Lecture Notes

Moi University
School of Engineering
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering
COURSE CODE: CVS 517E COURSE NAME: DESIGN OF BRIDGES

YEAR: V SEMESTER: I ACADEMIC YEAR: 2017/2018
UNITS: 3 Lecturer: DR. B. OMONDI
CVS 517E: Design of Bridges 2017/2018 Academic Year Course Outline
COURSE OUTLINE
Purpose of the course

The purpose of this course is to enable students understand the principles of bridge
engineering which entails design, construction and maintenance of the bridges. The
course will be limited to the design of medium span bridges using reinforced concrete,
steel and composite materials. Emphasis shall be laid on design and detailing exercises.
Course objectives
The objectives of this course are to:
1. Introduce students to the different types of bridges;
2. Enable students understand the principles of bridge design;
3. Guide students on the design and detailing aspects of commonly applied
bridge types;
4. Provide guidelines on the available inspection, maintenance and repair
procedures of existing bridges.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the course, student should be able to
1. Identify and differentiate the different types of bridges;
2. Explain the principles of bridge design;
3. Carryout planning and location for bridge construction;
4. Design and detail commonly applied bridge types;
5. Describe the construction methods for bridges;
6. Outline the inspection schedule and describe the inspection procedures of
existing bridges;
7. Describe the preventive maintenance procedures of existing bridges;
8. Describe the repair procedures of existing bridges.
Course content
Chapter I: Introduction to design of bridges: General Introduction; Definitions; Bridge
design principles; Bridge design considerations; Types of bridges; Components of a
bridge; Types of loads on bridges.
Chapter II: Bridge Design Considerations: Functional considerations; Aesthetics
considerations; Economic Considerations; Construction and erection considerations;
Legal considerations.
Chapter III: Design of Selected Bridges (Reinforced concrete bridges, Steel bridges
and composite bridges): Basic Assumptions of Design; Calculation of loads; Analysis of
effects of loads; Preliminary design of bridge elements; Final design of bridge elements;
Detailing of bridge elements.
Chapter IV: Construction methods: Erection and hoisting method; Balanced cantilever
method; Construct in-situ method; Construct using precast beam; Construct using
precast girder section and erected by a launching machine; Incremental launching
method
Chapter V: Inspection, Maintenance and repair of bridges: Maintenance inspection;
Acceptance inspection; Levels of assessment; Repair of concrete structures; repair of
steel structures.
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CVS 517E: Design of Bridges 2017/2018 Academic Year Course Outline
Field work: Students are expected to visit any existing and/or an ongoing bridge
construction to appreciate the practical aspects of bridge design and construction.
Laboratory work: Students may be expected to develop model bridges using simple
materials to enhance the practical appreciation of the various bridge elements and
types.
Teaching and Learning Methods

• Lecture
• Tutorial
• Laboratory work and field visits
Teaching Materials and Aids

• Lecture handouts
• Reference materials: Textbooks, internet
• Computers
Course Assessment
• Course-work 50%
• End of Semester Examination 50%
Course References
1. M.J. Ryall, G.A.R Parke, J.E. Harding, (2003); Manual of Bridge Engineering,
Thomas Telford Ltd, London
2. D. Collings, (2009); Steel-Concrete Composite Bridges, Thomas Telford Ltd,
London
3. V.K. Raina, (2003); Concrete Bridges: Inspection, Repair, Strengthening,
Testing, Load Capacity Evaluation, McGraw-Hill, New Delhi
Design Standards
1. BS 5400 “Steel, concrete and composite bridges” Parts 1 to 10
2. BS 8110 “Structural Use of Concrete” Parts 1 to 3
3. BS 5950 “Structural use of steelwork in building” Part 1
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CVS517E: Design of Bridges 2017/2018 Academic Year Chapter 1: Introduction
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN OF BRIDGES
1.1 General Introduction
A bridge is a structure built to span and provide passage over physical barriers such as a
river, chasm/valley, road, railway or any other physical hurdle and with a span length
equal to or exceeding a certain distance. This distance is defined to be in the range of 2m
to 6m. In this definition, all types of structures such as road bridges, pedestrian bridges,
movable bridges, floating bridges as well as culverts, pipes and vaults in fills are defined
as bridges.
The purpose of a bridge is to carry a service such as a roadway or a railway.
The function required from the bridge and the area where it is constructed decides the
design of the bridge which includes the choice of material. Specifically, the choice of
material during preliminary design stage is influenced by: (1) spans required; (2)
execution processes; (3) local conditions; and (4) foundation constraints. The design
decisions should be based on comparisons of: (1) structural behaviour; (2) economic
aspects; and (3) aesthetics. These factors are addressed in chapter two of these lecture
notes.
Historically, the first bridges were made by nature - as simple as a log fallen across a
stream. The first bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or
planks and eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Most
of these early bridges could not support heavy weights or withstand strong currents. It
was these inadequacies which led to the development of better bridges. The first book
on bridge engineering was written by Hubert Gautier in 1716. With the industrial
revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger
bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the
advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many
using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel.
The subsequent sections provide the terminologies used in bridge engineering, bridge
design principles, types of bridges, components of bridges and the types of loads for
consideration during bridge design. The objective of this chapter is to introduce the
basic principles of bridge design.
1.2 Definitions of terms used in bridge design
An important first step in understanding the principles and processes of bridge design
and construction is learning basic bridge terminology. This section summarizes the
terminologies used in bridge design and construction.
Short span bridge: Spans between 6m to 14 m.
Medium span bridge: Spans between 14m to 45 m.
Large span bridge: Total length greater than 45m
Culvert: A cross drainage structure having total length of 6 m or less between inner
faces of dirt wall.
Foot Bridge: A bridge extensively used for carrying pedestrians, cycles and animals.
High Level Bridge: A bridge, which carries the roadway above highest flood level (HFL)
of the channel.
Highest Flood Level: The level of highest flood ever recorded or the calculated level for
design discharge.
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CVS 517E: Design of Bridges 2017/2018 Academic Year Chapter 1: Introduction
Lowest Flood Level: The level of the water surface obtained in dry season.
Submersible Bridge: A bridge designed to be overtopped during floods.
Channel: A natural or artificial watercourse.
Freeboard: The minimum clearance between the bottom of the girders (soffit of the
superstructure) and the design H.F.L. (including afflux).
Afflux: The rise in the flood level of the river immediately on the upstream of a bridge as
a result of obstruction to natural flow caused by the construction of bridge and
its approaches.
Length of Bridge: The length of a bridge structure will be taken as overall length
measured along the centre line of the bridge between inner faces of dirt
wall.
Safety Kerb: A roadway kerb for occasional use of pedestrian traffic.
Width of Carriageway: Minimum clear width measured at right angles to the
longitudinal centreline of bridge between inside faces of roadway kerb or
wheel grades.
Super elevation/ Cant/Banking: The transverse inclination given to the c/s of a
carriageway on a horizontal curve in order to reduce the effects of
centrifugal force on a moving vehicle.
Bearings: The part of the bridge structure which bears directly all the forces from
the structure above and transmits the same to the supporting structure.
Sliding Bearings: A type of bearing where sliding movement is permitted.
Abutment: The end supports of deck of bridge, which also retains earth, fill of
approaches behind fully or partly. It is part of substructure referring to the
first and the last supports of a bridge.
Approaches: Part of bridge leading up to the main span.
Bearing Capacity: The supporting power of a soil / rock expressed as bearing stress.
Cofferdam: A structure temporary built for the purpose of excluding water or soil
sufficiently to permit construction or proceed without excessive pumping
and to support the surrounding ground.
Foundation: The part of bridge in direct contact with and transmitting load to the
founding strata.
Pier: Intermediate supports of the superstructure of a bridge.
Abutment Pier: It is designed for a condition that even if one side arch span collapses it
would be safe. Generally provided after 3 or 5 spans in multiple span arch
bridges.
Retaining Wall: A wall designed to resist the pressure of earth filling behind.
Wing Wall: Essentially is a retaining wall adjacent to abutment and sloping down up to
ground level or a little above at the other end. This is generally at 45
degrees to the alignment of road or parallel to the river and follows the
profile of earthen banks.
Superstructure: Part of the bridge structure that carries the traffic load and transfers it
to the substructure. It consists of the deck and all other permanent and
variable structures to which the loads are subjected.
Deck: The portion of the superstructure in contact with vehicle tyres.
Deck overlay: Usually a thin application (in the order of 1 to 2”) of new material across
the deck of a bridge.
Substructure: Part of the bridge structure such as pier, abutment and foundation which
supports the superstructure. It also includes return walls and wing walls
but excludes bearings.
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Skewness: The angle between the abutments and the centreline of the bridge as
demonstrated in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Schematic representation of skewness
Conceptual (Preliminary) design: the initial and most creative stage of the design
process where the basic concept is specified. This stage of design involves creation and
choice of concepts by evaluation of different solutions for not entirely specified problem.
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1.3 Bridge Design Principles
Bridge design must be based on three principles: capacity, cost and safety.
a. Capacity
A bridge controls the capacity of the transportation system. For instance: If the strength
of the bridge is unable to carry heavy trucks, load limits will be posted and heavy trucks
will be rerouted. The design should therefore be able to accommodate the traffic
expected throughout the design life of the bridge.
b. Cost
Bridges are expensive structures. The cost per meter of a bridge is high in comparison to
the road. The design should therefore optimize all options in order to minimize costs as
much as possible. This can be controlled by right choice of the location, materials,
structural form etc.
c. Safety
If the bridge fails, the transportation system will not be in a position to give function.
The design should therefore analyse all the factors that might affect the structural
integrity of the bridge. This includes the bearing capacity of the strata, the structural
connections of bridge components, the materials for bridge construction, design of
structural components, construction methods, provisions for inspection etc.
Both the Serviceability and Ultimate Limit States need to be considered. Serviceability
Limit State ensures that crack widths do not exceed values specified for different
environmental conditions, and also ensures that concrete and reinforcement stresses
are maintained below a safe limit. Ultimate Limit State ensures that the structure will
not collapse.
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1.4 Types of bridges

