncoming
The desirable minimum is the distance that is vehicles.
acceptable for a designer to use without special

An “overshoot” crash occurs when a driver/rider is unaware of an intersection and drives/rides through at
speed. To best treat this type of crash we need to make the intersection more conspicuous through better
ASD.
A “restart” crash occurs when a driver/rider knows the intersection is there, slows down, maybe stops, but
then selects an unsafe gap to proceed. To best treat this type of crash we need to improve SISD.
Overtaking sight distance is considered only on two- - Install “no overtaking” lines and associated signs.
lane two way roads. On these roads, the overtaking of Work closely with Traffic Police to ensure
slower moving vehicles is only possible when there is a enforcement helps to emphasise driver/rider
suitable gap in the on-coming traffic accompanied by compliance.
sufficient sight distance and appropriate line marking. - Construct an overtaking lane.
Sections of road with adequate overtaking sight
distance should be provided as often as possible. Good
overtaking opportunities are an essential safety 2.4.4 Horizontal Alignment
measure to reduce risk and driver/rider frustration. The The horizontal alignment of a road is its alignment in
desirable frequency of overtaking opportunities is the horizontal plane. The most significant factors to
related to the operating speed, traffic volume and consider for safety in horizontal alignment are the
composition, terrain and construction cost. Overtaking radius of the horizontal curves and also the
demand increases rapidly as traffic volume increases, development of the superelevation that leads into and
while overtaking capacity in the opposing lane out of each curve.
decreases as volume increases.
Larger radius curves generally provide greater sight
As a general rule, if overtaking sight distance cannot distance – drivers/riders are able to see through the
be economically provided at least every 5km of rural curve and to make safe decisions earlier. However, this
road (or about each 5 minutes of travel time), safety benefit can be lost if vegetation is allowed to
consideration should be given to the construction of grow beside the road and allowed to cut off the sight
overtaking lanes. lines.
The OSD is the summation of the above distances (d1 – Shorter radius curves may restrict sight lines and
d4) and is a function of design speed. You should check usually restrict reasonable drivers/riders to low speeds.
the OSD in the current Indonesian Standards. There are However, if unrealistically high speeds occur it may be
also some useful figures in guidelines from other necessary to apply additional speed management
countries. (speed limits and enforcement).
If you are investigating a location that has a history of Drivers/riders become used to the horizontal
head-on crashes you should check that the OSD is met. alignment of a road. If they are on a winding road they
If it is not met, you have several options: condition themselves to drive/ride at a steady speed.
- Improve sight lines by reducing vertical curves. However, if one curve in a series is tighter than the
others some drivers/riders will fail to negotiate it. Such
- Increase sight lines across horizontal curves -
“substandard” curves require stronger delineation to
sometime by cutting back vegetation on the inside
reduce the number of run-off-road crashes – a series of
of the curve, sometimes by removing illegal
chevron alignment markers, larger advanced warning
buildings/structures, and sometimes by increasing
signs, and strong edge lines. When auditing drawings
the radius of the curve.
(especially for a rural road), check to ensure that the
- Reduce the operating speeds – with good speed
horizontal curves are as consistent as possible.
restriction signs and Police enforcement.

Remember too that special treatment may be If you have a lot of heavy, highly loaded trucks at your
necessary for curves at the end of long straights curve, and if these are travelling a low speeds, be very
because of the high speeds that can be developed. careful that you do not cause some to overturn
These curves often require stronger delineation because of excessive super elevation.
(chevron alignment markers, advanced warning signs
Check the superelevation (8% desirable, 10% max
and strong edge lines).
usually) and also check the rate of change of super
elevation. If you have lots of high mounted and slow
Superelevation
moving trucks at your location, think carefully – maybe
Superelevation is the slope of the road on a curved go for the lower figure. More super elevation is not
pavement that is designed so as to enhance forces necessarily safer!!
assisting a vehicle to maintain a circular path. When a
Also, there should not be a rapid change from positive
vehicle travels around a horizontal curve at speed it
to negative super elevation. This can “throw” a vehicle
experiences sideways forces that tend to direct it
and cause loss of control.
towards the outside of the curve. In order to counter
this effect, the road pavement is “lifted up” on the
Intersections on horizontal curves
outside edge of the carriageway.
It is not often that you will have the freedom to decide
It is necessary to gradually develop superelevation as
where to place an intersection. However, if/when you
shown in the diagram below.
do, place the intersection where it offers the best level
Superelevation design should be based on several of safety for the road users. This will depend on
considerations: horizontal alignment. If possible, place a cross road
intersection on a long straight section of road. This
- Operating Speed Design (the 85th percentile speed)
maximises sight lines in both directions.
- Tendency of very slow moving vehicles to track
toward the centre and the stability of those vehicles Placing a T-junction on the outside of a curve is also
good for safety – drivers/riders are able to have good
- Differences between inner and outer formation
sight distance in both directions (assuming the road is
levels, and length available to implement the
flat!) On the other hand, placing a T junction on the
necessary super elevation.
inside of a horizontal curve can lead to serious sight
Superelevation is primarily needed for safety, but other
restrictions regardless of vertical geometry – causing
factors such as comfort and appearance are also
entering safety issues.
relevant.
If you are investigating a safety problem at an existing
Note – while super elevation is necessary for safety,
intersection, look to see if it is on the inside or outside
you need to be careful that the super elevation
of a horizontal curve. Look to see if the vertical
provided is not excessive for the location. Some “super”
alignment complicates the sight lines. Strive to ensure
is good, but too much “super” is bad!
that the road users entering the main road from the
side road are provided with Safe Intersection Sight
Distance (SISD).
Figure 2.28 Superelevation Development

2.4.5 Vertical Alignment Vertical Curves
Steep vertical curves have a direct and strong impact

Effect of Gradient on the speed of heavily loaded vehicles, such as trucks
Generally, grades should be as flat as possible, and buses.
consistent with economy and longitudinal drainage In Indonesia, with a history of heavily overloaded
requirements. Flat grades permit all vehicles to operate trucks, this can create dangerous situations. Steep
at the same speed. Steeper grades produce variation in uphill sections have been known to become the sites
speeds between vehicles with varying power to weight of “roll back” crashes when trucks lose power and their
ratios. brakes fail to prevent them from rolling backwards.
This speed variation: Steep downhill sections have been the location of
trucks losing their brakes due to overheating, or “run-
- Leads to higher relative speed differential between
off-road” crashes due to excessive speed.
vehicles, increasing the risk of rear end crashes, and;
- Results in increased queuing and overtaking Overloading of trucks is one of the most significant
requirements which gives rise to further safety vehicle related road safety problems in Indonesia
problems, particularly at higher traffic volumes. today. It is directly responsible for many serious road
crashes, it damages the roads of this country and it
- Increases freight costs due to the lower speed of
wears out the vehicles prematurely.
heavy vehicles.
Road safety engineers cannot enforce load limits, but
Table 2.5 shows the effect of grade on vehicle
performance.
Table 2.5 Effect of Gradient on Vehicle Performance
Reduction in Vehicle Speed as

Compared to Flate Grade %
Grade Road Type Suitability

Uphill Downhill
Light Vehicle Heavy Vehicle Light Vehicle Heavy Vehicle
0-3 Minimal Minimal Minimal Minimal For use on all roads

Some
reduction on For use on low-moderate speed roads
3-6 Minimal high speed Minimal Minimal (incl. High traffic volumes roads)
roads
Minimal for
straight
For use on roads in mountainous
Largely Significantly alignment.
6-9 Minimal terrain. Usually need to provide
unaffected slower Substantial
auxiliary lanes if high traffic volumes.
for winding
alignment.
Significantly
slower for Need to provide auxiliary lanes for
straight moderate - high traffic volumes.
Much alignment. Need to consider run-away vehicle
9-12 Slower slower Slower Much slower facilities if proportion of commercial
for winding vehicles is high.
alignment.
10-15 km/h 15% max. 10-15 km/h Extremely Satisfactory on low volume roads
12-15 slower negotiable slower slow (very few or no commercial vehicles)
Only to be used in extreme cases

Not Not and be of short lengths
15-300 Very slow negotiable Very slow negotiable (no commercial vehicles)

they can do a lot to minimise the safety effects of this

dangerous practice. Check that uphill grades are
limited in terms of length according to the lengths Plan
shown in Table 2.5.

Profile
2.4.6 Coordinating Horizontal and Vertical Plan
Alignments
Profile
The horizontal and vertical alignments of a road
should be co-ordinated to avoid inadequate stopping Both examples have poor alignment with unrelated horizontal
and vertical curves and broken backed horizontal curves.
sight distance and ‘broken–back’ illusions on the
curvature of bends.
Plan Plan
Road designers try to achieve this by making all points,
Profile Profile
where horizontal and vertical curves change, coincide
with one another. Where this is not possible and the Plan Plan
curves cannot be separated entirely, the vertical curves

Profile Profile
should be contained either wholly within, or wholly
A short movement in one plane
outside, the horizontal curves. Plan
should not be placed within a
large movement in the other.
Where curves are allowed to overlap, the resulting Profile
optical illusions may be damaging to the appearance

of the road and may contribute to road crashes. Figure 2.29 Poor Coordination of Alignments
Compound curves within a vertical curve need to be designed You should try to avoid a broken view of the road ahead because of
carefully to ensure adequate stopping sight distance. vertical alignment - especially when there is a horizontal curve just
beyond. In locations like this, guide posts provide valuable long
range delineation. Drivers/riders will be able to see the top of the
guide posts across the crest.

How do you create a more forgiving roadside?
One way AADT

10 (veh/d)
(approach volume)
>_ 5000
(measured from edge of traffic lane)

8
4000
3000
Clear zone width (m)
2000
6 <_ 1000
0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
85th percentile speed (km/h)
Clear Zone Distance - for straight sections of road
Examples:
1. The desirable minimum clear zone width in all cases is 3 m.
2. If one way AADT is 4,000 vehicles/day and the operating speed is 80 km/hour, the required clear zone width is 6 m.
Start by calculating the necessary clear zone for your road. How many vehicles use the road, and how fast do
they travel. Look up the clear zone graph and find the required width of the clear zone you will need.
For instance, if the 85%ile operating speed (the speed at or below which 85% of the traffic is travelling) is 100
km/h, and there are some 3000 vpd one way on your road, the clear zone required for a straight section of road
is 7.5 m. (There are some additional multiplying factors to accommodate curves and to allow for side slopes but
for now start by aiming to achieve a 7.5 m clear zone).
If you are involved in designing and building a new road the task is easier – you determine the required clear
zone and then you must ensure that sufficient land is acquired to provide this clear zone.
You measure 7.5 m outwards from the edge line (or the edge of the road) and look for all the roadside hazards
in that distance. A roadside hazard is any fixed object with a diameter in excess of 100 mm. There may be many –
there may be none. Remove, relocate or weaken every roadside hazard possible within the clear zone. For
example:
- Cover drains, cut down trees.

- Relocate monuments, sign supporting structures, light columns, and billboards.
- Weaken sign posts, and install forgiving lighting columns and sign posts.
Finally, if there are any roadside hazards remaining in the clear zone, you may decide to install safety barrier to
shield the hazard.
Look up the guidelines about the use of safety barriers and follow them closely.

Direction signs such as this should not be placed in exposed locations

such as gore areas where the risk of vehicles running off the road are greater
than average.
If a relocation is not possible, safer sign supporting posts should be used.
The barrier that has been used here is serving little useful purpose. It is not
long enough, not high enough and it is only shielding the pole from one side.
It also has an unsafe “fish tail” terminal on the end – presenting a spearing
hazard for errant vehicles.
This slip base footing of an aluminium strutted sign support is one of

the safest supports available. If struck, the support “slips” backwards and the
sign collapses. The occupants of a vehicle that strikes this type of sign are
lucky – they can usually walk away unharmed.
Some useful road safety devices

There are many safety products now available for use along roadsides. A search of the Internet will quickly point
you to hundreds of companies offering thousands of new devices that will reduce risk along the roadside. You
should gather as much information about these products as possible. It is likely you will oversee their use one
day in the future.
For now there are two well tested devices that warrant your attention - slip based lighting columns and crash
cushions (impact attenuators).
Slip based lighting columns

Considerations with the installation of slip base poles
- Correctly tightened hold down bolts. (if the bolts are too tight the pole acts a rigid pole and the safety
features are lost, too loose and the pole can be knocked over by the forces of excessive wind loading. 80nm
per bolt is the correct torque required).
- Set the base section at the correct height. If set too low, the surrounding ground will impede the free
movement of the pole during impact. If set too high it will snag the underside of an impacting vehicle.
- Never concrete the hold down bolts in position. The collapse mechanism will be inoperable, creating a rigid
pole.

Slip base pole Crash cushions
- Use only in high speed locations, above 80km/h, where the striking vehicle is likely to have sufficient speed
to satisfactorily clear the falling pole.
Crash cushions
A crash cushion is a form of non-redirective crash barrier that absorbs energy by collapsing upon impact. They
are useful to reduce the consequences of crashes into the ends of rigid barriers or into heavy point structures on
high speed roads.
Considerations with the installation of crash cushions
- Never place the crash cushion behind or on top of barrier kerb. A crash cushion is designed to be hit at road
level – it will not perform correctly if the impacting vehicle strikes barrier kerb first and rises up.
- Once a crash cushion is struck it should be repaired within 48 hours – the hazard is exposed while the
cushion is damaged.
- make the crash cushion conspicuous. The nose of the cushion should be brightly painted to be conspicuous to
approaching road users- to minimise “innocent” hits.
- Select the crash cushion for the speed environment. As a rule of thumb, one cartridge (cell) is needed for each
10 km/h of expected operating speed. On an expressway with speeds of up to 100 km/h, you will need 10
cells in the crash cushion. In an urban area with 50 km/h operating speeds, 5 cells will be needed.

What do you do with existing barrier that is clearly unsafe?

As a road safety engineer you will look at safety barriers as a useful device to use at selected locations on your
roads. However, you will also inherit many sections of barrier that are of questionable value.
How does an engineer decide whether an existing barrier is safe, or less than safe? What should you do if you
have some barrier that is clearly inadequate for the task?
What should you do if you discover some barrier that really doesn’t need to be there?
The decision regarding the acceptance, removal, modification or replacement of the barrier can be based on an
assessment of the performance of the particular installation..
All of the barriers in the following photographs no longer meet acceptable international safe practice. All have
some serious flaws. Will you decide to remove the barrier, to improve and modify the barrier, or to leave the
barrier as it is?
There are a number of factors you will need to take into account when making decisions about existing
barriers?
- The potential danger the barrier presents compared to the hazard it is shielding.
- The post spacing’s, and condition.
- The terminals and their condition.
- The offset of the barrier from the road
- The offset of the barrier from the hazard
- The length of the barrier
- The surface condition between the road and the barrier.
- The height of the barrier.
- The overlap of the railings.
Common deficiencies in Indonesia with old barrier include:
- Barrier that is too low. The road has been overlaid several times and the barrier may now be less than half of
its original height vehicles are at risk of vaulting over these barriers.
- Barrier that has not been repaired after it has been struck.
- Barriers that have fishtail ends rather than approved terminals. The fishtail ends present a risk of spearing an
errant vehicle – or motorcyclist.
- Barriers that are placed too close to the hazard. Inadequate offsets mean that some vehicles that strike the
barrier may end up pocketing into the hazard anyway. Always allow at least 1 m behind W beam guardrail to
allow for deflection.
- Some railings are overlapped the wrong way. If an errant vehicle strikes the barrier just in advance of
incorrectly overlapped barrier it could split the two sections, forcing open the gap. The next section of barrier
may then spear the vehicle. Always overlap away from the direction of travel.
- Barrier that has unsealed rough areas between it and the road. In wet weather an errant vehicle may dip into
the mud and strike the barrier too high – leading to serious injuries.
Barrier that is too short
- Barrier that is not anchored to the bridge parapet.
- Barrier that has no approach end flare.