Bridge types depend on the classification method adopted. The classification can be
according to:
a. Construction material.
The bridge types in this classification include:
(i) Timber bridges
(ii) Masonry bridges
(iii) Steel bridges
(iv) Reinforced concrete bridges
(v) Prestressed concrete bridges
(vi) Composite bridges
b. Usage/ traffic/Functionality.
(i) Footbridges/pedestrian bridge
(ii) Highway bridges
(iii) Railway bridges
(iv) Aqueduct
(v) Viaduct
(vi) Equipment bridge
(vii) Pipeline bridge
c. Span
(i) Culvert: span, L ≤ 6m
(ii) Short span bridges: 7m < L ≤ 15m
(iii) Medium span bridges: 16m ≤ L ≤ 50m
(iv) Large span bridges: 50 ≤ L ≤ 150m
(v) Extra-large span bridges: L ≥ 150m
d. Life span
(i) Temporary bridges
(ii) Permanent bridges
(iii) Semi-permanent bridges
e. Horizontal Arrangement
(i) Straight/Normal bridge
(ii) Skewed bridge
(iii) Curved bridge
f. Vertical arrangement
(i) Horizontal/Flat/Normal bridge
(ii) Inclined bridge
g. Span arrangement
(i) Simply supported bridge
(ii) Continuous bridges
(iii) Cantilever bridges
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h. Movements
(i) Movable bridges
(ii) Fixed bridges
i. Structural form/Arrangement
There are six basic bridge forms: the beam, the truss, the arch, the suspension, the
cantilever, and the cable-stay. Figure 1.2 shows the basic forms for bridges.
Figure 1.2: Basic Structural Forms for Bridge Design
Various combinations of the six forms above can allow for design of numerous bridges
such as:
(i) Slab bridges
(ii) Beam/Girder bridges
(iii) Portal frame bridges
(iv) Arch bridges
(v) Truss bridges
(vi) Plate girder bridges
(vii) Cable stayed bridges
(viii) Suspension bridges
(ix) Box culverts etc.
Subsequent discussions consider classifications based on structural form.
1.4.1 Slab Bridges
The characteristic feature of a slab bridge is the fact that the slab is the main carrying
load element of the bridge and it is also the slab that transmits the loads directly to the
substructure. The load is transferred through bending action.
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Bridges are referred to as slab bridges if the ratio between W/D ≥ 5, where W is the total
width and D is the depth of the slab. If W/D < 5, the structure is a beam bridge.
Slab bridges may be of either solid, voided or rib construction. The cross section can be
either rectangular, with sloping slab edges or of the cantilever type. Figure 1.3 shows
typical types of slab bridges.
a) Cross-section of Solid slab bridge b) Cross-section of Solid slab bridge

with slopped edges
c) Cross-section of a voided slab bridge

d) Cross-section of a rib slab bridge
Figure 1.3: Typical types of slab bridges
If the ratio between w/D ≥ 1 and the superstructure is solid above the supports, the type
of structure is called a Rib Slab Bridge. For this type of structure, the slab and the ribs
are cast homogeneously. If w/D < 1, the structure is defined as a Beam Bridge.
Optimal span recommended for Slab Bridge: 4 -20m.
This type of bridge is possibly the cheapest alternative: economically advantageous for
short spans, good ground conditions and low construction height. Restriction is need in
angle of skew since it introduces big torsional moments, which increases ground
stresses.
1.4.2 Beam/Girder bridges

Beam bridges are the most common and the simplest type of bridge, whether statically
determinate beams (simply supported) or continuous beams. Simply supported beams
are usually adopted only for very small spans (up to 25m). Continuous beams are one of
the most common types of bridge. The spans may vary from small (10 – 20m) to
medium (20 - 50m) or large spans (> 100m). The beam carries vertical loads by
bending. As the beam bridge bends, it undergoes horizontal compression on the top.
At the same time, the bottom of the beam is subjected to horizontal tension. The
supports carry the loads from the beam by compression vertically to the foundations.
Figure1.4 shows typical example of continuous beam bridge and corresponding load
action.
The common beams/girders are I-beam girders and box-girders used in steel girder
bridges, reinforced concrete and post-tensioned concrete used in concrete beam
bridges. Examining the cross section of the I-Beam speaks for its so name. The vertical
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plate in the middle is known as the web, and the top and bottom plates are referred to as
flanges.
Figure 1.4: Typical continuous beam bridge
A box girder takes the shape of a box. The typical box girder has two webs and two
flanges. However, in some cases there are more than two webs, creating a multiple
chamber box girder. Other examples of simple girders include pi girders, named for their
likeness to the mathematical symbol for pi, and T shaped girders.
An I-beam is very simple to design and build and works very well in most cases.
However, if the bridge contains any curves, the beams become subject to twisting forces,
also known as torque. The added second web in a box girder adds stability and increases
resistance to twisting forces. This makes the box girder the ideal choice for bridges
with any significant curve in them. Box girders, being more stable are also able to
span greater distances and are often used for longer spans, where I-beams would not be
sufficiently strong or stable. However, the design and fabrication of box girders is more
difficult than that of I beam. For example, in order to weld the inside seams of a box
girder, a human or welding robot must be able to operate inside the box girder. Figure
1.5 shows typical examples of beam bridges based on cross-sectional shapes.
Cross-section of T concrete beam bridge Cross-section of rectangular concrete beam bridge
Cross-section of I - steel girder bridge Cross-section of a concrete box girder bridge

Figure 1.5: Examples of beam bridges based on shapes
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1.4.3 Portal Frame /Integral abutment Bridges

This methodology of constructing bridges is a rather new approach. It is the possible
alternatives to continuous beams. The main idea is to avoid the cost of bearings and
movement joints between the sub- and superstructures.
The deck structure can be of concrete or steel, but concrete is mostly preferred (timber
is not effective). It bears the load through bending.
This bridge type has reduced initial and lifecycle costs, due to joint-less construction;
lighter and smaller abutments; shorter time for foundation construction compared to
traditional piling; can be used for single and multiple span bridges; can resist uplifting
forces; higher redundancy; no tolerance problems (as no joints and bearings exist).
Optimal span recommended is 16-30 m. Schematic representation of integral abutment
bridge is shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: Schematic representation of integral abutment bridge
1.4.4 Arch bridges
Arch bridges pose a classic architecture and the oldest after the girder bridges. Unlike
simple girder bridges, arches are well suited to the use of stone. Since the arch doesn’t
require piers in the centre, they are good choices for crossing valleys and rivers.
Examples of arch bridge are shown in Figure 1.7.
Arch bridge with deck on top Arch bridge with underlying deck
Figure 1.7: Arch bridge with deck on
top
Arches use a curved structure which provides a high resistance to bending forces.
Arches can only be used where the ground or foundation is solid and stable because
unlike girder and truss bridges, both ends of an arch are fixed in the horizontal
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direction (i.e. no horizontal movement is allowed in the bearing). Thus when a load is
placed on the bridge (e.g. a car passes over it) horizontal forces occur in the bearings of
the arch. Like the truss, the roadway may pass over or through an arch.
Structurally there are four basic arch types:
1. Hinge-less
2. Two-hinged
3. Three hinged
4. Tied arches
The hinge-less arch uses no hinges and allows no rotation at the foundations. As a result
a great deal of force is generated at the foundation (horizontal, vertical, and bending
forces) and the hinge-less arch can only be built where the ground is very stable.
However, the hinge-less arch is a very stiff structure and suffers less deflection than
other arches.
The two hinged arch uses hinged bearings which allow rotation. The only forces
generated at the bearings are horizontal and vertical forces. This is perhaps the most
commonly used variation for steel arches and is generally a very economical design.
The three-hinged arch adds an additional hinge at the top or crown of the arch. The
three-hinged arch suffers very little if there is movement in either foundation (due to
earthquakes, sinking, etc.). However, the three-hinged arch experiences much more
deflection and the hinges are complex and can be difficult to fabricate. The three-hinged
arch is rarely used anymore.
The tied arch is a variation on the arch which allows construction even if the ground is
not solid enough to deal with the horizontal forces. Rather than relying on the
foundation to restrain the horizontal forces, the girder itself "ties" both ends of the arch
together, thus the name "tied arch."
The arch bridges basically work as a structure under compressive stress (arches
resist forces through compression). Therefore, thrust is a major consideration. The
shape is chosen in order to minimise bending moments under permanent loads. They
are ideal structures to build in materials which are strong in compression but weak in
tension e.g. concrete. Modern prestressed concrete or steel arches exists with spans
reaching the order of 300m.
1.4.5 Truss Bridges

For this type of bridge the main load carrying element is the truss, and it is the truss
that transfer the loads to the substructure.
A single-span truss bridge is like a simply supported beam because it carries vertical
loads by bending. Bending leads to compression in the top chords (or horizontal
members), tension in the bottom chords, and either tension or compression in the
vertical and diagonal members, depending on their orientation. Schematic
representation of load carrying mechanism in truss bridge is shown in Figure 1.8.
Trusses are popular because they use a relatively small amount of material to carry
relatively large loads
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Figure 1.8: Schematic representation of load carrying mechanism in truss bridges
The bridge deck may be above, between or underneath the trusses. If the deck is above
the trusses, it means that the deck is above the top chord of the trusses. If the deck is
underneath the trusses, it means that the deck is situated at the same level as the bottom
chord of the trusses. If the deck is between the trusses, this means that the deck is
situated somewhere between the bottom and top chord of the trusses.
The small size of individual parts of a truss make it the ideal bridge for places where
large parts or sections cannot be shipped or where large cranes and heavy equipment
cannot be used during erection. Because the truss is a hollow skeletal structure, the
roadway may pass over or even through the structure allowing for clearance below the
bridge often not possible with other bridge types. Trusses are also classified by the basic
design used. The most representative trusses are the Warren truss, the Pratt truss, and
the Howe truss. The Warren truss is perhaps the most common truss for both simple
and continuous trusses. For smaller spans, no vertical members are used lending the
structure a simple look.
For longer spans vertical members are added providing extra strength. Warren trusses
are typically used in spans of between 50-100m. The Pratt truss is identified by its
diagonal members which, except for the very end ones, all slant down and in toward the
centre of the span. Except for those diagonal members near the centre, all the diagonal
members are subject to tension forces only while the shorter vertical members handle
the compressive forces. This allows for thinner diagonal members resulting in a more
economic design. The Howe truss is the opposite of the Pratt truss. The diagonal
members face in the opposite direction and handle compressive forces. This makes it
very uneconomic design for steel bridges and its use is rarely seen.
1.4.6 Cable stayed bridges
A cable stayed bridge is a bridge that consists of one or more columns (normally
referred to as towers or pylons), with cables supporting the bridge deck.
From the towers, cables stretch down diagonally (usually to both sides) and support the
girder/deck. Steel cables are extremely strong but very flexible. Cables are very
economical as they allow a slender and lighter structure which is still able to span great
distances. Though only a few cables are strong enough to support the entire bridge, their
flexibility makes them weak to a force we rarely consider: the wind.
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Cable stayed bridges have been used for a range of spans generally between 100m and
500m, where suspension bridge is not an economical solution. However, the range span
for cable stayed bridges has been reported to be 500m to 1500m.
There are two major classes of cable stayed bridges, differentiated by how the cables are
connected to the tower(s): the harp design (cables are made nearly parallel) and the fan
design (the all cables connect to or pass over the top of the tower. These are shown in
Figure 1.9 together with the load transfer mechanism.
Load-transfer mechanism in cable

Classes of cable stayed bridges stayed bridges
Figure 1.9: Classes of cable stayed bridge and corresponding load-transfer mechanism
Cables and (box) girders are the primary force resisting elements. Cables resist forces
through tension and pre-stress the girders. Girders resist forces through bending.
1.4.7 Suspension bridges

A suspension bridge is a type of bridge where the main load-carrying elements are hung
from suspension cables. Suspension bridges have two tall towers through which the
cables are strung. The tensile forces of the cables are transmitted to the anchoring at the
extreme ends of the cables as shown in Figure 1.10.
Figure 1.10: Suspension Bridge and the main Load carrying elements
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A suspension bridge carries vertical loads through curved cables in tension. These
loads are transferred both to the towers, which carry them by vertical compression to
the ground, and to the anchorages, which must resist the inward and sometimes
vertical pull of the cables. The suspension bridge can be viewed as an upside-down arch
in tension with only the towers in compression. Because the deck is hung in the air, care
must be taken to ensure that it does not move excessively under loading. The deck
therefore must be either heavy or stiff or both. They are suitable for span range
between 100 m to excess of 1,500m.
1.4.8 Cantilever bridges
A beam is said to be cantilevered when it projects outward, supported only at one end.
A cantilever bridge is generally made with three spans, of which the outer spans are
both anchored down at the shore and cantilever out over the channel to be crossed. The
central span rests on the cantilevered arms extending from the outer spans; it carries
vertical loads like a simply supported beam or a truss—that is, by tension forces in the
lower chords and compression in the upper chords. Inner towers carry those forces
by compression to the foundation, and outer towers carry the forces by tension to the
far foundations.
Figure 11: Cantilever Bridge
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1.5 Components of a bridge

A schematic representation of a typical bridge is shown in Figure 1.12 featuring the
major components of a bridge.
Figure 1.12: Schematic representation of a typical Bridge with important

components.
A bridge and the ground immediately surrounding it are divided into principal parts as
follows:
• Ground
• Substructure including foundation
• Superstructure
• Structure components
• Accessories
1.5.1 Ground
The Ground in this context means that part which takes the loads from the foundations
and the surrounding area, inclusive of the approach road, which can have an influence
on the structure.
Examples of the elements which the ‘Ground’ is divided into:
• River course
• Embankment
• Retaining walls
1.5.2 The Substructure
The substructure carries the loads from the superstructure together with its own weight
through the foundations to the supporting ground.
All elements below the superstructure inclusive of the foundation form the substructure.
Examples of elements which the Substructure is divided into include:
• Abutments
• Piers
• Towers
• Anchoring
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1.5.3 The Superstructure

The superstructure carries the traffic together with its own weight to the substructure
through the bearings. All elements of a bridge situated above the supports are regarded
as the Superstructure.
Examples of elements belonging to the superstructure can be:
• Slab
• Beam
• Deck
Additionally, some elements which form part of a superstructure are listed under
structure components and accessories.
Insights on structural behaviour, choice and requirements for these components are
discussed in chapter 3 of these lecture notes.
1.6 Bridge Loading
Bridge loads on structures emanate from four different sources, namely, materials
(permanent loads), traffic (live load), the environmental and construction methods. This
can be structured as shown schematically in Figure 1.13.
Realistically, not all the loads shown in Figure 1.13 can be considered to act
simultaneously. They are combined under different load cases with different load
factors. More information on how these loads are considered in design is given in
chapter 3 of these lecture notes.
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Loads in bridges
Permanent Loads: Transient Loads

• Dead Loads: Self
weight of the
structural
elements i.e.
beams, decks, Live Loads Environment Construction
columns etc.
• Superimposed
Dead Load i.e.
road surfacing, Primary: Secondary: Erection Loads
parapets, kerbs, Due to Centrifugal,
water proofing, direct braking,
cable ducts etc. traffic load
collision
• Materials modelled
behavior e.g. as HA and
creep and
HB loading
Wind Loads Thermal Effects
shrinkage
Figure 1.13: Schematic representation of loads on a typical bridge
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CVS517E: Design of Bridges 2017/2018 Academic Year Chapter 2: Design Considerations
CHAPTER 2
BRIDGE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
2.1-Introduction
The main objective of this chapter is highlight the major design considerations for
bridges. Important considerations for bridge location over water bodies and bridge type
selection are also discussed in this chapter.
2.1.1 General Bridge Design Considerations

Design of bridge structures should be in accordance with requirements established by
the owner, adapted to the geometric conditions of the site and in accordance with the
structural provisions of the applicable codes and specifications.
The geometry of the superstructure is dictated by the specified route alignment and
the required clearances above and below the roadway. These requirements are in turn
directly related to the type of traffic to be carried on the bridge deck, as well as that
passing under the bridge and, when the site is near an airport, low flying aircraft. Thus,
geometric requirements, in general, will be dependent on whether the bridge is to
carry pedestrian, highway, railway, transit, or airplane traffic and whether it is to
cross over a navigable body of water, a highway, a railway, or a transit route.
Drainage, lighting, and snow removal requirements should also be considered in the
geometric design of the superstructure.
Once the overall geometry of the superstructure has been established, it should be
designed to meet structural requirements. These should always include
considerations of strength, serviceability, stability, fatigue, and durability.
2.1.2 Functional considerations
The following functional considerations based on highway bridges must be taken into
account:
a) Width
The roadway width (curb-to-curb, rail-to-rail, or parapet-to-parapet distance) is
dependent on the number of traffic lanes, the median width, and the shoulder width. The
preferred roadway width should be at least that distance between approach guardrails,
where guardrails are provided, or the out-to-out approach roadway, and shoulder width.
Reduced widths are sometimes permitted where structure costs are unusually high or
traffic volumes unusually low. Where curbed roadway sections approach a structure, the
same section should be carried across the structure.
b) Clearances
The horizontal vehicular clearance should be the clear width measured between curbs
or sidewalks, and the vertical clearance should be the clear height for the passage of
vehicular traffic measured above the roadway at the crown or high point of super-
elevation.
Unless otherwise provided, the several parts of the structure should be constructed to
secure the following limiting dimensions or clearances for traffic:
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CVS 517E: Design of Bridges 2017/2018 Academic Year Chapter 2: Design Considerations
i. The minimum horizontal clearance for low traffic speed and low traffic volume
bridges should be 2.4 m greater than the approach travelled way. The
clearance should be increased as speed, type, and volume of traffic dictate.
ii. Vertical clearance on state trunk highways and interstate systems in rural and
urban areas should be at least 5 m over the entire roadway width, to which an
allowance should be added for resurfacing. Vertical clearance on all other
highways should be at least 4.25 m over the entire roadway width to which an
allowance should be added for resurfacing.
c) Sidewalks
Sidewalks, when used on bridges, should be as wide as required by the controlling and
concerned public agencies, and preferably should be 1.5 m but not less than 1.25 m.
d) Curbs
There are two general classes of curbs. These are “parapet” (non-mountable) and
“vehicular mountable” curbs. Both may be designed with a gutter to form a combination
curb and gutter section. The minimum width of curbs should be 225 mm. Parapet curbs
are relatively high and steep faced. They should be designed to prevent the vehicle from
leaving the roadway. Their height varies, but it should be at least 700 mm. When used
with a combination of curb and handrail, the height of the curb may be reduced.
Mountable curbs, normally lower than 150 mm, should not be used on bridges except in
special circumstances when they are used in combination with sidewalks or median
strips. Curbs and sidewalks may have vertical slits or other provisions for discontinuity,
to prevent them from participating in deck bending moments, to reduce cracking of
these elements.
e) Medians
On major highways the opposing traffic flows should be separated by median strips.
Wherever possible, the lanes carrying opposing flows should be separated completely
into two distinct structures. However, where width limitations force the utilization of
traffic separators (less than 1.2 m wide) the following median sections should be used:
i. Parapet sections 300 to 700 mm in height, either integral or with a rail section,
are recommended. The bridge and approach parapets should have the same
section.
ii. Low rolled curb sections or double curb units with some form of paved surface in
between are recommended for low-speed roads.
f) Railing
Railing should be provided at the edge of the deck for the protection of traffic or
pedestrians, or both. Where pedestrian walkways are provided adjacent to roadways, a
traffic railing may be provided between the two, with a pedestrian railing outside.
Alternatively, a combination traffic-pedestrian railing may be used at the outside of the
pedestrian walkway. Railings may be made of concrete, metal, timber or a combination
of these materials.
While the primary purpose of traffic railing is to contain the average vehicle using the
structure, consideration should also be given to protection of the occupants of a vehicle
in collision with the railing, to protection of other vehicles near the collision, to vehicles
or pedestrians on roadways being over-crossed, and to appearance and freedom of view
from passing vehicles. Traffic railings should be designed to provide a smooth,
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continuous face of rail. Structural continuity in the rail members (including anchorage of
ends) is essential.
The height of traffic railing should be no less than 700 mm from the top of the roadway,
or curb, to the top of the upper rail members. Careful attention should be given to the
treatment of railing at the bridge ends. Exposed rail ends and sharp changes in the
geometry of the railing should be avoided. The approach end of all guardrail
installations should be given special consideration to minimize the hazard to the
motorist. One method is to taper the guardrail end off vertically away from the roadway
so that the end is buried. Railing components should be proportioned commensurate
with the type and volume of anticipated pedestrian traffic, taking account of appearance,
safety, and freedom of view from passing vehicles. The minimum design for pedestrian
railing should be simultaneous loads of 730 N/m acting horizontally and vertically on
each longitudinal member. Posts should be designed for a horizontal load of 225 N times
the distance between posts, acting at the centre of gravity of the upper rail.
The minimum height of pedestrian railing should be 1.1 m, measured from the top of the
walkway to the top of the upper rail member. Railings for walkways that are also used as
bicycle paths should have a height of 1.4 m.
g) Super-elevation
Super-elevation of the surface of a bridge on a horizontal curve should be provided in
accordance with the applicable standard for the highway. The super-elevation should
preferably not exceed 6 percent, and never exceed 8 percent.
h) Expansion joints
To provide for expansion and contraction, joints should be provided at the expansion
ends of spans and at other points where they may be desirable.
In humid climates and areas where freezing occurs, joints should be sealed to prevent
erosion and filling with debris, or else open joints should be properly designed for the
disposal of water.
2.1.3 Aesthetic considerations