Inadequate offset to hazard No maintenance/repairs

Fish tail end
Unnecessary gap
No repairs No terminal
Too high
Fishtail ends Barrier too low compared to road surface

Barrier unnecessary Overlapped the wrong way

PART C - Vulnerable Road Users
PART C
Vulnerable Road Users

In this Part you will read about the safety needs of three of Indonesia’s largest groups of road users – pedestrians,
motorcyclists and bicyclists.
Attention is focussed on the special needs of four groups of pedestrians – the young, the elderly, the disabled and
the intoxicated/drug affected.
Details of useful pedestrian facilities are provided, together with some initiatives to improve pedestrian safety.
Safety tips are also provided to assist you to make your roads safer for motorcyclists and for bicyclists. Both groups
need your help.
Practical examples are given. This Section encourages you to always remember vulnerable road users (pedestrians,
motorcyclists and bicyclists) in your engineering work. By the end of this Part, you will have a good understanding
of many of the practical issues associated with vulnerable road users.
They have very few pedestrian operated signals or

3.1 Pedestrian safety
intersection pedestrian signals to help them to cross
Pedestrians are the single largest group of road users - roads. The zebra crossings are in poor condition and
everyone is a pedestrian from the time that they take are not respected by drivers/riders. The steel and
their first tentative steps as a baby, through childhood concrete pedestrian overpasses in the bigger cities are
and adulthood and into old age. Pedestrians do not not liked because of their height, they are slippery
need a licence to use the roads. They are a mobile when wet, and they are often quite a distance away
group and are able to go almost anywhere at any time. from where the pedestrians wish to cross.
They are dispersed across the road network, and can be
It would seem that the largest road user group in this
seen at all times of day and night, in all weathers, and
country is also the most disadvantaged. It is time for
on all types of roads.
this to change. As a road safety engineer, you can make
Pedestrians are a particularly vulnerable road user. In a positive difference for pedestrians by paying
the event of a crash with a motor vehicle, the particular attention to their special safety needs.
pedestrian is the most likely to be injured - often
seriously. If the impact is at a speed greater than
40km/h, there is 50% chance the pedestrian will die. If the impact is at a speed
Unfortunately, pedestrians in Indonesia get little greater than 40km/h, there is
practical assistance on the roads of this country..
Indonesian pedestrians have few good footpaths or
50% chance the pedestrian
sealed shoulders to help them to walk along the roads. will die.

This school gate exits straight onto a National Highway. As they leave the school the children walk along the unsealed
Excited children can run onto the Highway in a few steps, and be shoulder of the Highway. Children of this age cannot be left to judge
in conflict with traffic travelling at more than 60km/h. traffic alone.
Unfortunately one young boy was killed at this spot when he
chased a ball onto the Highway.
will almost always fail. There are some exceptions –
fencing expressways to keep pedestrians off is one
3.2 Pedestrian crashes good example. Overall it is better and safer to keep
It is not possible to be sure how many pedestrians are medians and footpaths open, and install good quality
killed or injured in road crashes each year in Indonesia pedestrian facilities that will gain the respect of
due to unreliable crash data. It is less possible to be pedestrians and drivers/riders.
sure which groups of pedestrians are most involved - Pedestrians will take the shortest path. Pedestrians
(the young, the elderly, males, females) in these will not walk out of their way to use a device simply
crashes, where the crashes happen (urban, rural, local because you have installed it for them. They will
roads, arterials), or when they happen (day, night, wet take the shortest path based on their perception of
weather, dry weather). time, distance and risk. Pedestrian devices must be
It is known that in western countries (such as Australia placed on or close to the desire line of the
and western European nations), pedestrians constitute pedestrians.
12-15% of road crash fatalities. In Indonesia, - Pedestrian facilities rely on driver/rider compliance.
pedestrians comprise at least 15% of the known road Installing a zebra crossing, or a set of signals, will
toll. However, there is a belief that the real percentage not assist pedestrians unless drivers/riders comply
is higher due to a likely under reporting of pedestrian with the Rules. The pedestrian facilities you install
crashes. In some other rapidly motorising nations must be enforceable. For this they must conform to
pedestrian fatalities comprise almost 50% of the road the Road Rules of Indonesia. Seek Police assistance
toll. to enforce the Rules at your new device.
- Until pedestrian (zebra) crossings gain more respect
from drivers/riders across Indonesia, it is not
recommended that any more be installed. Engineers
and Police must work closely together to alter the
3.3 What can you do to improve
present disregard that is held for zebra crossings.
pedestrian safety?
It is useful to learn some key lessons from experienced
engineers and their work in pedestrian safety in many
different places. The main themes that emerge are: 3.4 High risk pedestrians
-Do not restrict or obstruct pedestrians. Placing All pedestrians deserve your assistance. However,
barriers, fences and other obstructions to try to prevent based on international crash data, there are four
pedestrians from using a route is a fruitless exercise. It groups of pedestrians that are at greater risk than

Questions to ask:
- Does the school gate open straight onto a busy

road? If so, can the gate be relocated to a side lane?
If not, can a fence be placed just outside the gate to
stop youngsters from running directly onto the
road?
- Do the children need to cross the road or is it an
option to have them walk along the same side as
the school?
- Are footpaths provided along the road? If so, are
these continuous?
The absence of footpaths forces many people to walk along roads – - Is there a crossing at the school? Is it well marked
putting themselves at risk of being struck by a motor vehicle.
and does it have all regulatory signs? Is there an
adult supervisor to assist the children across?
others when they use the roads:
- Does the school require a School Zone on the road?
- Young
- Can car parking, motorcycle stopping and bus
- Elderly
stopping be managed to maximise sight lines near
- Disabled the crossing/school exit?
- Impaired (intoxicated and drug affected) - Do street vendors, trees, bus stops, warungs or stalls
These four groups of pedestrians warrant your special obstruct the vision of, and visibility to, the young
attention. Try to put yourself into the shoes of these pedestrians?
pedestrians. Instead of being a young/middle-aged - Is the speed limit clearly displayed on the main
professional inspecting a site on a fine morning, you road? Are devices (such as road humps) needed to
might need to consider sight lines for a young child slow down the traffic? Have the Police been asked
perhaps just half your height. Or put yourself in the to enforce the Road Rules around the school area?
shoes of an elderly person who has slowed down with - Controlling vehicle speeds overall is a positive way
advancing age and is battling to cross a busy road on a to assist young pedestrians - many of whom are too
wet afternoon. young to have developed the skills necessary to pick
When you and your colleagues – as road safety a safe gap in traffic.
engineers - are able to empathise with the safety needs
of these groups, you are on your way to improving their
safety.
3.4.2 The elderly
Pedestrian crashes involving the elderly tend to be
more severe than crashes involving younger people.
3.4.1 The young Elderly people are also slower at recovering from their
Young pedestrians who are involved in road crashes injuries. These crashes tend to be distributed widely
tend to have them during daylight hours and generally across the road network and throughout daytime and
on the trip to/ from school. They tend to have crashes night-time.
closer to home, in local streets but also on arterial Questions to ask:
roads and highways.
- Are footpaths smooth and continuous? Are they free
Installing a pedestrian facility for young children is of tripping hazards and of overhanging foliage?
unlikely to be successful as children under 10 years of - Are kerb ramps provided to help the elderly to step
age lack the judgement to be able to use them safely. on and off footpaths?
Adult supervision is necessary if a crossing is installed
- Is there a need for a pedestrian facility? If so, push
only for school children.
button signals offer the elderly the best and most

The elderly are over represented in pedestrian casualty crashes.
reassuring level of assistance.

- Have pedestrian signals been installed at
intersection signals? Are crosswalks painted and
kerb ramps provided? Do the medians have cut
through paths to enable pedestrians to cross
without walking around the nose of the median?
- Is the street lighting adequate? A visually impaired pedestrian who needs assistance to safely
negotiate the roads and footpaths.
3.4.3 Disabled devices that alert visually impaired people to the

phasing of the signals?
Road safety engineering is inclusive of people with
sensory and physical disabilities. The first things they - Can the crossing be conveniently negotiated by
need for better mobility are smooth surfaces, kerb wheelchair users – does it have appropriate kerb
ramps and footpaths clear of obstacles. ramps and gentle ramp slopes.
- If an overpass is to be constructed, will it have
Questions to ask:
suitable sloping ramps for wheel chair users?
- Are the footpaths smooth and free of obstacles? Maximum slopes of 1:14, over maximum lengths of
Does a wheel chair user have access to a kerb ramp 10 m between horizontal rest sections, are generally
to get on and off the footpath? acceptable for such use.
- Is the footpath clear of obstructions, and wide
enough (2m minimum) to accommodate wheelchair
users plus others? 3.4.4 The impaired (intoxicated and drug
- Is there a distinct boundary between the footpath affected)
and the road for visually impaired people to know Intoxicated pedestrians are over-represented in serious
when they have stepped off a footpath? night time pedestrian crashes in western countries.
- Are cross walk lines clearly painted to guide visually Over 40% of night time adult pedestrian fatalities in
impaired pedestrians (some visually impaired some western countries involve a pedestrian with a
people have a degree of eyesight) across roads at blood alcohol level in excess of 0.15% - three times the
intersection signals? legal limit for a driver/rider in those countries. Less is
- Is the median or pedestrian refuge wide enough known about drug affected pedestrians but they too
(2m) to safely accommodate a wheelchair? are at risk on the roads – often at night and usually in
- If pedestrian operated signals are provided, can the large urban areas.
button be reached by a person in a wheelchair? In Indonesia these figures may be lower, but the
- If signals are provided, do they have audio/tactile problem remains. It is typically a male, night time
problem.

Questions to ask: a. Segregation
- Is there adequate street lighting? Are drivers/riders Expressways - these high speed/high volume roads are
given every chance to see the impaired pedestrian? designed to exclude pedestrians. It is important to
- Can parking and bus stops be managed to maximise ensure that pedestrians are kept off expressways. It is
sight lines? vital to fence off expressways to restrict pedestrian
access.
- Can a refuge be constructed for the pedestrians to
stage them across the road? (Many crash-involved When a new expressway is built, ensure that
impaired pedestrians are struck in the middle of the overpasses and/or underpasses are built to allow
road or in the second half of the carriageway). pedestrians to cross the route without walking on the
- Can crossing facilities be installed to assist the new expressway. If (for example) school children live
impaired pedestrian to cross an arterial road? Push on one side of an expressway route, and the school is
button signals, with audible signals offer the best on the other, ensure that a safe grade separated route
assistance to impaired pedestrians. is made available for these children. This is not an
optional extra – it is an integral part of building the
new expressway.
3.5 The three strategies for Ensure that mini buses are not permitted to stop along
an expressway to pick up/set down passengers.
assisting pedestrian safety
Passengers are pedestrians once they are outside the
There are three strategies available to you when bus, and they are at great risk if walking along or
providing for pedestrian safety - segregation, across an expressway.
separation and integration.
Pedestrian malls - these are streets in commercial
- Segregation – segregates the pedestrian from the areas, that have been modified for exclusive use by
motor vehicle within the road network. At one end pedestrians. Traffic is excluded from pedestrian malls,
of the scale this involves pedestrian malls (where or is permitted into the mall only with a special permit
motor vehicles are banned) and at the other end of and under particular time, speed, and parking
the scale it involves expressways (where restrictions. Your task as a road safety engineer is to
pedestrians are banned).This category also includes ensure that drivers and riders do not intrude into this
pedestrian overpasses and underpasses. This pedestrian space. Signs, correctly installed bollards and
strategy is expensive and is often driven by large road closures can be used for this. Alter the pavement
projects such as the construction of new surface to give a strong impression that this is an area
expressways or large shopping malls. Rarely is this for people, not vehicles. Use landscaping and urban
strategy employed purely for road safety purposes. architecture to make the area attractive for people to
- Separation – separates the pedestrian from the walk and socialise in.
motor vehicle, either in time (by signals) or in space Pedestrian overpasses – these can assist pedestrians to
(by refuges). This is the most commonly used cross very busy roads with minimal delay. They are
strategy by road safety engineers. generally used at sites with high pedestrian and
- Integration – recognises that pedestrians and motor vehicle volumes.
vehicles have to share the road. In these cases the
However, they are not always popular with pedestrians;
motor vehicle usually has the “right of way” but
many of them are steep and are slippery when wet.
good road safety engineering will maintain low
They attract stalls and hawkers who tend to restrict
vehicle speeds, good sight lines, and wide shoulders.
access. Because they are expensive to build there tends
Engineers are at times reluctant to adopt this
to be big spacings between overpasses. This requires
strategy, perhaps thinking that they are not doing
pedestrians to walk quite a distance to use them. Most
enough for the pedestrians. However, especially in
pedestrians will not walk too far to an overpass unless
rural areas of Indonesia, helping pedestrians to
they perceive the traffic volume and speed on the road
integrate safely with motorised traffic is a
to be very high. Pedestrians are astute at making such
worthwhile and positive strategy.
perceptions, although they are not so astute at judging

Pedestrians rarely like using overpasses. The structure also tends to An intersection controlled by traffic signals that also provide for
block the footpath and cause some pedestrians to walk on the road. pedestrians. There are clear markings, dropped kerbs, and pedestrian
UNDERPASS signals with push buttons. The median has a cut through to further
assist pedestrians.
the risk involved in their actions. b. Separation in time
Authorities therefore often try to “force” pedestrians to Intersection signals - Indonesia has many sets of
use the overpass by installing fencing along the intersection signals. Unfortunately, at most of these
footpath and or the median. This is usually not there are no pedestrian phases, no pedestrian lanterns,
successful, it is unattractive and it hinders especially and no push buttons for the pedestrian to record their
the pedestrians who are the least mobile. need to cross. Most intersection signals do not have
marked pedestrian crosswalks, and no kerb ramps to
The end result of all this activity is an overpass, built at
encourage the pedestrians to cross at that spot.
great cost, but underutilised. The engineers involved
believe they have done all they can do to help the Pedestrians instead have to navigate their way across
pedestrians. They blame the pedestrians - failing to these busy roads without any assistance. As they do not
realise that they themselves have been unable to get the time separation they seek, many of them push
recognise the human nature that is at the heart of this their way into the heavy traffic. In doing this they
matter. seriously disrupt the traffic flow and reduce the
capacity of the intersection. They are at risk of being
Pedestrian underpasses – these suffer from similar
struck by motorcycles or cars that continue into the
problems to pedestrian overpasses. They also have one
intersection at speed.
added issue – many people fear for their personal
safety when they have to use an underpass. Personal This is inefficient, it is unsafe, and it is a sign that the
security is important and some people, especially engineers responsible for the intersection have
women, are afraid to use underpasses. This is more so forgotten how to serve their largest group of
at night. If an underpass is to be built, ensure that customers – the pedestrian.
users can see through the underpass before entering,
Pedestrian Operated Signals (POS) - There are few sets
and ensure it is very well lit at night.
of pedestrian operated signals in Indonesia. These
signals are effective at providing pedestrians with time
separation in which to cross a busy road.
You should consider installing pedestrian operated

signals across high volume arterial roads within urban
areas. They are not suitable for rural areas or for high
speed arterial roads where drivers do not expect to
have to stop for pedestrians. They are also too
expensive to use in the local street system where
vehicle volumes are usually low enough that safe gaps
exist.

No stopping 10m
BUILDING LINE
1 2B 2 2A
KERB LINE
6m 3m 6m
KERB LINE
3 2A 4 2B
BUILDING LINE
Primary Lantern
Visible for 110m
No stopping 10m
Secondary Lantern
Visible for 60m
Tertiary Lantern
Visible for 60m
Figure 3.1 Pedestrian Operated Signals
Some rules for ensuring that your POS will work well This flashing yellow display requires the support of
include: national Road Rules; it means that drivers/riders may
enter the crossing and proceed but only if they give
- Locate the signals on, or close to, the pedestrian
way to any pedestrians remaining on the crossing.
“desire line”.
- Never expect pedestrians to walk more than a few Pelican crossings offer an excellent level of service to
metres out of their way to cross a road. Pedestrians pedestrians. They also offer an average 40% reduction
will NOT walk out of their way (away from their in delays to drivers/riders compared to conventional
“desire line”). POS.
- Make sure the signals are very conspicuous to all

A PUFFIN (Pedestrian User Friendly Intelligent)
approaching drivers/riders.
crossing also looks exactly like a POS. It has red/
- Use a red person and a green person signal to yellow/ green signal displays to face drivers/riders and
display to the pedestrians when they may and may a red/green person to face pedestrians. In addition, it
not cross. also has a microwave detector above each primary
- Flash the red person signal to inform pedestrians traffic signal. These two detectors point down and
that their phase is coming to a close. across the marked crosswalk. They are like an
- Install pedestrian push buttons – make sure that automatic door opener on the main door of a large
pedestrians are made aware of the need to push the shopping mall – it recognises that a pedestrian is there
button and wait for the green person signal to be and it activates the door. The PUFFIN detector
displayed activates an extension to the clearance (flashing red
person) time if it detects anyone on the crossing at the
- Use kerb ramps to make it easier for elderly, young
end of the normal walk period. It assumes this person
or disabled pedestrians to access the crossing.
may be elderly or disabled and it extends the clearance
- Mark the crossing with strong clear line marking.
time to assist them to complete their crossing.
- Talk with the local Police and make sure that they
Interestingly, PUFFIN crossings also reduce driver/rider
are prepared to enforce driver/rider compliance with
delays overall by about 40% compared to conventional
the POS.
POS. This is because most pedestrians cross the road
A Pelican (Pedestrian Light Control) crossing looks much faster than the standard design walking speed of
identical to a conventional set of POS. However, it 1.5 m/sec. Only a small percentage of pedestrians need
operates a little differently; it opens to traffic (after the the additional clearance time.
red signal to drivers) with a flashing yellow display.

Notes :
- Width between Stop Line 6.00 m
and Pedestrian crosswalk line
- Width of Crosswalk Lines 1.50 m
- Distance between Crosswalk Lines 3.00-5.00 m
(depending on ped. volumes)
- Height of Post with flag 1.80 m
- Height of Post without flag 1.20 m
g
CROSSING
CHILDREN din
AHEAD an
St
CROSSING No
m
20
S CHIL
CRODREN
SSIN
G
06.30 - 16.30
SCHOOL DAYS din
g 6m
Stan CH
ILD
CR RE
No
OS N
SING
m
20
6m
m
o5
3t
m
00
-1
50
Figure 3.2 Diagram of A Flagged School Crossing
Pedestrian Crossings (Zebras) – with and without in Indonesia but it would serve a useful purpose in this
flashing signals. A zebra crossing is a crossing that is country. A flagged school crossing is a low cost and
marked with white bars painted parallel to the effective crossing that is a part time device used
direction of traffic across the road, near which is mainly by school children. It has a pair of marked
displayed on each approach a regulatory Pedestrian crosswalk lines near which are placed red/white
Crossing sign. These crossings provide time separation painted posts. Into these posts are placed high
for the pedestrians but only if the drivers/riders respect visibility CHILDREN CROSSING flags. When the flags
the Rules. While the Road Rules require drivers/riders are displayed, the crossing is legally enforceable. This
to give way to pedestrians on these crossings, in is for those times when children are likely to needto
Indonesia at present they rarely do. cross the road, such as going to and from school. A
responsible adult (maybe from the school or from a
Eventually it is to be hoped that zebra crossings will be
nearby house) is responsible for the display of the
well observed by drivers/riders. They offer a low cost
flags.
form of crossing that is well suited to low speed urban
environments. They are not suitable for high speed
At other times it is just another length of road; the
roads (above 60 km/h) nor in rural areas.
crossing has no legal support with flags dispalyed.
If you are installing a zebra crossing, make sure you Because this crossing is mainly for use by young
install the correct regulatory sign. It should face the children, it has gained good support from the
drivers/riders – not face across the crossing at the community over many years. Drivers stop and give way
pedestrians. at these crossings, complying well with the Road Rules.
It may be time for Indonesia to consider adding such a
School crossings - This form of crossing is not yet used
crossing to its Road Rules.

Building Line Pedestrian

Crossing Sign
Refer Detail A
600
600
300
2000
600
500
Kurb
2500 to 1250
4500 DETAIL A
ON KERB EXTENSION
Refer Detail A
Separation in space - You can assist pedestrians greatly

by providing spatial separation for them. This can be
done at relatively low cost – it means that they are
given their own space within the road reserve on
which they are able to stand, wait and select a safe
crossing time.
One form of spatial separation is a pedestrian refuge.

This is a small island located in the centre of the road.
It is designed to be conspicuous to approaching
drivers/riders. It provides a space on which pedestrians
2m (min)
may wait to complete their crossing of the road.
Provide a minimum width of 2.0m for the refuge.

However, a slightly smaller refuge may sometimes be
better than no refuge at all, especially if pedestrian
volumes are low.
The other type of spatial separation is a kerb

extension. These narrow the roadway so that the
pedestrian walks a reduced distance to cross the road.
3.6 Motorcyclists
In the last decade the growth of motorcycles in in the wrong direction; some run the red traffic signal
Indonesia has been very significant. In less than five at intersections; too many ride on footpaths to get
years the number of motorcycles on Indonesian roads through traffic jams..
has doubled. Road safety engineers however must take into
With almost 40 million motorcycles on the road, they consideration the safety needs of this very large,
are now about 70% of all the motorised vehicles in mobile but vulnerable road user group. Good design
Indonesia. Tragically they are also very dangerous – and careful safety design is needed to accommodate
some 70% of fatal crashes are associated with the high proportion of motorcycles in the traffic stream
motorcycles. as well as to reduce the amount of improper
manoeuvres. This can be achieved through careful road
In urban areas motorcycles dominate the road space.
and intersection designs as well as appropriate traffic
Improper rider behaviour is a problem associated with
management.
motorcycles in Indonesia. Too many motorcyclists ride

A “rub rail” fitted beneath guardrail barrier prevents motorcyclists Some “rub rails” are made of plastic. They cushion and impact and
from striking the posts. It is the posts that cause most injuries to keep the motorcyclist away from the posts.
motorcyclists.
What can you do to improve safety for points.

motorcyclists? - Smooth riding surface – free of pot holes, uncovered
pits, sand, mud and gravel.
The good thing to realise is that the road safety
initiatives that you introduce for the users of cars, You will be helping bicyclists if you seal the shoulders
trucks and buses will also assist the safety of of your rural roads, and if you maintain your roads in
motorcyclists. By making sure you use good signs and good condition – free of pot holes, sand, gravel and
delineation, using correct line marking, paying mud.
attention to roadside hazards and by making sure that Providing continuous line marking should also be your
intersections are as safe as practical you will be goal. Traffic will find it easier to remain in their correct
assisting all road users. This includes motorcyclists. lane if line marking is consistent along a route. This
But there are two things in particular that you should will help them when overtaking bicyclists.
focus on to help motorcyclists in particular: Give close attention to bridge. These are often squeeze
- Seal the shoulders of your roads points and they present a problem for bicyclists as well
- Maintain your roads and keep them free of potholes, as motorcyclists. If is unlikely that you can afford to
sand, mud and gravel. widen the bridge. Your remaining options include:
There are some other things that you may use when -Install width markers on each side of the bridge to
developing a special motorcycle safety program; face approaching traffic. These guide drivers/riders.
- safer sign posts (more forgiving for motorcyclsists) -Use strong, well maintained edge lines to define the
- motorcycle rub-rails fitted under guardrail barrier to edge of the road across the bridge
prevent a motorcyclist from hitting the barrier posts -Removing any raised footpath and widening the
during a crash. shoulder across the bridge.
3.7 Bicyclists and others

Bicyclists need three things for safe and efficient
cycling:
- Space – a lateral space free of interference by faster

and larger motor vehicles.
- Connectivity – a continuous route without squeeze

Providing better footpaths and covering drains
One of the most cost effective and beneficial things that you can offer to pedestrians is a smooth flat wide footpath
that is clear of all obstacles. Too many Indonesian footpaths are full of holes, broken paving, open drains, and
poles. Many have pits with no covers, or broken drain covers? Stalls and warungs are commonplace. All of these
make many footpaths impassable.
Traffic and road safety engineers are transportation specialists. They are responsible for helping all Indonesians –
not just drivers/riders – to move around safely and efficiently. More must be done to help pedestrians to walk
around the cities and towns of Indonesia. You can become a leader in this.
- Remove all unnecessary “non-fixed” obstacles such as planter pots, advertising signs, and material stock piles
- Replace all broken and lost pit covers
- Cover open drains
- Repave all footpaths where the paving has been removed/dislodged
- Develop a program to construct kerb ramps at important crossing points for pedestrians.
-- Work with local government to restrict the locations where warungs and food stalls are allowed to operate on
footpaths.

A brief guide to assisting pedestrians
General
- The human body cannot (generally) survive an impact in excess of 40 km/h. The management of vehicle speeds
is paramount in creating a safe road system for pedestrians (and bicyclists and motorcyclists).
- Young children (generally under the age of 10 years) do not have the cognitive abilities to safely negotiate
traffic. They should always be accompanied by an adult when in traffic.
- Pedestrians walk along the road, and also cross the road. These two actions require quite different
considerations.
Walking along the road
- Provide footpaths, preferably on both sides of the road.

- Check that pedestrian routes are continuous.
- If footpaths cannot be provided, provide a wide sealed shoulder for pedestrians to walk along.
- Think of pedestrian “squeeze” points at bridges and culverts, especially in rural areas. Maintain a full width
shoulder across the bridge. A raised footpath is not important (the pedestrians do not have a raised footpath on
the approach to the bridge), but the lateral space is.
- If funds permit, a separate pedestrian bridge alongside the road bridge is a bonus.
Crossing the road
- Adopt one of the three strategies – segregation, separation and integration.

- Do not install a pedestrian crossing (zebra crossing) unless you can be assured that Police will enforce it.
- Remind yourself that zebra crossings are an “abused” device in Indonesia. Engineers need to think more broadly
about how best to assist pedestrians - not simply painting white lines on the road.
- Indonesia needs more Pedestrian Operated Signals (POS) in urban areas. Locate them conspicuously, and ensure
they are well signed and marked.
- Give special attention to the young, the elderly, the disabled and the impaired.
- Try to minimise the crossing distances for pedestrians. Encourage the use of kerb extensions and refuges.
- Provide islands large enough for street furniture and for the safe storage of pedestrians.
- If grade separation is unavoidable, use an overpass rather than an underpass. If an underpass is unavoidable,
ensure it is made wide, straight, open and well lit for personal safety.

Making signalised intersections safer and more friendly for pedestrians
- Make sure the pedestrian path is continuous around the intersection.

- Install pedestrian lanterns on all crossings.
- Use push buttons for registering pedestrian calls.
- Run the pedestrian phase with the parallel vehicle phase.
- Never run the pedestrian phase in conflict with any vehicle phase.
- Line up each crossing with kerb ramps on the kerb.
- Provide “cut throughs” at all medians
- Mark the crossings clearly. Marked crosswalks are more acceptable than zebra markings to avoid possible
confusion for pedestrians.
This large and busy signalised intersection provides no pedestrian At this intersection, with no signals to assist them, pedestrians cross when
signals, no pedestrian push buttons and no crosswalk lines . they think it best. This is sometimes unsafe and it disturbs the traffic flow.
Safety and efficiency is compromised.
At this intersection pedestrians have been provided with a push button. The cross walk markings and the vehicle stop line guide pedestrians where
This records their wish to cross at the signals, and the signal controller to walk. The pedestrian signals displays red/green people. They are timed
activates their phase at the appropriate time in the signal cycle. The according to the width of the road; green times are calculated at walking
sticker on the signal pedestal informs people about how to correctly use speeds of 1.5m/sec.
the crossing.

PART D - Road Safety Engineering Processes
PART D
Road Safety Engineering
Processes

In this Part, you will read about:
- The blackspot investigation process.

- The road safety audit process.
- Some recent Indonesian blackspot investigations and road safety audits.
- Some safety tips to help you to make a positive difference in road safety.
This Part explains the fundamental difference between a blackspot investigation and a road safety audit. Blackspot
investigations (a reactive process) use crash data to look for patterns in crashes at a blackspot. They then develop a
package of low cost countermeasures to reduce the number/severity of future crashes. Road safety audits apply
similar technical skills and judgement but at the design stage of a road project (a proactive process) to prevent
crashes from occurring when the road is built.
By the end of this Part, you will have an introductory understanding of these two important road safety engineering
processes. Both processes are new to Indonesia; both are sure to make large contributions to the improvement of
safety on Indonesian roads in the years ahead.
intersection or a curve, or a mid-block section.