A bridge should be designed to harmonize with its natural surroundings and
neighbouring structures. The attractiveness of a bridge is generally achieved by its
shape and by the proper proportioning of the superstructure and piers in relation to the
span of the bridge and its surroundings. Colour and texture may be added for emphasis.
Consideration should be given to the appearance of the bridge from the driver’s or
passenger’s point of view, as well as someone viewing it from off the structure.
2.1.4 Economic considerations
a) Criteria for least cost

Least-cost criteria require consideration of all the factors contributing to the cost of the
project. These include length and width of superstructure, type of superstructure
including deck, railings, walks, medians; type of substructure including cofferdams,
sheeting, and bracing, approach roadways including embankment, retaining walls and
slope protection. Other factors such as special treatment for the road or stream being
spanned, and pier protection, can also influence the least cost.
Each type of superstructure being considered has an optimum span range where its use
is very competitive. It may, however, be used in spans outside that range and still meet
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the least-cost criteria, because of the compensating costs of other factors. One of the
compensating factors often is the substructure because its contribution to the cost of the
project is inversely proportional to the span length, while the superstructure cost
increases with the span length. Wherever possible, consideration should be given to
comparing bridge layouts having different span arrangements. Elimination of a costly
river pier can usually justify a longer span.
b) Alternative designs
The general statement that a competent engineer can establish the most economical
structure by studies ignores factors which influence costs over which the engineer has
no control. The economics of any given industry cannot be exactly forecast. The time of
advertising most structures is not established at the time of design.
The reasons for preparing alternative designs are:
i. Increase competition by permitting several industries to participate.
ii. Make provisions to take advantage of the variations in the economy of the
construction industry.
iii. To provide a yardstick whereby the various industries can measure the
advantage and disadvantage of their competitive position. This results in industry
improving their procedures to reduce costs and eventually gives additional
savings to the owner.
iv. To eliminate the intangible arguments by various segments of industry that their
material would have resulted in a more economical structure.
v. Most important reason for alternative designs is that the owner saves in the cost
of the structure.
c) Value engineering
In addition to economic pressures, sociological pressures have focused more attention
on the impact that a project has on both natural and cultural environments.
Consequently, the bridge engineer is faced with the necessity of identifying a continually
growing list of design parameters, along with the accompanying possibility of trade-offs
in the process of planning and designing.
Value Engineering is an organized way of defining a problem and creatively solving it.
The Value Engineering Job Plan has five steps: 1) information phase, 2) analysis phase,
3) speculative phase, 4) evaluation phase, and 5) implementation phase.
2.1.5 Bridge types

Bridges may be categorized by the relative location of the main structural elements to
the surface on which the users travel, by the continuity or non-continuity of the main
elements and by the type of the main elements. Most of these bridge types together with
their suitabilities were discussed in section 1.4 of these lecture notes.
2.1.6 Construction and erection considerations

In the design of a bridge, construction and erection considerations may be of paramount
importance in the selection of the type of bridge to be built. Also, the experience of the
available contractors, the ability of local material suppliers to furnish the specified
materials, the skilled labour required for a particular structure type, and the capacity of
equipment necessary for erection should be considered. The most economical bridge
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design is one in which the total cost of materials, labour, equipment, and maintenance is
minimized.
Detailed discussions on construction and erection considerations are presented based
on the available construction materials.
Cast-in-place and precast concrete

The decision to use or not to use precast concrete could be influenced by the availability
of existing precast plants within transport distance. Precast concrete may be
competitive in areas without existing pre-casting plants when a large number of similar
components are required. In large projects, a pre-casting plant located at the site should
be considered to see if it would prove more economical.
In general, precast concrete members, because of better control of casting and curing
processes, and because of the ease of inspection and rejection of an improperly
fabricated member, are a better, more durable product.
For grade separation structures, if traffic problems are not a controlling factor, cast-in-
place structures are generally more economical when the height of false work is less
than 9 to 12 m high.
Reinforced, partially pre-stressed, and pre-stressed concrete

The possible use of pre-tensioning or post-tensioning should be considered during the
planning stage of a bridge project. In many cases the greatest economy can be realized
by allowing the contractor the option of using pre-tensioned, post-tensioned, or a
combination of both. In these cases, the specifications should require submittal by the
contractor of proper design data.
Composite construction
Floor systems consisting of stringers, floor beams, or combinations can be used. Modular
precast concrete planks (pre-stressed or regular reinforced) may be used as the bottom
form for the deck slab between stringers. Properly designed, these planks can be made
composite with the cast-in-place deck slab and the deck slab composite with the
stringers.
Consideration should be given in the design to construction loads supported prior to the
cast-in-place concrete attaining its design strength. For short spans within the capacity
of available handling equipment, the entire deck span may be precast in one piece and
made composite with the cast-in-place slab.
Post-tensioned segmental construction

It is normal practice to build concrete bridges in segments such as precast I-beams with
composite slabs or precast voided slabs or box beams that are attached together. In the
post-tensioned segmental type, the individual member, box girder, I-beam, or arch is
installed in several longitudinal segments and then post-tensioned together to form one
member.
Box girders
In general, the longer spans, because of the need for greater and variable depths, have
been cast-in-place, while the shorter spans lend themselves to constant depth precast
units. It is customary to erect these bridges by the cantilever method, avoiding the use of
false work, but some have been erected using a limited amount of false work and placing
the bridge by “pushing” the completed segments into place from one end.
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I-beams
Due to shipping limitations, the length of precast pre-stressed I-beam stringer bridges is
less than 30 m. By pre-casting the I-beam in two or more pieces and post-tensioning the
pieces after erection, the feasible span can be greatly increased.
Arches
Arches of all types may be constructed of cast-in-place or precast segments. This method
of construction is most adaptable to long spans and spans where centring for formwork
is difficult to install. After constructing the arch ribs by the segmental method, the
spandrel columns or suspenders and the roadway deck may be constructed in a more
conventional manner.
2.1.7 Legal considerations
Permits over navigable Waterways-Preliminary plans of a proposed bridge crossing any

navigable waterway should be filed with the appropriate governmental authority. A
written permit with reference to horizontal and vertical clearances under the spans, and
to the location of all river piers, should be obtained.
2.2 Bridge Site Selection/Location over water bodies
2.2.1 Site selection considerations

In locating a bridge crossing the following considerations come in to picture.
1. The reach of the river should be straight. Especially this has to hold on upstream
side of the crossing. This is necessary so that the approach flow is not angular
and the obstructions caused by piers, etc. have minimum disturbance effect on
the flow.
2. The river in the reach should have a regime flow free of excess of currents. If
this is present, it will be aggravated by the piers that have to be put up and will
result in excessive scour which endanger the foundation.
3. The channel in the reach should be well defined.
4. The crossing site should be as narrow as possible.
5. The crossing site should have firm high banks which are fairly inerodable. In
this case the river flow will be defined and confined and any excessive velocity
will not cause erosion.
6. The site on a meandering river should be a nodal point. A nodal point is defined
as the location where the river regime does not normally shift and the location
serves as a fulcrum about which river channel swing laterally (both upstream
and downstream)
7. The site should have suitable strata at reasonable and workable depth for
founding piers and abutments.
8. The site should allow for constructing approach road.
9. The site should be selected where skewness can be avoided.
For a river crossing, it is important to identify the type of river to be crossed. There are
two types of rivers namely alluvial and incised.
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Alluvial rivers are winding and they erode their banks and scour their beds; they have
flood plains on either side of the channel and the flow regularly overtops the channel
banks to spread across the flood plain. They are continually active, scouring and
depositing materials on the banks and transporting sediments.
Incised rivers have a relatively stable banks and arc generally narrower and deeper
than alluvial rivers.
Bridge crossing over alluvial rivers nearly always require training works to stabilize the
channel flow with in tile bridge waterway opening.
2.2.2 Data Collection
Once the engineer has identified a likely site for the bridge, he/she needs to obtain field
information on the catchment area and run off, local terrain conditions and water levels,
navigational and other clearance requirements. Field reviews shall be made by the
designer in order to become familiar with the site. The most complete survey data
cannot adequately depict all site conditions or substitute for personal inspection by
someone experienced in bridge design.
a) River Survey
Information required by the designer for analysis and design should include all features
that can affect the magnitude and the frequency of the flood flow which will pass the site
under study.
These are: Climatologically characteristics, land runoff characteristics, stream gauging
records, high water marks and size and performance of existing structures in the
vicinity.
High water marks can be obtained from gauges or from local people. In addition, they
can be identified from small debris, such as grass or twigs caught in tree branches,
elephant grass or similar matted down, mud lines on stones or bridges, are all high
water indicators.
The hydrologic characteristics of the basin or watershed of the stream under study
are needed for any predictive methods used to forecast flood flows. Although many of
these characteristics can be found from office studies, some are better found by a field
survey of the basin. The size and configuration of the watershed, the geometry of the
stream network, storage volumes of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and flood plains, and the
general geology and soils of the basin can be found from maps.
Having determined these basin characteristics, runoff times, infiltration values, storage
values, and runoff coefficients can be found and used in calculating flood flow values
using different methods for example, Reve’s formula, rational formula, Area-Velocity
formula
b) Soil Investigation
Once at the site it is easy and of great value to sample for soil, rock, stone, water, etc. in
cooperation with the soil investigators. Soil investigation is required to get soil profile,
engineering property of the foundation material and foundation level of the abutments
and piers for design of the foundation.
This information is obtained by analysing samples taken from boreholes, test pits or
geophysical surveying.
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c) Field Sketching and Photos

It has proved very practical to make a simple sketch of the bridge site with approximate
water shores, existing structures, scour holes, main stream location, etc. including very
rough dimensions with approximate measurements.
As a minimum, photos shall be taken looking upstream and downstream from the site as
well as along the contemplated highway centreline in both directions. Details of the
streambed and banks should also be photographed along with any existing structures in
the vicinity both upstream and downstream. Close-up photographs complete with a
scale or grid shall be taken to facilitate estimates of the stream bed gradation.
2.2.3 Economical Span

Span determination is usually dictated by the hydraulic requirement. However, there are
conditions where longer spans are chosen for the sake of road alignment.
For a given span the most economical span is the length at which superstructure cost
equals to substructure cost.
2.2.4 Hydraulic Requirements

Bridges are designed to accommodate design discharge at design flood. When a river has
a wide flood plain, the economical solution may be using short span bridge with proper
scour and erosion protection for the embankment, abutments and piers.
Piers should be located in such a manner that they can provide the required lineal
waterway and navigational clearance. The alignment of piers and abutments should, if
possible, be set parallel to the direction of flow during maximum flood.
2.2.5 Free Board

The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and
the floating debris carried on it. The free board allows for uncertainty in determining
design flood level also. The minimum free board above the design water level is given in
table 2.1 unless refined hydraulic analyses have been made.
Table 2.1: Free Board
Discharge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance/Free board

(m)
0 to 3.0 0.3
3.0 to 30.0 0.6
30.0 to 300 0.9
> 300 1.2
These clearance measurements should be increased for backwater effects when the flow
is restricted by short span bridge or when the river has history of unusual large floating
items or in case of navigational requirements.
2.2.6 Grade Requirements

Often in mountainous areas the road way grade is governed by the capacity of heaviest
vehicle to climb, vertical curve and sight distance. These requirements may increase the
span beyond the hydraulic requirement.
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2.3 Selection of Bridge Type
In selection of a bridge type, there is no unique answer. For each span length range there
is more than one bridge type that will satisfy the design criteria. Generally the following
factors should be considered.
a) Geometric condition of the Site: The type of bridge selected will often depend on
the horizontal and vertical alignment of the highway route and on the clearances
above and below the road way. E.g. If the alignment is on a curve, box and slab type
bridges are best options.
b) Subsurface conditions of the Site: The foundation soils at a site will determine
whether abutments and piers can be founded on spread footings, driven piles and etc.
The potential for seismic activity at a site should be a part of the subsurface
investigation because this will change details of the substructure. E.g. an inclined leg
rigid frame bridge requires strong foundation
c) Functional Requirements: Bridge should serve the present and future traffic. E.g. If
future widening or replacement of bridge decks is a concern girder type bridge is best
option.
d) Aesthetics: It is necessary to understand what qualities and features of a bridge tend
to make that aesthetics statement a good one. This understanding requires training
and time. Furthermore, the following should be taken into account.
i. When a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the most pleasing
appearance occurs when there are an odd number of spans with span lengths
that decrease going up the side of the valley.
ii. Harmony between the whole structure and its surrounding needed to be
addressed.
iii. Repeating similar spans too many times can become monotonous, just as hearing
the same music with a heavy beat that is repeated over and over again can be
uncomfortable.
Moreover, contrast and texture, light and shadow are additional aesthetic parameter
in bridge design.
e) Economics and ease of maintenance: In comparison of the economics of different

bridge types, the construction cost and maintenance cost should be taken together. A
general rule is that the bridge with minimum number of spans, fewest deck joints and
widest spacing of girders will be the most economical. By reducing the number of
spans, the construction cost of one pier is eliminated.
Deck joints are a high maintenance cost item, so minimizing their number will reduce
the life cycle cost of the bridge. Generally, concrete structures require less
maintenance than steel structures.
f) Construction and erection considerations: The selection of the bridge type to be
built is often governed by construction and erection considerations. In general, the
larger the prefabricated or precast member, the shorter the construction time.
However, the larger the members, the more difficult they are to transport and lift into
place. The availability of skilled labour and specified materials will also influence the
choice of a particular bridge type.
g) Legal Considerations: Applicable laws like environmental laws also govern the type
of bridge.
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2.4 Summary of the bridge design requirements
The designer should have first seen and studied many bridges in the course of a long
learning process. He should know what type of bridge may be suitable in the available
conditions, either a beam bridge an arch bridge or a suspended one. He should also
know the influence of foundation conditions on the choice of spans and structural
systems etc. hence, the designer of the bridge should not only be a learned person but
also an experienced one. At auspicious moments an intuitive flash may provide a new
solution, which fulfills the task better than known conventional solutions (intuition,
creativity leading to innovations).
Data needed for designing a bridge:

1. A plan of the site showing all obstacles to be bridged such as rivers, streets, roads
or railroads, the contour lines of valleys and the desired alignment of the new
traffic route.
2. Longitudinal section of the ground along the axis of the planned bridge with the
conditions for clearances or required flood widths. Desired vertical alignment of
the new route.
3. Required width of the bridge, width of lanes, median, walkways, safety rails etc.
4. Soil conditions for foundations, results of borings with a report on the geological
situation and soil mechanics data. The degree of difficulty of foundation work has
a considerable influence on the choice of the structural system and on the
economical span length.
5. Local conditions like accessibility for the transport of equipment, materials and
structural elements. Which materials are available and economical in that part of
the country? Is water or electric power at hand? Can a high standard of
technology be used or must the bridge be built with primitive methods and a
small number of skilled labourers?
6. Weather and environmental conditions, floods, high and low tide levels, periods
of drought, range of temperatures, and length of frost periods.
7. Topography of the environment - open land, flat or mountainous land, scenic
country. Town with small old houses or city with high rise buildings. The scale of
the environment has an influence on the design.
8. Environmental requirements regarding aesthetic quality. Bridges in towns that
affect the urban environment and that are frequently seen at close range -
especially pedestrian bridges - need more delicate shaping and treatment than
bridges in open country. Is protection of pedestrians against spray and noise
needed? Is noise protection necessary for houses close to the bridge?
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CVS517E: Design of Bridges 2017/2018 Academic Year Chapter 3: Bridge Design
CHAPTER 3
BRIDGE DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses how to calculate the loads for a bridge and also the design of
different components of a bridge. The discussion is biased towards highway bridge
designed using concrete material. However, students are encouraged to read more on
steel and composite bridges.
3.2 Calculation of Loads
The loads considered for bridge design were already reported in section 1.6 of this
report. In this section, the procedure of taking into account these loads based on BS
5400 is discussed.
3.2.1 Permanent Loads
Permanent loads are defined as dead loads from the self-weight of the structural
elements and superimposed dead loads from all other materials such as road surfacing,
waterproofing, parapets, kerbs etc. Also included are loads due to imposed deformations
such as differential settlement and loads imposed due to shrinkage and creep. The
following are regarded as permanent loads:
1) Dead Loads
2) Superimposed dead loads
3) Ground loads
4) Differential settlement
5) Loading effects due to external action (e.g. shrinkage and creep)
6) Normal water flow loads
Further discussions on permanent loads are limited to dead loads and superimposed
dead loads.
a) Dead loads
These are loads due to the self-weight of the various structural components of the bridge
such as deck, beam, column, e.tc. It should be noted here that a preliminary estimation of
the sizes of the various structural components is necessary at preliminary design stage.
The nominal dead load is first calculated based on the densities of the materials. The
design dead loads are then derived using load factors based on appropriate five load
combinations stated in the BS 6400 (reported in section xxxx of this lecture notes).
b) Superimposed dead loads
These are loads consisting of items like deck surfacing, road furniture (parapets,
gantries etc.), weight of services (water mains, telecoms cables, electric cables, etc.).
Again, the nominal superimposed dead loads can be calculated based on densities of
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CVS 517E: Design of Bridges 2017/2018 Academic Year Chapter 3: Bridge Design
materials. These loads are then increased using load factors from appropriate load
combinations to obtain design loads.
3.2.2 Transient loads

Transient loads are all loads other than permanent loads and are of short duration, such
as traffic, temperature, wind loads, and erection loads. The following loads are
considered transient:
a) Primary live loads
b) Secondary live loads
c) Exceptional loads
d) Wind loads
e) Erection loads
f) Thermal effects
a) Primary live loads