4.1 What is a blackspot?
Sometimes the Police have good crash data for the
The term “blackspot” evolved many years ago when crashes that have occurred at these “blackspots”,
Police used black coloured pins to symbolise the sometimes there is no data at all for the blackspot.
locations of fatal road crashes on a wall mounted map.
One of the most useful and productive tasks that a
In time, the worst crash locations became the blackest
road safety engineer can undertake is to investigate
– and the term “blackspot” was born. The term exists
and treat a blackspot. Low cost improvements at
today to describe locations that have the highest
blackspots can produce highly beneficial crash
number of fatal or injury crashes. The definition of how
reductions.
many crashes are needed for a site to become a
blackspot varies from one country to another. The blackspot investigation process aims to develop a
package of low cost, but high benefit, countermeasures
that can be implemented at the site so that future
4.1.1 Improving road safety at known crash crashes are reduced in number and/or in severity.
locations
There are many locations on Indonesian roads that are
the site of numerous crashes. The road may be a
highway or a local road – and the location may be an

4.1.2 What is a blackspot in Indonesia? NOTE: A fatal crash is not the same as a fatality. Some
fatal crashes have 2, 3 or more fatalities. Others have one.
The starting point of a blackspot program is to define a
For the point score, give 10 points to a fatal crash
blackspot. To begin, blackspot locations may be
(regardless of how many people died in the crash).
intersections, mid-blocks, or sections of a route. They
will all have a history of crashes – some reported, some When you have done this for (maybe) 30, 40, or 50 sites
not. - place all the sites in a table from the highest number
of points down to the lowest number. Look closely at
Your definition of a blackspot may depend on a
the range of point scores – and look at your resources
number of things – particularly the financial resources
so that you have an idea how many sites can be treated
available to the remedial program. One suggestion for
within your annual works program.
you to consider in developing a blackspot definition for
use in Indonesia is: In this way you have developed a list of all the sites in
your region/Balai ranging from the highest point score
- Make a list of all the known “safety problem sites”
downwards. This is your crash location listing, and it is
on your roads.
used to guide you to the sites that are most likely to
- Count all known fatal crashes* at each site in the
benefit from blackspot countermeasures.
past 3 years and give them 10 points each.
- Count all the serious casualty crashes at the site in
the past 3 years and give each 5 points. 4.1.3 The steps in a crash (blackspot)
- Count all the other known crashes at the blackspot investigation
in the past 3 years and give them one point. Engineers investigating a blackspot do not look at an
- Add up all the points. individual crash – rather they look at the patterns of
- Repeat this for all the blackspots that are known crashes at the blackspot. While Police investigate
throughout your region/Balai. serious individual crashes (for instance multiple
Establish your Send to head office

list of blackspots 1 8 for approval of funding
Prepare a
crash diagram
Obtain and read crash Write your

data for each blackspot 2 7 blackspot report
Prepare a
crash factor
grid
- Calculate countermeasure
costs
Diagnose the
3 6 - Calculate countermeasure
crash problem
benefits
- Calculate BCR
Inspect the site at the Develop

time of the crashes 4 5 countermeasures
Figure 4.1 Steps in a Blackspot Investigation

fatality crashes), engineers look for patterns of crashes

at a blackspot. To find these patterns, and to develop
cost effective countermeasures that can then be
funded, you need to work carefully down a simple step-
by-step process.
Low cost, high benefit countermeasures must be

emphasised. Anyone can develop a package of
expensive countermeasures, or which may have
questionable safety benefits.
Let’s say for an example there is a cross road

intersection, on an inter-urban road, where there is a
history of right angle crashes involving buses and Police and engineers working together can make blackspots much
safer for all. The Police have an important task to record all
motorcycles during daytime hours. An inexperienced
crash data.
engineer may recommend that street lighting be
installed, together with a pedestrian crossing and a
cross roads warning sign. Of this package of without good crash data it is difficult to develop cost
treatments, the street lighting will only have an effect effective countermeasures for a blackspot.
at night time, and the pedestrian crossing will not
Read the Police crash data thoroughly and arrange it in
benefit the right angle crashes. Only the warning sign
a way that can assist with the next step – the diagnosis
may have a positive effect – and even then only a small
of the crashes.
effect as the risk reduction of a warning sign is
Because some blackspots do not have enough Police
minimal.
crash records (or in some cases there may be no
It may be more effective to paint clear line marking for
recorded data), the next thing to do is to speak with
the main road, install some direction signs in advance
local people who live or work around the blackspot in
of the intersection (these alert drivers/riders to the
order to develop your own picture of crash patterns at
presence of the intersection and they give information
the location. Locals often know a lot about crashes at
about where to go) and to relocate the bus stop further
the site, although they often exaggerate (or forget)
from the intersection.
some details. However, they can often give a good idea
about whether the crashes happen in the morning, or
a. Investigate all the blackspot locations on your list
the evening, or the night. They may recall if crashes
-Double check that there have been no duplications in happen during wet times, or whether the crashes
the sites (same location but different road names), and involve vehicles from one particular direction. All these
that no “obvious” blackspots have been missed. Then, details are invaluable to an engineer, especially if
starting at the highest point score sites first, work official crash data is lacking
down the list – site by site – investigating each site in
It doesn’t matter where the data about the crashes
detail (using the process described below)
comes from, it is all data and it can all be used to help
-Keep working down the list until all sites have been with the diagnosis of the crash problem. It may not be
investigated. perfect, and you should certainly be careful with some
of the information from local people. But with some
b. Obtain all crash data for the site time and with some thought, it is possible to establish
a reasonable set of data about the crash history at the
Obtain all the possible crash information for the first
blackspot.
site on your list. To do this, firstly speak with the local
Traffic Police and ask them for their records of crashes
at the blackspot – at least for the past 3 years (longer
if available). The Traffic Police have an important role
to play in recording crash information. They are an
important ally for road safety engineers because

c. Diagnose the crash problem engineers should firstly find out what the problem is.
This is a challenge – unlike a human patient,
Take all the crash data and begin to transform it into
blackspots cannot speak! But by inspecting the site, by
clear information. This is where you and your
examining the crash data and by inspecting the
colleagues (the blackspot investigation team) need to
conditions at the site, a road safety engineer can make
be “doctors” – to make use of the range of tools
a clear determination about what the likely source of
available and to investigate the pattern of crashes at
the crash problem is. This means assessing what role
the blackspot (your “patient”).
the road environment may be playing in the crash
A blackspot can be viewed as a “sick” location on the
pattern at the blackspot.
road network – at least in a road safety sense.
When a person is sick they go to a doctor and they tell d. Draw a crash diagram
the doctor their symptoms. It may be a sore throat, a
A crash diagram is a sketch of the blackspot that shows
severe pain in the abdomen, a broken arm, or an
the direction that the vehicles (or pedestrians) were
unknown serious and debilitating sickness. The doctor
travelling at the time of the crash. The crash diagram is
examines the patient, asks them questions, checks
used to look for patterns in the crashes.
their pulse, maybe their breathing, gradually dismissing
In the crash diagram below, there is a clear pattern of
some possibilities and eventually diagnosing the cause
right angle crashes – with the largest group happening
of the problem. It is only when the cause of the health
in the south east corner of the intersection.
problem is diagnosed that the doctor will prescribe
something (medicine, an operation, a bandage, rest, a A crash diagram does not give any guidance with other
referral to a specialist) to help the patient to recover. If patterns – such as the time of the crashes, or the
you are a patient you do not want your doctor to weather conditions, or the people involved in the
wrongly prescribe something for you. You want to get crashes, or any other patterns. For those, we use a crash
better – and quickly. factor grid.
A road safety engineer does the same for the “sick”

locations (blackspots) on the road network. Road safety
7
9 GIVE
WAY
1
3
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
5
GIVE 11
WAY 13
Figure 4.2 Crash Diagram showing right angle crashes at a cross road intersection.

Table 4.1 A Crash Factor Grid (Matrix)
Crash
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Day of month 13/7 04/9 19/12 08/6 03/7 07/11 30/12 27/2 03/5 24/7 18/4 21/5 14/6 20/8
Day of week sat wed thu sun thu fri tue fri sun fri sun fri mon fri
Time of day 1700 1855 1530 1900 1345 2145 1900 1220 1800 2000 1845 1610 1735 1855
Severity 3 3 2 3 2 1 3 3 1 2 3 2 2 3
Light condition
Road condition W W D D D D D D D D D D W D
Vehicle 1 car m/c car car car car car car car m/c car car van car
Vehicle 2 m/c handcart truck m/c car car car truck car m/c car car m/c car
Vehicle 3 car car car
Direction 1 N S N S N S S S S S N S N S
Direction 2 (&3) E W E W W,E W E W,N E W W,E W W W
unlicensed heavy
Other speeding
driver rain
e. Prepare a crash factor grid You should look with fresh eyes at the road
environment. Ask questions – is there something that
A crash factor grid is a table that summarises the
may be misleading some road users at this site? Are
known facts about each crash. Each column in the grid
buses obscuring visibility at the intersection? Do
(below) represents one crash. The rows represent
pedestrians have somewhere safe to wait? Is the
factors such as time of day, day of week, weather,
intersection conspicuous to all road users? Is the curve
vehicle type, crash type. It is limited only by the
well delineated, or might some drivers/riders be
amount of crash data available.
surprised by its sharpness.
Crash factor grids may be prepared on a computer,
using software such as Microsoft Excel. When the grid
g. Develop countermeasures
is ready it may then be manipulated to establish if
It is important to address the dominant crash
there are other patterns – such as crashes on wet roads
pattern(s) if possible – using the lowest cost
at night, or motorcyclists colliding with buses during
countermeasure that is likely to be effective. This is
day time - that warrant special investigation.
where the skills of a road safety engineer are put to
In the example below (which is for the same blackspot
best use. Judgement, logic and clear thinking are
as the crash diagram above) – there is a slight pattern
important skills that need to be applied at this time.
of evening/night time crashes. These crashes tend to
Try to avoid expensive and complicated
have occurred on dry roads.
countermeasures.
f. Inspect the site
Armed with the information gained from the crash

diagram and the crash factor grid, the investigation
team then travels to the site and inspects it at the
times the crashes have been happening. If the main
crash pattern is a night time pattern then you should
inspect the site at night. If the crash problem is a
weekend problem, inspect the site on a weekend.
You are not likely to witness a crash. However you will

see the types of vehicles and road users, and the speed
of the traffic. You will also be able to observe some of
the main traffic conflicts at the blackspot.
Engineers in reflective safety vests, inspecting a blackspot.

reduction in casualty crashes at your site that your

recommended countermeasure(s) can achieve. It does
not matter that this is from another country – it simply
allows all engineers who are investigating blackspots
to use the same set of factors and thus to achieve
some consistency in BCR’s across Indonesia. The
allocation of national funds to treat blackspots should
be based on common factors.
In time, it is expected that Indonesian road safety

engineers will evaluate the performance of various
countermeasures and will develop a table of crash
Inspecting the site gives you the opportunity to see local

reduction factors specifically for Indonesia.
traffic conditions and other factors specific to the blackspot.
With the crash costs known, multiply the likely crash
reductions by the crash costs and thereby establish the
Several examples of cost effective blackspot likely benefits (Rp B) of the countermeasure(s).
countermeasures are provided later in this manual. From the draft design of the countermeasure(s),
estimate the likely cost (Rp C) of the works.
h. Prepare a design, estimate the countermeasure costs
Dividing the benefits (Rp B) by the costs (Rp C) yields
Based on the package of countermeasures that are the Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR).
developed by your road safety engineering team,
The blackspots that have the highest BCR’s are the
prepare a draft design for the suggested
ones that should be funded first – spending public
countermeasure(s). Ensure that the design does not
funds to reduce crashes at these blackspots will return
deviate from the intended package of countermeasures
the greatest benefits to the community.
developed by the crash investigation team.
j. Document the findings

i. Calculate the benefits and costs
Write your crash investigation report. Add photographs,
When the design is complete, calculate the cost of your
all diagnosis tools, and draft designs.
proposed countermeasures.
Take particular care in presenting the BCR – ensure
To calculate the expected benefits of your
that the benefits claimed are in accord with the agreed
countermeasures, you need to know the cost of a
table, and that the cost of the proposed works is
casualty crash and also the likely percentage reduction
reasonable.
in crashes that your countermeasures will lead to.
To obtain an agreed cost for a casualty crash in

Indonesia you need to seek advice from the Road
Safety Engineering Unit of DGH in Jakarta. They will
have a figure based on research from institutes such as
IRE (Bandung) that you can use.
Obtaining the likely percentage reduction in crashes

due to a countermeasure requires a Crash Reduction
Factor Table. Indonesian road safety professionals do
not yet have enough experience with blackspot
treatments to be able to produce a Crash Reduction
Table that is unique to Indonesia. Some other countries
do have such Tables, and one of these (from Australia)
is provided below. This Crash Reduction Table will
allow you to make an estimate of the likely percentage
Working as a team, these engineers are writing a blackspot report.

k. Rank all the sites, develop a works program, Monitor the performance of the new site immediately
implement and evaluate after it becomes operational, and for as long as is felt
to be necessary. This may be for several months at
Funding for the highest ranked sites should normally
some sites. Evaluate the treatment later on (it is
be provided first – and then successively down through
suggested a three year follow-up is optimum) as part
the list until all funds are exhausted.
of a program-wide evaluation. The information from
The sites will become a part of a works program. The
such evaluations will help Indonesia to establish, and
final detailed design for each site will be prepared, and
then to refine, its own crash reduction factor table.
safety audited.
Table 4.2 Crash Reduction Factors (based on experience in Australia)
Crash Reduction
Treatment Treatment Life
Factors
INTERSECTION
New Roundabout 85% 20
Modify roundabout (approach deflection) 55% 20
New traffic signals 45% 20
Convert intersection signals to roundabout 30% 20
Staggered T low volume (<2000 AADT of through road) 70% 20
Remove of Y-intersection 85% 20
Splitter islands/median, urban 20% 20
Splitter islands rural, low volume 45% 20
Linemarking to improve intersection definition 10% 5
Improve sight distance (remove/relocate obstruction) 50% 20
Improve signage 30% 15
Rumble strips on approaches 30% 5
Install stop signs 30% 15
Install signs 30% 15
Change to Stop signs 5% 15

Crash Reduction
Factors
PAVEMENT WORKS
Road reconstruction 25% 20
Duplication short length 30% 20
Install raised median 30% 20
Add median strip 20% 20
Widen pavement 10% 20
Construct overtaking lane 25% 20
Add lane 10% 20
Widen road for Right Turn lane 50% 20
Widen road for Left Turn lane 15% 20
Lane widening - 0.3 m 5% 20
Lane widening - 0.6 m 12% 20
Widen shoulder not seal - 0.3 m 3% 20
Widen shoulder not seal - 0.6 m 7% 20
Widen shoulder not seal - 1 m 10% 20
Widen shoulder and seal - 0.3 m 4% 20
Widen shoulder and seal - 0.6 m 8% 20
Widen shoulder and seal - 1 m 12% 20

Crash Reduction
Factors
DELINEATION
Reflectorised guide posts 30% 20
Advanced Curve Warning signs - static 20% 15
Advanced Curve Warning signs - vehicle actived 75% 15
Install chevron signs (CAMS) - normal 35% 15
Install chevron signs (CAMS) - electronic 50% 15
Painted centrelines 30% 5
Tactile centrelines 40% 5
Painted edgelines 25% 5
Tactile edgelines 35% 5
Barrier lines 30% 5
Raised reflectorised pavement markers (RRPM) 20% 5
NOTE: The Crash Reduction Factor is the percentage reduction expected from the countermeasure. If more than one
countermeasure is proposed for a site, use the largest crash reduction factor for your calculations.

BLACKSPOT REPORT
Case Study: Y- junction on a National Highway
1. The Location
A busy Y- junction is on a National Highway.The Highway is a two lane, two way road, with some horizontal and
vertical curves. The pavement of the Highway is approximately 7m wide. Free travel speeds are generally 60km/h. It
is in a semi-rural area but many houses border it.
There is a downhill grade towards the Y junction from the west- there is a sign to warn of the down grade, but no
warning of the junction and no line marking. The junction is located around a right hand curve. The side road leads
off to the right at an angle of (approximately) 45°. There is no lighting.
2. The Crash Problem
Based on information from local Traffic Police officers there is one serious crash per month. These crashes are
mainly:
- Head-on crashes - trucks/ buses from the east on the Highway colliding with vehicles from the west Many
motorcyclists are involved
- Right turn against crashes – vehicles turning right at the Y-junction colliding with through Highway traffic.
- Many of the crashes occur at night time.
3. Recommended Countermeasures – in priority order
- Install two new street lights at the junction.

- Replace the advanced direction signs on the western approach with three new, reflective direction signs (in a
series).
- Install speed limit signs along the Highway. Ensure that drivers/riders are given a clear message about their
maximum permissible speed.
- Widen the Highway along this section (for approx 200m west of the junction) by as much as practical. This
widening may be as little as 2m but should be as wide as abutting drainage, development and/or trees permit.
- Line mark the Highway immediately west of the junction. Provide for a through lane in each direction, plus a
right turn lane from the west to the south (the side road).
- Ensure that the eastern side of the junction has a shadow island painted to move the traffic to the left and to
minimise the risk of these vehicles running into a stationary right turning vehicle.

The Y junction blackspot is on a bend. There is little delineation to

guide drivers/riders. The line marking does not assist right turning,
drivers/riders to know where to wait. The lighting does not work.
A right turn lane needs to be developed with the prudent use of
line marking.
The side road is a two lane two way road. It is at a higher elevation
than the Highway and the small space in between the two roads is
full of unnecessary posts and signs – these are roadside hazards and
they restrict sight lines across the intersection.
Right turning vehicles have difficulty in turning across the steady stream of
eastbound traffic. Motorcyclists are at a high risk of being struck by
these right turning crashes.

BLACKSPOT REPORT
Case Study: Blackspot on a sharp bend on a By-Pass
1. The Location
The By-Pass is a part of a busy National Highway. It is a two lane two way road, with a number of horizontal curves
and several gentle hills. It is in a semi-rural area but there are many businesses and houses starting to be built
along it. It is heavily used by trucks, and the pavement is in poor condition. There are large drop-offs from the road
pavement to the shoulder. Many of the trucks appear to be heavily overloaded; they travel at very low speeds as they
negotiate the rough road sections. Free travel speeds of small vehicles are 50-60km/h when traffic conditions
permit, while trucks travel at 30-40km/h.
There is one curve that has a history of crashes. It has a radius of about 50m and sight distance through it is poor
because of vegetation. It has unusually high superelevation (estimated at 14%). Some slow moving heavily loaded
trucks have rolled over on this curve.
Based on local knowledge and Police inputs it appears that the crashes are a combination of:
- Truck roll-over crashes

- Head-on crashes between trucks/ buses with small vehicles (especially motorcyclists)
- A smaller problem involving run-off-road crashes.
- Open sight lines on the inside of the bend by cutting back the vegetation.
- Improve drainage on the inside of the bend by clearing drains and/or making a new one as necessary.
- Install a series of chevron alignment markers around the outside of the bend – to face drivers/riders from both
directions
- Install one new street light at the bend.
- Place curve warning signs 50m in advance of the tangent point on each approach to this bend.
- Build up the unsealed shoulder around the outside of the bend.
- Install a solid centre line through the bend and for at least 50m on each approach to define the centre of the
road and to prohibit overtaking here.
- Post speed limit signs along the Ring Road (possibly 60km/h but to be agreed with Traffic Police). Ensure that
drivers/riders are given a clear message about their maximum permissible speed.
- Re-construct this bend to provide for correct superelevation coupled with wide sealed shoulders (at least 1.5m)
on both sides.
- When the bend is reconstructed, ensure that edge lines and a centre line are installed to guide drivers.

BEFORE The on-coming truck is on the wrong side of the road and is heavily
overloaded. The driver has selected his path to maximise his radius and to
avoid the rough area close to the inside of the bend. The truck driver is
committed to his path, forcing the on-coming vehicle off the pavement and
onto the unsealed shoulder. There is a large drop-off of more than 100mm
to the shoulder. Motorcyclists in particular can lose control in these situations.
BEFORE The Highway lacks basic traffic management devices – the centre
line is worn, the sight lines across the bend are restricted by the vegetation,
and there is no delineation. The road has an uphill grade of about 5% at
this point. Truck and bus drivers try to keep their speed up to negotiate
this grade.
AFTER The superelevation was reduced to 9% and the pavement improved.

Truck and bus drivers no longer need to take the outside of this curve to
avoid tipping over.

BLACKSPOT REPORT
Case Study: Blackspot on a straight section of Highway near a bridge
1. The Location
A new bridge was built a few years ago beside an existing bridge in a rural area. The Highway was duplicated for a
length of about 400m. The original Highway is flat and straight. It was a two lane two way road, but with the new
bridge it is now a two lane one way road. The Highway pavement is in average condition. There are several pot
holes. Free travel speeds are generally about 80km/h when traffic conditions permit.
Westbound traffic on the original highway now has 2 lanes in which to travel over the bridge. However, there are no
signs or line markings to warn them of the return to two lane, two way operation just over the bridge. Some vehicles
in the right hand lane have travelled directly into on-coming traffic.
Based on local knowledge and Police inputs the crashes comprise:
- Head-on crashes between trucks/buses with small vehicles (especially motorcycles) at the eastern end of the
duplicated section of Highway.
- Reduce the westbound carriageway to one lane before the divided section of road ends. Use line marking and
hatching to taper this section to a single lane.
- Install at least two pairs of “Two Way Traffic” warning signs to face westbound drivers/riders.
RISK OF
HEAD ON
CRASHES
EXISTING
NEW
EXISTING LINE MARKING
The Highway is now divided over a 400m length. Westbound drivers/riders now have a 2 lane one way section of
Highway. However, there is no warning or guidance of their return to two way two lane operation just over the bridge.
Head on crashes have been common.

The original Highway over the “old” bridge is now a two lane,
one way section of road. Drivers/riders find this a good place for high speed
overtaking as it is one of the few duplicated sections on this Highway.
It is also straight and flat.
Overtaking continues past the bridge. The road conditions also encourage
drivers/riders to use the second lane. This lane runs “head on” into
on-coming traffic. There are no warning signs or markings to alert
drivers/riders to this hazard.
This pavement arrow is the only indicator to drivers/riders not to proceed

straight ahead (into the old bridge).

There is no information for drivers/riders on the old bridge that they are
returning to a two way road system. Head on conflicts like this are common;
serious crashes, especially at night, are frequent.
PROPOSED LINE MARKING
AFTER. Strong line marking is recommended to bring the eastbound carriageway down to a single lane well in advance
of the conflict point. In addition, at least two pairs of duplicate “Two Way Traffic” warning signs should be installed to
face eastbound traffic. One pair should be installed before the end of the divided section of road, and another pair some
200m further east. It is essential to remind drivers/riders of the risk of on-coming traffic.
AFTER: Strong line marking is needed to direct eastbound traffic back to

a single lane east of the bridge. Duplicate “Two Way Traffic” warning signs are
needed to warn of the return to two way traffic conditions.

BLACKSPOT REPORT
Case Study: A curve on an urban arterial road
1. The Location
This recently duplicated bridge has four-lanes in each direction. An exit loop on the departure side of the new
bridge has been constructed to take the two left hand lanes into a loop. However, these two lanes are trap lanes;
there is no warning or information of this and an old direction sign was been left in position from when the original
bridge was two way. It is possible that this old direction sign has been misleading some drivers/riders on the new
carriageway.
Speeds are high on the arterial road; they become higher at night.(possibly more than 100 km/h on the main road).
Based on local knowledge and from Police records of a recent multiple fatality crash, it has been concluded that
there are:
- Run-off-road crashes, mainly at night and mainly involving high speed cars.
- Side swipe crashes at the loop, mainly involving cars, motorcycles and buses.
- Install additional CAM’s for at least an extra 50m around the exit loop.
- Install advance direction signs at the beginning of the bridge. Give strong information about the destination from
each lane.
- Repeat this direction sign on the left hand side of the road near the crest of the bridge.
- Install duplicate 60km/h speed restriction signs at intervals of 500m before, on and beyond the bridge.
- Install a solid centre line through the loop to prohibit vehicles from changing lanes.
- Discuss options to alter the double lines on the approach to the loop.
- Install additional street lighting at the loop to highlight this location at night.

er
Riv
Blackspot
Location
Loop
Blackspot
Location
The new bridge has 4 lanes for northbound traffic. The two left hand
lanes must exit through the tight loop. This loop has been the location
of many serious crashes.
AFTER: The treatments included two pairs of duplicate speed

restriction signs on the bridge, removal of the old direction sign, the Loop
installation of two new advanced direction signs for northbound traffic
and stronger delineation of the loop.
Forward visibility of drivers/riders is obstructed by the crest of the bridge.

This prevents drivers/riders from being aware of the presence of the loop
and the trap lanes ahead. While drivers/riders may know the road has
four lanes, they may not be aware that the first and second lanes are
forced to turn left.
The loop has a very small radius. It is dangerous when drivers/riders

misjudge it at higher speed. There is a need for advance warning of the loop,
including an advisory 30 km/h.speed restriction.

BLACKSPOT REPORT
Case Study: Cross road intersection in a small town on a National Highway
1. The Location
This small intersection is a cross road in a small town. It is an intersection between a small road and a National
Highway. Both roads are straight and flat. Traffic speeds on the Highway are quite high – estimated to be up to
80km/h when traffic is able to flow freely. The intersection is in an urban area; the side road is almost totally
inconspicuous from both Highway approaches because of the buildings, an absence of adequate direction signing, a
lack of warning signs, inadequate line markings, and no traffic control at the intersection. During peak times, two
people carry out traffic control duties to help side road traffic to exit.
It is understood from local engineers and local residents that there are many crashes at this intersection, including
right angle crashes, pedestrian crashes, and some rear end crashes. The most serious crashes occur at night – when
volumes drop and highway speeds increase.
With cross road crashes, an engineer needs to ask whether the crashes might be due to over shoot (the driver/rider
is unaware of the junction) or restart (the driver makes an incorrect decision after slowing/stopping). It is suspected
that the main problem here is one of gap acceptance. Most of the drivers/riders on the side road will be aware of
the junction, but selecting a safe gap can be difficult due to the speed and volume on the Highway.
Short term:
- Create a 60km/h speed restriction zone along the Highway through the village – over a length of at least 1000m
– after discussing this with Police and seeking their support for enforcement.
- Install new advanced direction signs 150m E and W of the junction on the Highway.
- Install new warning signs (Cross Road) 50m E and W of the junction.
- Reinstate the centre line along the Highway.
- Paint strong Stop lines across the two side roads at the junction.
- Provide the Traffic Wardens with high visibility reflective vests. Instruct them in positive traffic control for this
junction.
- Install at least one street light at the junction to highlight the junction after dark.
Long term:
- Install traffic signals at this junction – ensuring the side roads are wide enough to accommodate two lanes of
traffic.

The only advance direction sign on the highway (on either approach) is
inconspicuous. The centre line is strong on this eastern approach but is
missing in the intersection due to an overlay. The intersection is not
conspicuous from either approach on the highway.
One side road is too narrow for two way traffic. Traffic signals require two
lanes to be able to work correctly. Therefore local widening will be necessary
if signals are to be installed. In the meantime, the side roads need stop lines
and signs, and a street light to highlight the intersection. The traffic warden s
hould wear a high visibility safety vest to make him more conspicuous.
There are no lines on the western approach to the blackspot due to recent
widening work. The intersection is not conspicuous from either direction on
the highway. Pedestrians get no assistance to safely cross this highway.
The widening should construct a median as well as a set of traffic signals
to assist all road users,

4.2 Road Safety Audit new road scheme.

- To enhance the relevance of road safety engineering
4.2.1 What is Road Safety Audit?
in highway design work.
A road safety audit is “a formal examination of an - To enhance the safety of all road users in all new
existing or future road or traffic project in which an and existing schemes.
independent, qualified team reports on the project's
Road safety audit is not simply a “check”that “standards”
crash potential and safety performance” AUSTROADS
have been met. Rather it is an assessment of how the
(2009)
future road users will use the road, and whether or not
Road safety audit is a process of crash prevention – it they may have some safety concerns with the new road.
aims to identify safety concerns in a road design so The audit team must put itself into the shoes of the
that changes can be made while they “are still pencil future road users and assess how the road will work for
lines on a piece of paper” or a “mouse click on a them.
computer screen”. By making changes at the design
Road safety audit is a vigorous and structured process
stage, safety can be built into new road projects, and
that requires a detailed examination of a road scheme,
the risk to the road users in the future will be
a written report from the audit team, and a subsequent
minimised. Road safety audits have proven to be most
response by the project manager stating why
effective when undertaken at the planning and design
recommended actions have/have not been adopted.
stages of a new road project.
A road safety audit follows a set process. It requires a

team of independent auditors, none of whom should
The audit team must put itself
have had any previous involvement with the design. into the shoes of the future
Ideally they should be qualified in road safety
engineering, but other professionals can also add road users and assess how
valuable inputs to an audit. the road will work for them.
It is called a road safety audit because road safety is its
only focus. The outcome of a road safety audit is a Road safety audits are most effective when undertaken
report that identifies road safety concerns and makes at the planning and design stages of a new road
recommendations to remove/reduce the impact of project. As such, they are quite different in nature to
these. Responsibility to implement these blackspot investigations. Blackspot investigations are
recommendations remains with the Project Manager. based on historical crash records. These records
provide a view of the crash history at a site and – with
The main objective of road safety audit is to ensure a
an experienced team of crash investigators – low cost
high level of safety for all new road projects from day
crash countermeasures can be developed and
one; this means that safety is given thorough
implemented.
consideration throughout each design and construction
phase of the project. Road safety audits are usually undertaken before the
road is built. Therefore there is no crash history. The
audit team however uses the same technical skills and
4.2.2 The objectives of the Road Safety Audit knowledge as the crash investigation team but applies
process these in a proactive way. They try to anticipate the
types of crashes that may occur on the new road if it is
There are several objectives to road safety audit,
built as the designs show.
including:
So, blackspot investigations are not the same as audits.
- To reduce the whole-life costs of a scheme (unsafe
Audits do not use crash data, and are not blackspot
designs can be expensive to rectifyafter they are
investigations. The skills involved in each are the same,
built)
but the processes are different. Many road safety
- To minimise the risk of crashes on the adjacent road
auditors started their careers in blackspot
network, (particularly at tie-ins) as well as on the
investigations – an excellent way to gain the insights

about road crashes that is so valuable for carrying out more need be done for safety.
road safety audits. Unfortunately, experience has shown that safety
A road safety audit is: cannot be left to standards alone. For example, when a
road is improved, vehicle speeds increase and this
- Proactive
leads to increased risks. Unless carefully considered
- A formal process (not just an informal check). measures are taken, crash frequency and severity on
- Conducted by experienced and trained people who the new road can increase.
are independent of the design.
The road safety audit team is the group of specialists
- An assessment of road safety concerns in a road that inject safety into the road design and assist the
design (or it can also be the identification of safety Project Manager to create a road that is as safe as
concerns on an existing road). reasonably practical. Road safety audit raises the issue
A road safety audit is not: of safety associated with the project to the same (or
higher) level as the other competing issues.
- Reactive
- A new name for a detailed site inspection
- An informal check, or inspection. 4.2.4 When are Road Safety Audits carried out?
- A check of compliance with standards. There are six recognised stages at which a road safety
- A substitute for regular design checks. audit can be conducted - planning stage, preliminary
- A crash (blackspot) investigation. design stage, detailed design stage, roadworks stage,
pre-opening stage and an existing road audit. A large
Safety-conscious road authorities will include both a
new road project should be audited at each of the five
blackspot program and the road safety audit process
stages. However, for efficient use of limited resources,
within its engineering and design departments.
projects on less busy and lower speed roads may be
audited at fewer stages.
4.2.3 Why are Road Safety Audits needed? The earlier in the design process that a project is
The road design team and the Project Manager aim to audited the better. Early auditing can achieve safer
achieve the best overall solution. But, in trying to roads results at lower remedial cost.
balance all these (often competing) demands,
compromises are invariably necessary. Unfortunately, Planning Stage
some compromises may lead to an increased risk of By providing a specific safety input at the planning
crashes on the new road. stage of a road scheme, road safety audit can influence
fundamental issues such as route choice, standards,
Although a road safety audit impact on and continuity with the existing adjacent
may not make a new road network, and intersection or interchange provision.
perfectly safe, it can reduce Preliminary Design Stage
the risk of using that new Carried out on completion of the preliminary road
design, an audit will examine typical issues including
road! horizontal and vertical alignments, cross sections and
intersection layouts.
Although teams of experts have long been available to
assist the Project Manager with decisions about most Detailed Design Stage
of these competing demands, there has been a general This audit stage occurs on completion of the detailed
assumption that road safety will take care of itself. This road design but before the preparation of contract
has been assumed by all because new road projects are documents. Typical considerations include geometric
designed to the latest standards, and will be “better” layout, line markings, signals, lighting, signing,
than the “old” road. Everyone assumes that nothing intersection details, clearances to roadside objects