These are vertical loads due directly to the mass of traffic and are considered as static
loads. Traffic comprises a random mix of cars, vans, trucks and heavy goods vehicles.
Both the density of vehicles and intensity of loading is constantly varying. For simplicity,
standard vehicular loading consists of type HA and HB loading.
The Standard normal highway loading is called HA loading and the standard abnormal
highway loading, the HB loading.
Normal traffic is represented by a theoretical HA loading model consisting of a uniformly
distributed load (HA-UDL) combined with a knife edge load (HA-KEL). The knife edge
load is an attempt to model the effect of a single localized heavy axle and is placed on the
span where its effect is maximized for bending and shear.
Type HB loading caters for the safe passage of an abnormally heavy vehicle of up to 180
tonnes gross laden weight with a certain configuration of wheels and axle as shown in
Figure 3.3. Type HB loading is usually expressed in Units per axle. The full type HB
loading (180 tonnes) is commonly expressed as 45 units (1 unit - 10KN) or part of it,
37.5 units (150 tonnes) or 30 units (120 tonnes).
In applications, the structure and its elements shall be designed to resists the more
severe effects of the following load combinations:
1) Type HA loading alone
2) HB-30 loading combined with type HA loading
3) HB -45 combined with type HA loading on other carriageways
In order to apply HA and HB loading types, the carriageway width and the width and
number of notional lanes must be defined.
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Carriageway width: The carriageway width is the width between parapets or the width
between parapet and raised kerb where there is centre median. This is measured
perpendicular to the line of the parapets. Figure 3.1 depicts the definition of carriageway
width.
Figure 3.1: Carriageway width

Notional lanes: the notional parts of the carriageway are used for purposes of applying
the specified live loads. The notional lane width shall be measured in a direction parallel
to the carriageway width. Table 3.1 shows the allocated number of notional lanes
depending on the carriageway width.
Table 3.1: Number of notional lanes
The width of notional lanes, bL, can be derived from:

Carriageway _ width
bL =
N
Where N is the number of notional lanes as read from table 3.1.
For carriageway widths of less than 5.0m, the carriageway shall be taken to have one
notional lane with a width of 2.50m. The load on the remaining carriageway width shall
be taken as 5 kN/m2.
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Nominal HA uniformly distributed load (HA-UDL):

For loaded lengths, L ≤ 50 m,
0.67
1
HA − UDL = 336  kN/m per notional lane width
L
For loaded lengths 50 m ≤ L ≤ 160 m but less than 1 600 m,
0 .1
1
HA − UDL = 36  kN/m per notional lane width
 L
For loaded lengths above 1 600 m, the UDL shall be agreed with the relevant authority.
The HA-UDL shall be uniformly distributed over the full width of the notional lane.
The nominal HA-KEL per notional lane shall be taken as 120 kN. It shall be uniformly
distributed over the full width of the notional lane.
The design HA loading shall be derived from different load combinations using load
factors. Figure 3.2 shows the representation of HA-UDL and KEL on a notional lane.
Figure 3.2: HA-UDL combined with HA-KEL
Nominal HB loading: One unit of type HB loading shall be taken as equal to 10kN per
axle (i.e. 2.5 kN per wheel). The nominal loads for typical multiples of type HB loading
are given in Table 3.2:
Table 3.2: Nominal type HB loads
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The inner axle spacing of the type HB vehicle shall be taken as 6, 11, 16, 21, or 26 m and
the effects of the most sever of these cases shall be adopted. The overall width shall be
taken as 3.5 and the overall length as 10, 15, 20, 25, or 30 m for the respective inner axle
spacing. The longitudinal axis of the HB vehicle shall be taken as parallel with the lane
markings. Figure 3.3 shows the plan and axle arrangement for type HB vehicle.
Figure 3.3: The plan and axle arrangement for type HB vehicle
The design HB loading shall be derived from load factors for different load combinations.
b) Secondary Live Loads

Secondary live loads are the horizontal loads resulting from change of speed or direction
of vehicular traffic e.g., centrifugal, longitudinal (traction), skidding and collision loads.
They are considered in load combination 4 together with the associated primary live
load, but need not be taken as coexistent with other secondary live loads.
Centrifugal loads:
A nominal centrifugal load, Fc, shall be taken as:
40,000
Fc = kN
r + 150
Where r is the radius of curvature of the lane (m)
Each centrifugal load shall be combined with:
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40,000
Vertical _ live _ load = kN/m2
bL x6
This load shall be distributed over the width of the notional lane for length of 6 m.
Tractive/Braking Loads
The longitudinal force on a bridge structure result from the traction or braking of
vehicles at the level of the carriageway surface. It is applied horizontally to the
carriageway surface.
The nominal braking load for type HA loading shall be as follows:
Nominal braking load = 10 kN/m X L + 200 kN ≤ 800 kN.
The nominal braking load for type HB shall be 25 % of the total associated nominal HB
load. This load shall be equally distributed between the eight wheels of 2 axles of the
vehicle, 1.8 m apart.
Skidding load
The nominal accidental skidding load shall be taken as 300 kN
Loads due to vehicle collision with parapets
The following loads shown in Figure 3.4 shall be regarded as the nominal load effects to
be applied to structural elements supporting parapets, according to parapet type and
construction.
Loads for low and normal containment parapets

Loads for high containment parapets
Figure 3.4: Loads for low and normal containment parapets
c) Wind Loads
Wind forces though rarely significant in small-span and medium-span bridgeworks, can
be critical in bridges like the suspension type where the span is large. Generally any
structure which is sensitive to stability problems will inevitably tend to be more
sensitive to wind loading.
34
d) Load due to shrinkage temperature & creep

These are horizontal loads due to forces generated in the beams/slab caused by
shrinkage, temperature changes and creep in the concrete.
e) Seismic Loads
These are loads due to earthquakes. For Bridges designed in this country no seismic
force are taken into consideration.
Each element and structure shall be examined under the effects of loads that can coexist
in each combination.
3.3 Load combinations

There are generally five load combinations described in BS 5400. These are:
Combination 1: The loads to be considered are the permanent loads, together with the
appropriate primary live loads.
Combination 2: The loads to be considered are the loads in combination 1, together
with those due to wind and, where erection is being considered, erection loads.
Combination 3: The loads to be considered are the loads in combination 1, together
with those arising from restraint due to the effects of thermal range and gradient, and,
where erection is being considered, erection loads.
Combination 4: the loads to be considered are the permanent loads and the secondary
live loads, together with the appropriate primary live loads associated with them.
Secondary live loads shall be considered separately and need not be combined. Each
shall be taken with its appropriate associated primary live load.
Combination 5: The loads to be considered are the permanent loads, together with the
loads due to friction at bearings.
Table 3.3 shows a summary of the various load combinations and the corresponding
partial load factors.
35
Table 3.3: Loads and partial load factors to be taken in each load combination
36
3.4: Tutorials on Load Calculations
3.4.1 HA & HB Loading Example
Problem:
Calculate the HA and HB loading and bending moment for a bridge deck of width 6m and
length 34m measured centre to centre of bearings for a simply supported single span
based on BS 5400 Part 2: 2006. Assume 30 units type HB loading.
Solution:
Clause 6.2 addressed the type HA Loading
Design for a metre width of deck:

Cl 3.2.9.3.1. Number of notional lanes = 2
Notional lane width = 6.0/2 = 3.0m
Cl 6.2.1. Loaded length = 34m
W = 336(1/L)0.67 kN/m (per notional lane)
W = 31.6 kN/m (per notional lane)
Cl 6.2.2. Knife Edge Load = 120 kN (per notional lane)
Cl 6.4.1.1. Table 14. α2 = 0.0137[bL(40-L)+3.65(L-20)]
α2 = 0.0137[3.0(40-34.0)+3.65(34.0-20)] = 0.947
Note: For loaded lengths less than 20m the load is proportioned to a
standard lane width of 3.65m, i.e. 0.274bL = bL/3.65.
For a metre width of deck:
W = (31.6 x 0.947)/3.0 = 10.0 kN/m
KEL = (120 x 0.947)/3.0 = 37.88 kN
Maximum mid span Bending Moment with KEL at mid span:
M = (10.0 x 342)/8 + (37.88 x 34)/4 = 1767 kNm
Cl 6.2.7. γfL = 1.20 (Serviceability limit state - combination 1)
γfL = 1.50 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)
Design HA moment for a metre width of deck:
Msls = 1767 x 1.2 = 2120 kNm
Mult = 1767 x 1.5 = 2650 kNm
Note: Use of γf3

BS 5400 Pt.3 & Pt.5 - γf3 is used with the design strength so Mult = 2650 kNm.
BS 5400 Pt.4 - γf3 is used with the load effect so Mult = 1.1 x 2650 = 2915 kNm.
Clause 6.3 addresses type HB Loading
Cl 6.3.1 Nominal load per axle = 30units x 10kN = 300kN
The maximum bending moment will be achieved by using the shortest HB

vehicle i.e. with 6m spacing (see BS 5400-2:2006 Fig 12).
The maximum moment for a simply supported span occurs under the
inner axle when the vehicle is positioned such that the mid span bisects
37
the distance between the centroid of the load and the nearest axle.
With a 34m span and the 6m HB vehicle with equal axle loads, the inner
axle is placed at 1.5m from the mid span.
RL = 300(10.7+12.5+18.5+20.3)/34 = 547 kN
RR = 4x300-547 = 653kN
Moment at X = 547x15.5 - 300x1.8 = 7939kNm
Cl 6.4.2 The HB vehicle occupies one lane with HA load in the adjacent lane.
Assume for the example that the HB load is carried by a standard lane
width of 3.65m.
Hence the moment per metre width of deck = 7939/3.65 = 2175kNm

Cl 6.3.4. γfL = 1.10 (Serviceability limit state - combination 1)
γfL = 1.30 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)
Design HB moment for a metre width of deck:
Msls = 1.1 x 2175 = 2393 kN/m (compared to 2120 for HA load)
Mult = 1.3 x 2175 = 2828 kN/m (compared to 2650 for HA load)
Hence in this case HB load effects would govern although a grillage or
finite element type distribution would reduce the HB moment
considerably.
38
3.4.2: Tutorial for Temperature Effects in Bridge Decks

There are two types of temperature loading effects to consider:
1. Changes in effective bridge temperatures causing expansion and contraction in
the deck.
2. Differences in temperature between the top surface of the deck and at different
levels throughout the depth of the deck causing the deck to distort.
a) Expansion and Contraction (Uniform Temperature)