(crash barriers/frangibility) and provision for

vulnerable road users. Attention to detail at this design
stage can do much to reduce the costs and disturbance
associated with last minute changes that may
otherwise be brought about with a pre-opening audit.
Roadworks Stage
This stage of audit includes an examination of the

safety of the traffic management plans for the various
phases of construction for large road projects (before
the works begin), and it examines road safety at the
road work site during the construction period. Typical This new toll road was audited at the pre-opening stage.
issues to be examined include signs/markings, safe Agreed changes were made before the toll road opened to traffic.
speed limits, temporary crash barriers, lighting,
pedestrian routes, and driver appreciation of the
The earlier in the design
correct path.
process that a project is
Pre-Opening Stage
audited the better. Early
This audit involves a detailed inspection of the new
road project prior to its opening. The new road is auditing can achieve safer
driven, ridden and walked (as appropriate) by the audit
roads results at lower
team to ensure that the safety needs of all road users
are provided for. A night-time inspection is particularly remedial cost.
important - to check signing, delineation, lighting and
any other night time/low light related issues.
4.2.5 How do we carry out a Road Safety Audit?
Audits of Existing Roads
Once it is decided that a project is to be road safety
These audits aim to ensure that the safety features of a audited, there are eight main steps in conducting the
road are compatible with the functional classification road safety audit.
of the road, and to identify any feature that may
develop over time into a safety concern (e.g. foliage Step 1. Select the road safety audit team
blocking sight distance). Many of the safety concerns
The Project Manager, unless otherwise directed by the
found in this stage of audit should be readily
Client, is responsible for the selection of the road
addressed through simple and low cost maintenance
safety audit team. The team should be fully
practices (such as tree trimming, sign and line marking
independent of the design and the project. It should be
renewal, and roadside hazard issues). As such, there are
lead by a registered Senior Road Safety Auditor, and it
benefits in having maintenance crews trained in road
should have team members (one or two) with a range
safety audit so that they can apply their safety
of road safety skills and experiences.
knowledge routinely during each shift. These crews
A road safety audit should be performed by a team of
may not be independent of the existing road network,
two or three people who are sufficiently experienced in
and they may not be able to look at the road through
the areas of road safety engineering, crash
the eyes of a first time user, but they will be able to
investigation and prevention, traffic engineering and
eliminate the more obvious safety concerns.
road design. There are many benefits of an audit team
Audits of existing roads can be useful but the remedial
rather than a single person including:
work does require funds. It is necessary to have
- Different views about safety concerns due to the
resources available before you progress too far with a
diversity of backgrounds and experiences in the
widespread program of audits of existing roads.
team

THE STEPS RESPONSIBILITY OF
Select the audit team Client/ Designer
Provide the background information Designer
Hold a commencement meeting Client/ Designer

(if necessary) and Audit Team
Assess the documents Audit Team
Inspect the site

day and night
Write the audit report Audit Team
Hold a completion meeting Audit Team and

(if necessary) Client/Designer
Write the response report Client/Designer
Implement agreed changes Client/Designer
Figure 4.3 The eight key steps of the Road Safety Audit Process
- Cross fertilization of ideas which can result from any relevant reports and associated background
discussions information so that the team can gain a good
- Advantages of having more knowledge available. understanding of the project, its key objectives and any
associated issues. Information provided will typically
- More people in a team increase the chance of
include:
detecting less obvious safety concerns.
- Background – the purpose of the project, and how it
There will be some projects - typically smaller projects
will be achieved.
on lightly trafficked and lower speed roads – that can
be audited by a single person. However, do not take - Site data - traffic data, unresolved safety issues from
short cuts with safety and limit “one person” audits to earlier audits, design standards, site constraints
those situations where risk is most likely to be low. (historic buildings, underground services etc).
- Plans and drawings - a full set of the plans.
Step 2. Provide the team with the necessary
Designers need to welcome audit recommendations as
background information
positive inputs to assist their work. They need to look
The Project Manager should provide the road safety objectively at the audit findings, learn from them and
audit team with a comprehensive set of drawings, plus not take the report as any form of personal criticism.

The audit process itself is

simple – having the technical
skills and judgement to carry
out the audit is the real
challenge facing a road
agency as it implements this
process.
The Commencement Meeting allows an opportunity for
the audit team to be briefed about the road project.
At the different stages of a road project, an audit will
likely be considering different types of safety issues. need to remain fully independent of the project. For
This may require people with different skill sets for example, the audit team should not leave a safety
one stage compared to another. Nonetheless, it may concern unreported simply on the verbal advice of a
also be useful to have continuity of audit teams project officer.
through the different stages of a project. This can be
Commencement Meetings usually becomes less
achieved by retaining the same audit team leader
necessary as the audit process becomes more
through the project, while interchanging auditors with
established. In time, most audits are initiated by email
specialist skills into the audit team.
contact between the Project Team and a selected
senior auditor. It is not unusual for the audit team and
Step 3. Hold the commencement meeting (if necessary)
the Project Team to have electronic contact only rather
The background information may be handed over to than to have a formal meeting – either at the
the audit team during a Commencement Meeting. This commencement or at the conclusion of the audit.
meeting is arranged by the Project Manager, and is
intended to: Step 4. Assess the documents and inspect the site
-Introduce the road safety audit team to the Project The road safety audit team then carries out the audit -
Manager. generally starting with a desktop evaluation of all of
- Clarify any uncertainties either party may have the material provided by the Project Manager. The
about the road safety audit process. desktop audit usually takes place before the site
inspection, and the two often take place alternatively.
- Make arrangements for the site inspections to take
place (safety for the audit team must not be This step is the key step in the road safety audit
overlooked). process. It is here that the technical skills and
- Provide an opportunity for handing over the plans experiences of the audit team are put to use in
and other background information. assessing potential safety problems.
- Reach agreement on a timetable for the audit. The audit team must remain focussed on safety issues
only. The team should not digress into matters such as
The meeting provides the opportunity for the audit
costs, alternative treatments, possible design options
team to ask questions about the project and to
or other project related matters.
establish the relevant contact person in the project
office for further queries. The audit team must inspect the site - preferably
during both daytime and night-time. The site
It is important that the project team and the audit
inspection is essential for the team to gain a complete
team both understand that communication during the
idea of the environment in which the project is located.
audit will be necessary and that this is generally
It allows the road safety audit team to see how the
positive. The audit team must be aware however of the
proposal interacts with its surroundings and the nearby

The audit report addresses

safety concerns only – it does
not get side tracked with non-
safety matters!
- Photographs of safety concerns.

- A signed and dated statement by the audit team
leader on behalf of the team that they have
completed the audit.
An audit team inspecting the site of a proposed
road improvement project. The safety concerns should be listed in a considered
manner. This may be by risk (from the most serious
roads, including the sections of existing road down to the least), by common issues (for example all
immediately either side of the site. The team should geometric issues together, all signage issues together),
use this opportunity to visualise potential conflicts or by distance from a zero point. The audit team should
between road users and to anticipate any potentially remember that the Project Team, and the designers,
misleading features. will appreciate receiving an audit report that makes it
The road safety audit team “puts itself into the shoes of easy for them to understand each safety concern, and
the future road user” and drives, walks and even where on the drawings it is to be found.
bicycles the area in order that potential safety Each safety concern reported in the road safety audit
concerns can be identified. A set of checklists is a report will have a recommendation for action.
valuable tool for the audit team to use during the
The recommendation for each safety concern should
desktop audit as well as the site inspections. If
be as clear and positive as possible. However, not all
necessary, and especially for larger projects, the audit
recommendations need to be detailed – especially if
team may need to return to the site a number of times
there are a number of possible options or if there are
and to repeat the desktop audit several times until the
so many competing issues that a considerable amount
Senior Auditor is satisfied that all foreseeable safety
of re-design may be needed.
concerns have been identified and addressed.
The responsibility for deciding on what to do, and then
Step 5. Write the road safety audit report designing it, remains with the Project Manager and
his/her design team.
A road safety audit report includes the following
information:
Step 6. Hold a completion meeting (if necessary)
- A brief description of the project and its
The Completion meeting should involve the full road
background.
safety audit team, the Client, the Project Manager and
- A list of the background information provided to the those in the Project office required to respond to the
audit team during the commencement meeting. audit report. It provides an opportunity to discuss the
- A list of the members of the audit team. audit report findings, especially the recommendations
- Details of when the audit was carried out, including for corrective action.
times and dates of site visits. The meeting should be run so that the independence
- A list of potential safety problems identified by the of the audit team is not affected. The meeting is not an
audit team, including a brief explanation of each opportunity to disagree with the road safety audit
safety concern. report findings and recommendations, but is an
- An indication of the estimated risk. HIGH, MEDIUM opportunity for mutual constructive discussion.
or LOW are often used to indicate risk associated
with each safety concern.

In time, as experience grows with road safety audits, - Often, compromises between capacity and safety are
you may find the need for Completion meetings made which lead to a lessening of safety.
diminish. Emails and telephone calls can provide all - Sometimes changes are made during construction,
the necessary interaction that is required. which do not fully consider operational safety
factors.
Step 7. Write the response report
Road safety audit will not necessarily make every new
The Project Manager is required to respond to each design totally "safe" but it does raise safety high on the
individual safety concern with a statement on whether decision making agenda and it does cause deliberate
the safety concern is agreed or not and what action (if decisions to be made on the basis of carefully
any) is to take place. The response report should give considered safety advice. The earlier in the design that
appropriate consideration not only to the technical the audit is carried out, the easier and cheaper it is to
matters to be undertaken, but also to the sensitivity achieve change. The earlier in the design process that
involved in explaining why some actions may not take a project is audited the better. Early auditing can
place. achieve better results at much lower remedial cost.
This step is often overlooked in the road safety audit Some road authorities in some countries have tried to
process. But without a written response report there is “catch-up” with the existing network by auditing
a chance that the Project team may overlook some all/many main roads and highways as a matter of
safety issues later. priority. As well, the audit of an existing road is
perceived to be the “easiest” stage of audit, the one
Step 8. Ensure the safety concerns are followed stage that can be undertaken by existing staff that can
through use the experience to prepare for later design stage
The Project Manager and the Project team are audits. Unfortunately, this focus on existing road audits
responsible for the delivery of the finished project to has led to a mistaken view of audits amongst some
the Client. The Project Manager must follow through professionals that road safety audits and accident
from the response report and ensure that the agreed remedial work are identical. It has also left a legacy of
changes are made to the project to accurately reflect numerous audit reports recommending safety
the agreed improvements detailed in the audit report. improvements (sometimes costing huge amounts of
Independent technical experts may be called in to money) that cannot be treated because of funding
assist with this step. constraints. This, in turn, has led to disillusionment
about the entire road safety audit process.
Road authorities are reminded that road safety audit is

4.2.6 Why do we need Road Safety Audit?
a more effective process if carried out early in the road
Road and traffic engineers have always been design process - therefore you should maintain a focus
concerned for safety, and have always designed with on design stage audits.
safety in mind. However, many new road projects have
However, a safety audit of an existing road allows:
been opened which have immediately become
blackspots. Looking at how and why such projects slip - The identification of features that we know to be
through the traditional system of engineering design hazardous across the network.
and checking yields a very positive answer to the - The identification and treatment of other potential
question of why we need road safety audit. crashes at a site that already has a crash record. This
may be done at little extra cost.
- Sometimes a design may include standards
inappropriate for the type of road. Safety audits of existing roads may take place for the
- In some cases, outdated standards may be used in a following reasons:
design. - The surrounding network of a new project should

- Sometimes the combination of various elements of always be audited.
the design may yield a result that is not the best in - A new road is open or partially open to traffic
terms of safety. during construction and thus a pure pre-opening

audit cannot be carried out. (This happens often).

- Many roads are being rehabilitated throughout Asia
and sometimes thousands of kilometres of road are
being rebuilt in stages to similar designs. An
essential tool of auditing the designs of one project
is to look at the completed roads on the adjacent
sections.
- A crash investigation needs to be carried out at a
blackspot but the crash data is unreliable.
Road safety audit does not guarantee a totally “safe”

road, but it can provide a reduced risk of crash
involvement.
4.2.7 What makes a good Road Safety Audit team

There are some important things to remember when
appointing an audit team:
-Always use a road safety audit team –two or three

people, never a “one person team” (a possible exception
may be a project on a low speed, low volume minor
road.
- Ensure that every member of the team is

independent of the design and/or the project. -
Auditors inspecting sites during design stage audits.
Appoint an accredited Senior Road Safety Auditor.
One accreditation criteria is set out below for
information. 4.2.8 An accreditation system for Road Safety
- Select a Senior Road Safety Auditor who is Auditors
experienced and knowledgeable about road safety
Several nations have adopted nationally accepted
matters for the particular stage of audit.
accreditation models for auditors that are based
- Experiences - the Senior Road Safety Auditor should
closely on the following model that was initially
be an experienced professional. The audit team can
developed for use by AUSTROADS:
comprise members with varying lengths of
a. Five years (minimum) relevant experience in road
experience. This mix of experience can be useful in
design, traffic engineering, road safety engineering
assessing potential safety issues - new graduates
or other road safety discipline.
may have different, but still valid, views compared
with older team members with more experience. b. Successful completion of a road safety training
course approved and recognised by a National
- Professions - invariably one or more engineers will
Road Authority.
be needed for design stage audits because of the
need to examine many plans and the need to be c. Participation in at least five road safety audits
able to “think in three dimensions”.The rest of the under the guidance /leadership of a Senior Auditor,
team may have qualifications or experiences in of which at least three must be design stage audits,
fields as diverse as education, traffic enforcement, and another must be a pre-opening or existing
construction, maintenance, and traffic management road audit.
or crash investigation. d. Maintain experience by participating in at least one
audit per year.

To be listed as a Road Safety Auditor, a person is undertaken, and estimated the number of crashes
required to satisfy points A and B above. To be listed as that would have been saved with audits. The study
a Senior Road Safety Auditor, a person is required to concluded that road safety audit would have
satisfy points A, B, and C. Both levels are required to provided a first year rate of return of 120%.
satisfy point D in order to remain on the list of - An Australian study showed an average benefit/cost
accredited auditors. ratio for design stage audits to be 36:1 and an
average benefit/cost ratio for audits of existing
roads to be 6:1.
4.2.9 Costs and benefits of Road Safety Audits
In summary, road safety audit is a highly cost effective
The cost of conducting audits varies considerably and
process.
depends on the overall size of the project. The cost of
conducting an audit is less than about 2% of the
design costs, and less than about half of one percent of 4.2.10 What projects do we audit?
the total project cost. This will become less on larger
You can decide to audit every new road project, or only
road projects.
some of the new road projects. You may decide to audit
each one at every stage of audit, or only at selected
FIVE INTERNATIONAL STUDIES HAVE SHOWN ROAD stages of audit.
SAFETY AUDIT IS A VERY COST EFFECTIVE PROCESS The best balance of project cost, classification of road,
- A study by Surrey County Council (UK) that percentage of total projects, available resources and so
compared before and after crash statistics for a on will never be a simple one to decide upon.
sample of audited schemes and non-audited One of the most positive ways to ensure that road
schemes. It found that audited schemes achieved an safety audit will become firmly established in a road
average saving per year of 1.25 casualty crashes authority is to establish a road safety audit policy.
compared to a saving of just 0.25 casualty crashes There is a need for all staff to be clear about what
for non-audited schemes. projects are to be audited and at what stages this
- A second study in the UK compared the costs of should be done. These criteria are best detailed in a
implementing road safety audit recommendations at road safety audit policy.
the design stage with the costs of making changes
Such a policy will detail the type of road project to be
after each project was constructed. It found that the
audited, the stage of audits that will be undertaken
average saving from implementing changes at the
and the reporting and responding systems. The policy
design stage rather than after the project was
should be disseminated widely to all professionals in
constructed was approximately $16,000US.
that agency, as well as to all professionals who have
- A Danish study involved a cost benefit analysis of dealings with that agency on road related matters. An
13 projects that had been subject to road safety example of a policy on road safety audit for an
audit. The benefits of audit were the savings in Indonesian road authority could be:
crashes that resulted from the audit
All road projects in Indonesia will be road safety
recommendations (savings in crashes were
audited at the following stages according to the class
calculated by using a crash prediction model to
of the road, in accordance with the procedures
estimate the crashes that would have resulted if the
contained in the Road Safety Audit manual:
recommendations had not been implemented). The
study revealed a first year rate of return of 146%.
- A study in Jordan considered a number of projects
that were not subject to audit but developed
problems soon after construction. The study
assumed that remedial works required following
completion of the projects would have been
incorporated into the initial design if audit had been

TOLLWAYS/
AUDIT ARTERIALS COLLECTORS LOCAL STREETS
EXPRESSWAYS
PLANNING √ √ N/A N/A
PRELIMINARY Optional
DESIGN √ √ N/A
DETAILED DESIGN √ √ √ √
TRAFFIC Optional Optional

MANAGEMENT √ √
PRE-OPENING √ √ √ Optional
NO. OF AUDITS 5 5 Min. 2 Min. 1
A policy (whether about road safety audits or any other REFERENCES AND READING LIST
subject) should be a “living” document. It should be
1. AUSTROADS (2009) Road Safety Audit. Sydney
reviewed and updated as necessary.
2. THE INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND
On the basis that there is a clear expectation that road
TRANSPORTATION (2008). Guidelines for Road Safety
authorities will design and build safe roads, every road
Audit. London.
authority should plan to introduce safety audit into its
design processes to the limit imposed by manpower
and financial constraints.

ROAD SAFETY AUDIT

PRELIMINARY DESIGN STAGE
Case Study: A Proposed Airport Access Road
1. Introduction
This report details the results of an audit of the preliminary design
stage audit of a proposed access road to a proposed new airport.
2. General Safety Comments

- The proposed Y intersection will present a high crash risk. The
intersection needs to be re-considered to become a T junction.
- The proposed median is not wide enough to shelter right turn/U-turn
lanes; as a result the U-turn locations will become serious conflict
points.
- The long distances between the U-turn facilities will increase the
risk that many road users will travel the wrong way along this road, increasing the risk of head-on collisions.
There are numerous roadside hazards in the clear zone of the existing road. More new hazards are proposed for the new section
of road.
3. Table of Road Safety Audit Findings and Recommendations

The following Table comprises a few of the 22 individual safety concerns that were reported in the full road safety audit report of
this audit.
Client
No. Safety Concern Risk Risk
Response
1 Safety concerns associated with the proposed new access road to the proposed new airport
1.1 The 2m wide median proposed for the existing - Review the cross sectional design and
road will assist pedestrians to cross the road but try to provide a median that is at least
it is too narrow to shelter any turning vehicles. 4m wide so that a 3m wide sheltered
There are no sheltered turns proposed for right lane can be provided at each U turn.
HIGH
turns or U turns. This will increase the risk of rear - If this is not possible, ensure that each
end crashes. U turn is signed and has pavement lane
markings (through & U turn arrows) to
define the location.
1.2 The cross sectional drawings show undrivable - Widen the cross section so that the
side slopes (1:1) within the clear zone (some slopes are outside the 7.5m clear zone.
4.4m from the edge line) between Km 8.60 and - Alternatively, soften the side slopes to
Km 14.50. If a vehicle leaves the road it will not at least 4:1.
HIGH
be able to traverse such steep slopes – the
- If this is not possible, install crash
vehicle will roll, causing serious injuries to the
barrier (guardrail) to shield the
occupants.
undrivable slope.

Client
Response
1.3 There is an intersection proposed for near Km - Ensure that a decision is made about
12.250 – it is to be a cross road intersection but traffic control – Stop signs, Give Way
the drawings do not show how it is to be signs, or traffic signals.
controlled. The lack of traffic control will lead to - Remove the U turn ban – it will not be
driver/rider confusion about who has “right of enforced and there is no logical reason
way”, which will increase crash risk. The drawings HIGH for it.
also indicate that U turns are to be prohibited.
- Ensure that sheltered right turn/U turn
There are to be no sheltered right turn lanes. It is
lanes are provided on the Access Road.
unrealistic to expect the U turn ban to be obeyed,
and vehicles turning here from the “fast lane” will
have an increased the risk of rear end crashes.
1.4 The cross section shows trees proposed for the - Do not plant trees on the median until
edge of the median – well within the clear zone. the median becomes at least 15m wide.
These will be roadside hazards and should be - After that point, trees may be planted
relocated, removed or shielded with barrier. The along the centre line of the median, as
MED
median proposed becomes quite wide and trees long as each one is at least 7.5m from
can be outside the clear zone if they are planted the edge of the nearest traffic lane.
near the centre of the wide median.
The existing road to be widened and duplicated is Numbers of school children were observed walking and
presently a narrow 2 lane two way road over most of its riding along the existing road. Traffic speeds at present
8.7km length in this project. There is a mix of road appear to be constrained by the poor condition of the
users – mostly motorcyclists, pedestrians and ojeks. The road surface more than by speed management which
road is already a busy road, and it passes through urban (at the present time) is non-existent. Traffic calming is
areas. When the road is widened speeds will increase – desirable for this urban area if safety is to be improved
there is a need for a speed management strategy to for the local population.
minimise the risk of speeding on the vulnerable road
users and the people living beside the road.

This small intersection is proposed to be the location Amending the design of the proposed Y junction to
where the Airport Access Road branches east towards become a traditional T junction is recommended.
the airport. However, the intersection proposed for this Further decisions will need to be made – should the
location will encourage drivers/riders to travel the Airport Access Road be the “priority “ road, or should it
wrong way past a long island and it will create unsafe be the stem of the T junction. What type of traffic
situations. A complete redesign of the intersection – to control is best suited here – traffic signals or Give way
become a traditional T junction - is recommended signs.

ROAD SAFETY AUDIT

DETAILED DESIGN STAGE
Case Study: A proposed tunnel on a National Highway
1. Introduction
There is a need for additional road capacity to avoid a congested and hazardous stretch of National Highway. A design has been
prepared for a “one way pair” - a road system that has the eastbound carriageway located approximately 1km from a new
westbound carriageway. The new carriageway is built through steep hills – there is a need for a tunnel to be constructed for a
length of almost 1km at one part of this new carriageway.
2. General Safety Comments

- The longitudinal alignment has grades of 10% for 100m at three locations along the new carriageway will be difficult for
some buses and trucks (many overloaded) to negotiate. They will increase the risk of rear end collisions as faster vehicles
approach from behind.
- The tunnel is one-way, but some road users may travel the wrong way through it to save time or distance. Travelling the
wrong way along one-way roads is a high risk safety concern. Travelling the wrong way in a tunnel is an even greater risk as
there is nowhere for approaching drivers to negotiate an escape.
- The design speed of 40km/h for the new carriageway is unrealistically low. It does not recognise the likely real operating
speeds of many road users. It is a concern that increased speeds will lead to a higher crash risk, especially on the curves west
of the tunnel on the downhill section of road.
- There will be numerous roadside hazards in the clear zone of the newly constructed carriageway. The clear zone concept does
not appear to have been used. The roadside drains and the unshielded ends of the tunnel walls are particularly serious
roadside hazards. A clear zone of 5m is recommended (assuming operating speeds of 65km/h and volumes in excess of
5000vpd).
Plan of the proposed road and the new tunnel

Client
Response
1 Safety concerns associated with the proposed new carriageway and tunnel
The design speed for the road in the new tunnel - Reconsider the design speed – if
is 40km/h. This is a very low design speed to use possible aim for a 60km/h design speed
for a new carriageway that is to be a National that will be more realistic for this type
Highway. It has allowed tighter H and V geometry of road.
GENERAL
to be designed than is considered safe for this - Ensure that excellent delineation of the
type of road in this type of terrain. VERY carriageway is implemented. This
This low design speed will not reflect the reality HIGH should include edge lines on both sides
of the operating speeds likely along this road, of the carriageway, reflectors along the
particularly on the downhill sections. It will lead crash barrier, and chevron alignment
to rear end crashes, and run-off-road crashes. markers (CAM’s) around the sharpest
curves – especially on the downhill
section.
1 The drawings have a design speed of 40km/h. On - Reconsider the design speed for this
the drawings, there are two curves with small road.
radii (100m at Km 1.818 and 75m at Km 2.337) - Reconsider the max. value of super
with superelevation slopes are more than 7%. elevation to be used as there will be
Such cross sections present a “toppling” risk for many slow and overloaded trucks.
MED
slow moving high loaded vehicles. It is
- Alternatively, consider increasing the
recommended that these superelevation’s should
radius of these curves.
be reduced as many slow (overloaded) trucks are
expected here. This is very dangerous for low
speed trucks.
2 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is not met for two - Reconsider adopting a higher design
curves for 60km/h speeds. The operating speed of speed.
cars and motorcycles will be around 60-65km/h. - Increase the radius of these curves to
The radius of the curve at Km 1+818 is 100m MED ensure that the lateral offset is at least
which is not compliant with the geometric 4.75m.
standard for a speed of 60 km/h.
- Adopt a 3m wide shoulder on the left
hand side to achieve this offset.
3 It is difficult to understand what is proposed for - Reconsider the need for Emergency
the Emergency Bays. The drawings give Bays
conflicting messages. Firstly, if the left hand - Use a 3m wide left side shoulder as a
shoulder is wide enough there will be no need continuous place for emergency
for an Emergency Bay. breakdowns.
Stationary vehicles on the inside of curves will be - If four Emergency Bays are to be used –
slightly more difficult to see than on straights. MED make sure each is on a straight section
The risk of rear end collisions will be increased as of road.
a result. It will be safer to locate emergency bays
- Clarify the drawing to show exactly
(if any) on straights.
what is proposed.
- Check SSD for the right hand curve at
Km 2.05 with a shoulder of only 1.0m.
This radius may need to be increased.

Client
Response
4 The length of the 10% grades will cause most - Try to reduce the length and the
trucks and buses to have problems maintaining gradient of the uphill sections.
speed as they climb the new road towards the - Recognising that this is now difficult,
tunnel. Many of them will be slowed and they will ensure that drivers of trucks and buses
present a rear-end collision threat for other faster are informed of the grades ahead. Use
vehicles approaching from behind – particularly HIGH signs to warn of steep grades and to
at night. inform drivers of the need to use low
gears.
- Provide a left hand shoulder (break
down lane) at least 3m wide on the
uphill sections.
The design shows three sections with 10% uphill grades. These will cause some buses and trucks severe difficulty in
maintaining their speeds, and this will increase the risk of rear end collisions. The second 10% grade is on a slight
left hand curve at the commencement of the tunnel. These two factors will combine to increase the risk that an
approaching vehicle may collide with the rear of a heavily overloaded truck or bus just inside the tunnel.

ROAD SAFETY AUDIT

ROAD WORKS STAGE
Case Study : Duplication of an inter-urban road
1. Introduction
An existing 2 lane, 2 way inter-urban road is being duplicated to accommodate rapidly increasing traffic volumes. The work
involves construction of 10 new bridges, and about 18km of new carriageway.. The alignment is relatively straight, with only a
few large radius horizontal curves. Three crests on the exiting road are being cut down as part of this work. The new carriageway
will not have significant crests. Several new intersections along this road will be controlled with traffic signals.
This audit was undertaken during the roadworks stage in order to assist the Client to make improvements to road work safety
through this work site.
2. General Road Safety Findings

- Lack of reminder signs for two way flows
- There are no signs in place to remind drivers/riders of the two way traffic.
- Sections of kerb used as delineation
- Concrete blocks have been used to separate the two directions of traffic, or to hold down delineators to prevent them being
blown over in wind. This is dangerous for motorcyclists.
- Delineation - not enough plastic cones/ bollards have been used. Many more are needed.
- Signs and line marking - the regulatory and warning signs in use along this road are not spaced correctly. They tend to be
grouped together, imposing a sudden overload of information for drivers and riders.
- Roadside hazards - concrete pipes and concrete culverts have been left beside the road. There are many lengths of the new
concrete pavement that have a drop off of at least 350mm. These present serious safety concerns for road users of errant
vehicles that may leave this road.
- Slippery surfaces - there are areas of sand and gravel on the road – these can lead to slipping crashes, especially for
motorcyclists. The road should be regularly swept.
- Transitions - the road surface through each transition is rough, dusty when dry and muddy when wet. The surface causes all
vehicles to slow down to a very low speed, and it is creating congestion under heavy traffic conditions..
- Night time issues - many of the street lights were not working in the work zones.