Maximum and minimum shade air temperatures have been recorded at weather stations
over many years. These records are used to predict the maximum and minimum design
temperatures that the bridge deck may experience during its design life. These
temperatures are presented in the codes in the form of isotherm maps.
The maximum and minimum shade air temperatures are converted into 'effective'
bridge temperatures Te,max and Te,min and multiplied by the coefficient of thermal
expansion and the deck length to calculate how much the bridge deck will expand and
contract. The expansion and contraction in the deck can either be accommodated by
providing joints and sliding bearings, or by restraining the movement and designing the
structure to resist the forces developed.
A datum temperature T0 is used to represent the effective bridge temperature at specific

stages of construction. The deck will expand from T0 to Te,max and contract from T0 to
Te,min.
T0 is used to either,
i. in the case of a free moving deck, calibrate the gap for the expansion joint and to
set the sliding bearing positions when these units are installed,
or
ii. in the case of a restrained deck, determine the magnitude of movement that the
supporting structure has to accommodate after it has been made integral with
the deck.
For free moving decks the value of T0 can be estimated at design stage, to establish the
range of movement in the deck, and readjusted during construction for the actual
temperature when the joints and bearings are installed.
There are three possibilities for the effective bridge temperatures that could occur on
site when the joints and bearings are installed:
i. When the effective bridge temperature T0 is at mid-range then the joint and
bearing can be set at mid movement range.
ii. When the effective bridge temperature T0 is above the mid-range value then the
joint gap needs to be reduced and the top bearing plate needs to be set forward
towards the joint.
iii. When the effective bridge temperature T0 is below the mid-range value then the
joint gap needs to be increased and the top bearing plate needs to be set back
away from the joint.
The joints and bearings will not be installed at the same time so there will be a different
value T0 when each unit is installed. The diagram below demonstrates how the joint and
bearing needs to be set for the three T0 conditions, described above, to allow the units to
function correctly.
39
If no adjustment is made to the joint or bearing, as shown below, for the effective bridge
deck temperature that exists when the units are installed then permanent damage may
result when extreme temperatures occur.
A horizontal force will be generated at the sliding bearing to overcome the static friction
between the bearing plates when the deck expands and contracts. This horizontal force
is transmitted to the fixed bearing on the fixed abutment (See Abutment Tutorial).
For durability reasons it is preferable not to provide expansion joints and bearings and
to design the deck as acting integral with the supporting structure. This construction
will restrain the deck expansion and contraction movement. BD 57/01 clause 2.3 says
that, in principle, bridges with deck lengths not exceeding 60m and skews not exceeding
30° shall be designed as integral bridges.
The problem that arises when designing a restrained structure is deciding what the
temperature (T0) will be when the deck is made integral with the supporting structure.
BA 42/96 clauses 2.10 and 2.11 get round the problem by specifying a ± thermal strain
to cover the maximum expansion and contraction from the mid-range temperature, but
then applies a proviso that the bridge spans and abutments are joined during
construction at a temperature within ± 10°C of the mean between extreme minimum
and extreme maximum shade air temperatures.
Once the deck has been made integral with the abutments then expansion and
contraction of the deck will apply loads to the abutments. When the abutments move
under these loads secondary bending effects can be produced in the deck and
abutments.
40
The cyclic expansion and contraction movement of the deck can have a compaction
effect on the backfill to the abutment walls. This effect is known as strain ratcheting and
can result in a high earth pressures on the back of the wall. A modified earth pressure
coefficient K* is used to model this condition.
b) Temperature Difference
In conjunction with the uniform temperature there is a non-linear temperature gradient
through the deck, that is, the temperature varies at different levels throughout the depth
of the deck.
The profile of the temperature gradient varies for different types of deck construction;
there are four different deck types presented in the codes:
• Steel deck on steel girders
• Steel deck on steel truss or plate girders
• Concrete deck on steel box, truss or plate girders
• Concrete slab or concrete deck on concrete beams or box girders
Each deck type has two temperature profiles:
1. To calculate the effects when the top surface of the deck is hotter than the core of
the deck (known as ‘positive temperature difference’ or ‘heating temperature
difference’)
2. To calculate the effects when the top surface of the deck is cooler than the core of
the deck (known as ‘reverse temperature difference’ or ‘cooling temperature
difference’)
The solution for calculating the stress distribution through the deck under temperature
difference conditions is to start from the assumption that the deck is rigidly restrained
and then calculate the effects of removing the theoretical restraints.
Let T1, T2 and T3 be the non-linear temperature distribution from the core temperature
as shown below. Values for these temperatures are obtained from tables in the codes.
Let T be the coefficient of thermal expansion (usually taken as 12x10-6/°C).
Let E be Young's Modulus for the deck material.
Then the strain at each depth where the temperature changes, and consequently the
stress, can be calculated as shown below.
Let A be the cross-sectional area of the deck member, then when the axial restraint FT is
removed a stress of FT / A is released from the restrained stresses. The remaining
restrained (locked in) stresses are shown in the diagram below.
41
Let Z be the section modulus (I/y) of the deck member, then when the moment restraint
MT is removed the deck flexes and a stress of MT / Z is released from the restrained
stresses. The remaining restrained (locked in) stresses are shown in the diagram below.
These final locked in stresses are often referred to as self-equilibrating stresses and
need to be added to the stresses resulting from permanent and traffic loading when
combinations including temperature effects are considered.
The self-equilibrating stresses have been determined by assuming that the restraining
force FT and moment MT can be fully released. This can be achieved if the deck is
provided with joints and bearings which allow the ends of the deck to rotate and
translate, and if the deck is not continuous (deck is simply supported single span). If the
deck is multi-span and continuous then there will be a redistribution of the releases.
The same procedure as before applies. The axial force FT can be released fully by
allowing the deck to expand and contract with the provision of suitable bearings and
end joints. The restrained moment diagram then is as shown below:
Three span continuous deck with axial restraint removed.
Moment Diagram.
The restraining moments MT at the internal supports balance each other so these
restraints can be removed and the deck can be restrained by applying MT at the ends of
the deck only. These end restraints are released by applying an equal and opposite
moment to the deck as shown below:
42
-MT applied at the ends of the deck to balance end restraints.
Moment Diagram
The effects of removing the moment restraint can then be achieved by superimposing
the two moment diagrams as shown below.
Deflected profile of deck after removing restraints.
Final Moment Diagram
The stresses in the deck from the final moment diagram shown above need to be added
to the self-equilibrating stresses to achieve the total stress arising from the temperature
difference loading.
How to calculate FT and MT

The restrained stress diagram is divided into sufficient sections, of depth h1 etc., to
determine the stress where there is a change in beam width, a change in the beam
material or change in temperature. The example shown in the diagrams is for a solid
slab deck and will have the same width and material over its full depth so we only need
to provide sections at changes in temperature.
43
Let the width of each section be B.

Let h1, h2 etc, be the depth of each section.
Then the Restraining force FT is the average restained stress multiplied by the area of
the section:
FT = σBzdz
FT = E TB{[h1(T1+T2)/2]+[h2T2/2]+[h3T3/2]}
The Restraining Moment MT is found by summing the force on each section multiplied
by the distance of its centroid to the neutral axis.
It is convenient to divide the restrained stress diagram into rectangles and triangles as
the position of the centroid of these shapes is known.
Let z be the distance from the neutal axis to the centroid of the force on each section
then:
MT = σzBzdz
For a solid rectangular deck the depth to the neutral axis yb = yt = h/2
F1 = E TB(T1-T2)h1/2 z1 = h/2 - h1/3

F2 = E TBT2h1 z2 = h/2 - h1/2
F3 = E TBT2h2/2 z3 = h/2 - h1 - h2/3
F4 = E TBT3)h3/2 z4 = -(h/2 - h3/3)
MT = F1z1+F2z2+F3z3+F4z4
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3.5 Design of different components of a bridge
3.5.1 Bridge Deck

a) Preliminary Design
In selecting the correct bridge type it is necessary to find a structure that will perform its
required function and present an acceptable appearance at the least cost.
Decisions taken at preliminary design stage will influence the extent to which the actual
structure approximates to the ideal, but so will decisions taken at detailed design stage.
Consideration of each of the ideal characteristics in turn will give some indication of the
importance of preliminary bridge design.
i. Safety.
The ideal structure must not collapse in use. It must be capable of carrying the
loading required of it with the appropriate factor of safety. This is more
significant at detailed design stage as generally any sort of preliminary design can
be made safe.
ii. Serviceability.
The ideal structure must not suffer from local deterioration/failure, from
excessive deflection or vibration, and it must not interfere with sight lines on
roads above or below it. Detailed design cannot correct faults induced by bad
preliminary design.
iii. Economy.
The structure must make minimal demands on labour and capital; it must cost as
little as possible to build and maintain. At preliminary design stage it means
choosing the right types of material for the major elements of the structure, and
arranging these in the right form.
iv. Appearance.
The structure must be pleasing to look at. Decisions about form and materials are
made at preliminary design stage; the sizes of individual members are finalised at
detailed design stage. The preliminary design usually settles the appearance of
the bridge.
b) Preliminary Design Considerations

1. A span to depth ratio of 20 will give a starting point for estimating construction
depths.
2. Continuity over supports
i. Reduces number of expansion joints.
ii. Reduces maximum bending moments and hence construction depth or the
material used.
iii. Increases sensitivity to differential settlement.
3. Factory made units
i. Reduces the need for soffit shuttering or scaffolding; useful when
headroom is restricted or access is difficult.
ii. Reduces site work which is weather dependent.
iii. Dependent on delivery dates by specialist manufactures.
iv. Specials tend to be expensive.
v. Special permission needed to transport units of more than 29m long on
the highway.
4. Length of structure
45
i. The shortest structure is not always the cheapest. By increasing the length
of the structure the embankment, retaining wall and abutment costs may
be reduced, but the deck costs will increase.
5. Substructure
c) Reinforced Concrete Decks

The three most common types of reinforced concrete bridge decks are:
Solid slab bridge decks are most useful for small, single or multi-span bridges and are
easily adaptable for high skew. Voided slab and beam and slab bridges are used for
larger, single or multi-span bridges. In circular voided decks the ratio of [depth of void] /
[depth of slab] should be less than 0.79; and the maximum area of void should be less
than 49% of the deck sectional area.
d) Prestressed Concrete Decks