Client
Response
1 General safety issues in the road works on this inter urban road
Free flow speeds of vehicles on the By-Pass are - Note that this report has been written
approximately 65-70km/h, and the volumes are in with a 5m clear zone as the desirable
GENERAL
the order of 15000vpd (plus motorcycles). From clear zone for this road during the
HIGH
this, a clear zone of 5m is appropriate for straight roadworks.
sections of this route. - Try to achieve a 5m clear zone during
roadworks.
1.1 The road surface through the transitions is rough, - Smooth these transitions – grade them
as well as dusty when dry and muddy when wet. level.
The surface causes all vehicles to slow down to a - Seal each transition to reduce dust and
very low speed. HIGH mud.
- Use delineators to clearly show to
approaching drivers the correct path
through each transition.
1.2 The delineators and signs that are placed to mark - Ensure that all two way/two way
the transitions are not adequate. Of most concern transitions have cones/delineators
at “two way/two way” transitions is that they are located along the centre line of the
placed on the far side of the transition. and this merge to define vehicle paths.
HIGH
can mislead some drivers/riders into turning into - Do not place delineators/cones on the
the path of on-coming traffic. “far” side of such transitions as this can
mislead drivers/riders into head on
conflicts.
1.3 There are insufficient speed restriction signs - It is recommended that more repeater
along the road. Where two-way traffic is in roadwork speed limit signs be installed
LOW
operation, the posted speed limit should be along EBL-01.
40km/h.
1.4 There are additional safety concerns at night: - Efforts should be made to
- Many of the existing street lights were not reconnect/maintain these quickly.
working. - They should also be extended along a

taper at each transition.
- The transition points were not highlighted
- Ensure that each bridge has better
with flood lighting. The delineators do not
delineation placed on each abutment.
have any reflective properties and
MED
(although quite good) they are less visible
at night.
- The bridges tend to be dark – the lighting
is too far from them. The bridges are
squeeze points and need better
delineation on each abutment.

Client
Response
There are numerous sections of kerbing being used to There are many sections where sand and gravel has
delineate the roadworks. These are roadside hazards been carried onto the road. This presents a skidding
and should be removed. The plastic delineators are hazard for motorcycles in particular. The road should be
useful, but many more of them are needed to provide a swept frequently to be kept free of sand and gravel. The
satisfactory level of safety. transitions should also be smoothed over and sealed so
that sand and gravel is less likely to get onto the road.
1.5 There are several piles of sand/earth dumped on - Remove these piles of sand/earth.
the shoulder and the edge of the road. They will - Ensure that future supplies are stored
cause a motorcyclist to come off his/her MED well off the road.
motorcycle if they hit them – and this risk is
higher after dark.

ROAD SAFETY AUDIT

PRE-OPENING STAGE
Case Study: A Toll Road that is an extension to a Ring Road
1. Introduction
The Toll Way has been extended northwards from the end of the existing expressway. The existing expressway runs in a
north/south direction for about 10km. This new section is 3.4km long. It is a six lane divided road that is predicted to carry some
60,000vpd. It is reasonably flat over most of its length except for two small crests where it passes over U turn facilities on the
arterial road. It has wide sealed shoulders (left side), good pavement surface, and good line marking. The new toll way is speed
zoned at 80km/h (maximum) and 60km/h (minimum).
2. General Road Safety Comments

- Roadside hazards at the gore areas of the entry ramps.
- A median opening – located on a curve – it may allow vehicles to cross over into on-coming traffic.
- Two future dual-lane entry ramps that have inadequate merging lengths with the Toll Way.
- Direction signs installed for exits that do not yet exist and may not be constructed for some years – creating a potential to
mislead some drivers.
- Inadequate covering of several direction signs that are not intended to be used by drivers until these new ramps are built and
opened to traffic.
- Incorrect warning signs to warn drivers of a lane drop.
- Incorrect line marking used at the lane drop.
- Temporary concrete barriers that have unsafe ends.
- Inadequate delineation of the northern end of the Toll Way, with a concern that some fast vehicles may not appreciate that the
Toll Way ends here.
- Uncertain priority for Toll Way traffic vs arterial road traffic at the northern end.
Client
Response
1 Safety concerns with the new toll way
1.1 The gore areas at the entry ramps have many - Drivers need to be warned of these
hazards for road users on the arterial road and on hazards. Assist the drivers to choose
the toll road.. The gore areas at both on-ramps their correct path and stay in the
are too narrow; the blunt end of the concrete correct lane (whether in the arterial or
wall and the large direction sign supporting post the toll road).
are both significant roadside hazards. It is now HIGH - Provide delineation and clear warning,
too late to make significant changes to this gore including hazard signs, flexible guide
area. posts.
- Consider installing a crash cushion (and
correctly designed W beam barrier) to
shield these two major hazards.

Client
Response
1.2 At the toll booth on the ramp at KBN towards - Make the two signs consistent, either
north, there is a warning sign “no entry for 4.2m or 5 m for both signs.
vehicles with heights more than 5 m”, but there is - It is likely that the signs should both
an other advisory sign underneath indicating the read 4.2m.
LOW
maximum height is 4.2 m. It is confusing to
drivers and potentially dangerous for vehicles
with a height more than 4.2m although less than
5 m to pass the toll booth.
This gore area is narrow and the sign support plus the The northern end of the Toll Road ends at an ill defined
end of the concrete wall are very near to the arterial intersection with an arterial road.
road. This is hazardous and dangerous for road users.
Clearer delineation will assist drivers to stay in their
lane. Ultimately, a suitably designed crash cushion will
be needed at locations such as this.
This median opening, on a curve, may allow vehicles to The dual merge of this future entry ramp is too short
cross over into on-coming traffic. This is very and will present entry problems. There are two such
dangerous; traffic should not have a chance to cross to locations on Section E-1 – and both will present serious
the other direction on an expressway. This opening safety problems if built. Either the on-ramps should be
shall be closed with correctly installed W beam barrier. restricted to a single lane, or the two lanes at each
should be separated by at least 100m of merge length
along the Toll Way.

Client
Response
1.3 On the curve there is inadequate widening on the - Provide repeater speed restriction signs
right hand curve to permit suitable forward sight along the Toll Road and an advisory
lines. If a southbound truck was to shed a load of speed sign for the curve.
MED
bricks (or any other matter) onto the road in the - Maintain good delineation for this
third lane a driver may not be able to see these in curve - especially reflective chevron
time. alignment markers.
1.4 At the northern end of the new expressway, the - Ensure that the correct warning sign is
lane drop warning sign is not correct. Drivers used – warning of a 3 lane to 2 lane
MED
should be warned of a one lane reduction, from 3 drop.
lanes to 2 lanes.
1.5 In the same location (See 1.5) temporary concrete - As there is no way to merge this unsafe
barriers have been used to prevent vehicles using end into the structure, it is important to
the future ramp. This temporary barrier has an minimise its hazard.
MED
unsafe approach end which is a hazard in the - To do this, place plastic barricades or
clear zone. use a number of sand filled bags to
shield the blunt concrete end.

ROAD SAFETY AUDIT

EXISTING ROAD
Case Study: A length of National Highway
1. Introduction
A 49 km length of National Highway is to be rehabilitated. The Project manager has asked for an audit of the existing conditions
to be undertaken so that safety improvements can be designed into the package of road improvements.
The National Highway is a 2 lane, 2 way road. It passes through rural areas and several small towns and villages. The Highway is
flat – there are no vertical curves and only a small number of large radius horizontal curves.
There is a high percentage of trucks, and a lot of motorcycles, in the traffic stream. Cars and buses mix with these groups of road
users. Also in the mix are pedestrians (walking along and across the Highway) bicycles, becak (bicycle passenger vehicles), ojek
(motorcycle passenger vehicles), delman (horses) and some hand carts.
The speeds appear to be dictated more by the amount of traffic rather than any desire to comply with speed restrictions. At night,
the high percentage of trucks seems to increase further; by midnight it was estimated that 75% of the vehicles were trucks. The
speeds of these trucks was high (some up to 80km/h) as drivers appeared determined to travel the highway at the highest
possible speed. Overtaking was common, sometimes in unsafe situations, and sometimes three vehicles wide.
A large amount of on-road parking of trucks was noted at several locations – day time and night time. Trucks parking on the
roadside at night are often hard to see and they present a risk of rear end collisions.
2. General Road Safety Concerns

- The existing speed restrictions are unclear.
- There are several urban areas that need traffic calming to reduce through vehicle speeds and to improve safety for
pedestrians and vulnerable road users.
- The narrow bridges are locations of high risk.
- Concrete guide posts are roadside hazards that will seriously injure motorcyclists if struck. There are many other safer and
cheap options available that should be used on Indonesian highways.
- There are numerous roadside hazards in the clear zone of the existing road – the drawings are silent about any improvements
to these.
- Delineation along the road (especially at night) is quite poor. Many sections of line marking are missing. Action should be
taken to install a centre line, lane lines (where necessary), and edge lines immediately.

Client
Response
Safety concerns associated with the national highway
1.1 There are a number of narrow bridges along the - Reconsider the decision not to widen
Highway. People walking along the sealed these structures. Widen the bridges to
shoulder have “nowhere to safely go” if other provide a cross section that has a full
vehicles are overtaking at that time. VERY width road plus shoulder across each
Eight bridges have been recently duplicated and HIGH bridge structure.
they now present a short length of divided - If this is not possible ensure that strong
highway, with a wide cross section. However, the edge lines are tapered to highlight the
majority of bridges have not been widened - so narrowing. These should be tapered
these wide bridges are the exception rather than over a long distance (suggested 100m)
the rule. The narrow bridges will present high risk on each approach and departure.
locations for a variety of possible crash types. - Ensure also that reflective hazard
marker boards are installed on each
bridge end post.
The existing highway is a 2 lane two way road over The highway passes through a number of
most of the 49km length in this project. The proposal towns/villages – such as Rembang, Lasam, Sluke,
shows the shoulders to be sealed together with some Sarang, and Bulu. Speed management at the present
other minor improvements. The highway passes time is non-existent. Traffic calming is desirable for
through rural (in this photograph) and urban areas. these urban areas if safety is to be improved for the
local population.
1.2 The existing carriageway has line marking only - Ensure that line marking is consistently
over some of its length (none over the rest). If and correctly applied along the full
this road is to carry large volumes of traffic (day length of both carriageways.
HIGH
and night) it must have good delineation for
safety. The line marking must be continuous
along both carriageways.
1.3 There are very few speed restriction signs along - Install speed restriction signs (in pairs)
this Highway. None are proposed in the drawings. at locations every 2km along the
This leads to an unsafe situation in that highway.
HIGH
drivers/riders do not know what the legal - Where speed zones change, ensure that
maximum speed is. Also, Police have nothing to there are 2 sets of signs installed
enforce. within the fist 500m of the new speed
zone.

Client
Response
1.4 There are many pedestrians using the highway, - Ensure that the traffic calming includes
especially in the urban sections. The plans are pedestrian refuges (possibly 10-15m
silent about anything that will assist pedestrians MED long with strong painted line marking
to cross the highway. joining these physical refuges) within
the urban areas
The bridge presents roadside hazard to approaching The older bridge is only 2 years old, but its end posts
drivers/riders. The short length of duplicated highway are not delineated to approaching drivers/riders. There
begins and ends too sharply and is not well delineated. is a risk that a motorcyclist could drop into the water
between the two structures. The median side raised
footpaths are not necessary and present a striking risk
to small vehicles.
1.5 The new bridge end points are not shielded with - Ensure that strong line marking is
guardrail, there is a gap between the two bridge installed on each approach. This should
structures, and the new bridge has an provide a large hatched gore area on
unnecessary raised footpath along the median both approaches.
side. This raised footpath (if struck) will dismount HIGH - Place reflectorized hazard markers on
motorcyclists. One of the bridge end posts has both bridge end posts on each
already been struck and badly damaged – a bad approach. Highlight the presence of the
indicator for this location. bridge end posts for the direction of
travel – not the other direction.

Client
Response
The left side parapet end wall has been struck in what The use of duplicate bridges means that there are two
appears to be a serious impact. It is an indication of the end walls to become roadside hazards. It also means
risk that exists at the numerous bridges along the here that a small vehicle such as a motorcycle could
Highway. This bridge has been duplicated and it has drop into the water below.
one of the wider cross sections.
1.6 The bridge over the largest river has just 2 lanes, - Widen the bridge to provide four lanes
but on each approach there are 4 lanes. The taper plus sealed shoulders across the
from 4 lanes to 2 lanes occurs over a distance of bridge.
just 50m – this arrangement raises the risk of - The warning signs should be
side swipe crashes and/or head on crashes on the duplicated (both sides of the road).
bridge. They should warn of the lane drop
100m before the start of the lane drop,
VERY and the narrow bridge approximately
HIGH 50m before the bridge.
- Install thermoplastic edge lines along
both sides of the highway to highlight
the edge of the lanes on the approach,
the taper, and across the bridge.
- Install reflective hazard marker boards
on both ends of both the bridge end
posts.

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ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES

“Making Indonesian roads safer for all”

DIRECTOR GENERAL OF HIGHWAYS’ INSTRUCTION

Considering: a. United Nations declaration in March of 2010 on the

Bearing in mind: 1. Law no. 38/2004 on Roads.

Intructed to: 1. Director of Implementation Region I

FIRST: To attain an improved road safety infrastructure for road

SECOND: To take into account road safety engineering from road

THIRD: In conducting road safety engineering as defined in the

FOURTH: Provisions of the Technical Guide 1 Road Safety Engineering,

FIFTH: In order to carry out this instruction with full responsibility.

SIXTH: The Director General of Highways’ instruction comes into

Copies of this instruction have been delivered to:

1. Minister of Public Works

Ir. Djoko Murjanto, MSc

Abutment: an end support of a bridge.

PART A - An Introduction to Road Safety Engineering 1

PART B - Technical Knowledge for Road Safety Engineers 7

PART C - Vulnerable Road Users 63

PART D - Road Safety Engineering Processes 77

ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES 1

In this Part, you will read about:

- The global road safety problem.

By reducing road trauma, you are not only helping

2 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

Table 1.1 Traffic injury mortality rate

Figures 1.1 shows deaths by road user in Indonesia.

1.3 Snapshot of Indonesian crashes

ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES 3

occur to people aged between 15 and 44 years.

In Indonesia some 90% of road fatalities are male. This

- Interaction between vehicles and roads is an issue

Motorcyclists comprise some 61% of fatalities on Indonesian roads.

4 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

Strengthen institutional capacity

- Interaction between road users and roads is the

For many years now, road crashes have been

- Pillar 1 – road safety management safer roads.

- Pillar 3 – safer vehicles safer roads for Indonesia.

- Pillar 4 – safer road users

The goal of a national strategy is to guide and direct

Improving road safety in Indonesia is a long term

ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES 5

improve road safety is for Police to be stricter and

6 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES 7

The four topics are:

2.1 Safety at intersections 2.1.1 Why are intersections important?

8 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

Road Rules apply to all forms of intersection control.

Figure 2.1 Junction Types

ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES 9

be installed. This assists in alerting drivers/riders on use the intersection;

- The approach speed of vehicles.

2.1.2 Basic principles of intersection safety ASD

Whether you are designing a new intersection or you

- provide adequate visibility of the intersection, and

10 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC WORKS REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA

Lip or Edge Line

Conflict Point - dependent upon

1.05 m Drivers 1.05 m Drivers

Figure 2.3 Safe Intersection Sight Distance

ROAD SAFETY ENGINEERING SERIES 11