There are two types of deck using prestressed concrete:
i. Pre-tensioned beams with insitu concrete.
ii. Post-tensioned concrete.
The term pre-tensioning is used to describe a method of prestressing in which the
tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed, and the prestress is transferred to
the concrete when a suitable cube strength is reached.
Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the tendon is tensioned after the
concrete has reached a suitable strength. The tendons are anchored against the
hardened concrete immediately after prestressing.
There are three concepts involved in the design of prestressed concrete:
i. Prestressing transforms concrete into an elastic material. By applying this
concept concrete may be regarded as an elastic material, and may be treated as
such for design at normal working loads. From this concept the criterion of no
tensile stresses in the concrete was evolved. In an economically designed simply
supported beam, at the critical section, the bottom fibre stress under dead load
and prestress should ideally be the maximum allowable stress; and under dead
load, live load and prestress the stress should be the minimum allowable stress.
Therefore under dead load and prestress, as the dead load moment reduces
towards the support, then the prestress moment will have to reduce accordingly
to avoid exceeding the permissible stresses. In post-tensioned structures this
46
may be achieved by curving the tendons, or in pre-tensioned structures some of

the prestressing strands may be deflected or de-bonded near the support.
ii. Prestressed concrete is to be considered as a combination of steel and concrete
with the steel taking tension and concrete compression so that the two materials
form a resisting couple against the external moment. (Analogous to reinforced
concrete concepts).
This concept is utilized to determine the ultimate strength of prestressed beams.
iii. Prestressing is used to achieve load balancing.
It is possible to arrange the tendons to produce an upward load which balances
the downward load due to say, dead load, in which case the concrete would be in
uniform compression.
e) Pre-tensioned Bridge Decks
Types of beams in common use are inverted T-beams, M-beams and Y beams. Inverted
T-beams are generally used for spans between 7 and 16 meters and the voids between
the beams are filled with insitu concrete thus forming a solid deck. M-Beams are used
for spans between 14 and 30 metres and have a thin slab cast insitu spanning between
the top flanges with the aim of forming a voided slab type deck. The top face of the
bottom flange of M-Beams cannot be readily inspected, also the limited access makes
bearing replacement difficult. As a consequence of these restrictions the Y-beam was
introduced in 1990 to replace the M-beam. This lead to the production of an SY-beam
which is used for spans between 32 and 40 metres. The U-beam is used for spans
between 14 and 34 metres and is usually chosen where torsional strength is required.
f) Post-tensioned Bridge Decks

Post-tensioned bridge decks are generally composed of insitu concrete in which ducts
have been cast in the required positions.
When the concrete has acquired sufficient strength, the tendons are threaded through
the ducts and tensioned by hydraulic jacks acting against the ends of the member. The
ends of the tendons are then anchored.
47
Tendons are then bonded to the concrete by injecting grout into the ducts after the
stressing has been completed.
It is possible to use pre-cast concrete units which are post-tensioned together on site to
form the bridge deck.
Generally it is more economical to use post-tensioned construction for continuous
structures rather than insitu reinforced concrete at spans greater than 20 metres. For
simply supported spans it may be economic to use a post-tensioned deck at spans
greater than 20 metres.
g) Analysis of Deck
For decks with skew less than 25° a simple unit strip method of analysis is generally
satisfactory. For skews greater than 25° then a grillage or finite element method of
analysis will be required. Skew decks develop twisting moments in the slab which
become more significant with higher skew angles. Computer analysis will produce
values for Mx, My and Mxy where Mxy represents the twisting moment in the slab. Due
to the influence of this twisting moment, the most economical way of reinforcing the
slab would be to place the reinforcing steel in the direction of the principal moments.
However these directions vary over the slab and two directions have to be chosen in
which the reinforcing bars should lie. Wood and Armer have developed equations for
the moment of resistance to be provided in two predetermined directions in order to
resist the applied moments Mx, My and Mxy.
Extensive tests on various steel arrangements have shown the best positions as follows:
48
h) Example: Reinforced Concrete Deck Design to BS 5400 Part 4
Problem:
Design a simply supported reinforced concrete deck slab using a unit strip method. The
deck carries a 100mm depth of surfacing, together with a nominal HA live load udl of
17.5 kN/m2 and knife edge load of 33kN/m. The deck should also be designed to carry
30 units of HB load. The span of the deck is 12.0m centre to centre of bearings.
γconc. = 25kN/m3
30 units of HB also to be considered.
Use C32/40 concrete to BS 8500.
Use Grade B500B reinforcement to BS 4449.
BS 8500-1 cl. A.2.1 Table A.1 Exposure Class XD1 used for bridge deck soffits.
cl. A.3 Fixing tolerence for reinforcement Δc = 15mm for insitu concrete.
Table A.5 Nominal cover for C32/40 concrete = 45 + Δc = 60mm with maximum
water-cement ratio = 0.55 and minimum cement content of 320 kg/m3
Loading per metre width of deck (unit strip)

(Note: The loading has been simplified to demonstrate the method of
designing the slab (See BS 5400 Pt2, or BD 37/01 for full design loading).
Nominal Dead Loads :

• deck slab = 25 × 0.65 × 1.0 = 16.3 kN/m
• surfacing = 24 × 0.1 × 1.0 = 2.4 kN/m
Nominal Live Load :
• HA = 17.5 × 1.0 + 33.0 = 17.5 kN/m(udl) + 33kN(kel)
• 30 units HB = 30 × 10 / 4 per wheel = 75 kN per wheel
Load factors for serviceability and ultimate limit state from BS 5400 Part 2
Table 1:
SLS ULS
Comb 1 Comb 3 Comb 1 Comb 3
Dead Load γfL concrete 1.0 1.0 1.15 1.15
Superimposed Dead Load γfL surfacing 1.2 1.2 1.75 1.75
γfL HA 1.2 1.0 1.50 1.25
Live Load γfL HB 1.1 1.0 1.30 1.10
Temperature Difference γfL - 0.8 - 1.00#
Key: It’s usually assumed that there is local plasticity at the critical
#
sections at Ultimate Limit State and the self-equilibrating stresses due to
49
nonlinear temperature distribution can be ignored in combination

loadings.
Temperature Difference Effects

Apply temperature differences given in BS 5400 Pt2 Fig.9 (Group 4) to a
1m wide deck section.
Cl. 5.4.6 - Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 × 10-6 per °C.
From BS 5400 Pt4 Table 3: Ec = 31 kN/mm2 for fcu = 40N/mm2
Hence restrained temperature stresses per °C = 31 × 103 × 12 × 10-6 =
0.372 N/mm2
Section Properties
Area = 1000 × 650 = 0.65 × 106 mm2
Second Moment of Area = 1000 × 6503 / 12 = 22.9 × 109 mm4
a) Positive temperature difference

Force F to restrain temperature strain:
0.372×103×[150×(3.0+5.05)+(195×1.5)+(195×1.05)]×10-3 = 634.2 kN
Taking moments about centroid of section to determine required moment

M to restrain curvature due to temperature strain:
0.372 ×103 ×[150×(3.0×250+5.05×275)+175×(0.3×87.5+1.35×116.7)-
(20×0.15×6.7)-(195×1.05×260)]×10-6 = 111.5kNm
b) Reverse temperature difference

Force F to restrain temperature strain:
- 0.372×103×[130×( 1.8+2.5+1.5+1.9)+163×(0.9+0.75 )]×10-3 = - 472.4kN
50
Taking moments about centroid of section to determine required moment

M to restrain curvature due to temperature strain:
- 0.372×103×[130×(1.8×260+2.5×282-1.5×260-1.9×282)+163×(0.9×141 -
0.75×141 )]×10-6 = -13.34kNm
Note: Sign convention is compressive stresses are positive.
Dead + Superimposed Dead Loading (per metre width of deck)

SLS = Serviceability Limit State
ULS = Ultimate Limit State
Design SLS moment = ∑(γfL×M)=[(1.0×16.3)+(1.2×2.4)]×122/8

= 345 kNm
Design ULS moment = γf3×∑(γfL × M)=1.1×[{(1.15×16.3)+(1.75 × 2.4)}×

122 /8] = 454 kNm
Live Loading (per metre width of deck)
Nominal HA mid span moment = 17.5×12.02/8+33.0×12.0/4 = 414kNm

The maximum moment for the HB vehicle occurs at point X in the diagram
below with the vehicle positioned as shown.
(CG = position of the centre of gravity of the three 75kN wheel loads)
Nominal HB moment at X = 99.4 × 5.3 - 75 × 1.8 = 392kNm
Combination 1 Loading
Design HA SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.2 × 414 = 497 kNm
Design HB SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.1 × 392 = 431 kNm < 497 kNm
∴ HA critical
51
Total Design SLS Moment (Dead+Live) = 345+497 = 842 kNm
Design HA ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1×1.5×414 = 683kNm

Design HB ULS moment = γf3 ×γfL×M = 1.1×1.3×392 = 561kNm<683kNm
∴ HA loading critical
Total Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live) = 454 + 683 = 1137 kNm
Combination 3 Loading
Design HA SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.0 × 414 = 414 kNm
Design HB SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.0 × 392 = 392 kNm <414 kNm
Design SLS Moment (Dead + Live) = 345 + 414 = 759 kNm
Design HA ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.25 × 414 = 569 kNm
Design HB ULS moment = γf3×γfL×M = 1.1×1.1×392 = 474 kNm<569 kNm
Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live) = 454 + 569 = 1023 kNm
Ultimate Capacity of Deck Slab

Ultimate Design Moment = 1137 kNm
BS 5400 Pt 4 cl. 5.1.2.1: It is usual to design reinforced concrete for the ultimate limit
state and check for serviceability conditions.
cl. 5.4.2 Use clause 5.3.2 for the resistance moments in slabs
cl. 5.3.2.3 Try 32mm dia. reinforcement at 125mm centres:
Nominal cover to reinforcement in deck soffit = 60mm
d = 650 - 60 -32/2 = 574
As = Π162 × 1000 / 125 = 6434mm2/m
fy = 500N/mm2
fcu = 40N/mm2
z = [1 - ({1.1fyAs}/{fcubd})]d
z = [1 - ({1.1 × 500 × 6434}/{40 × 1000 × 574})]d = 0.85d < 0.95 d
∴ z = 0.85 × 574 = 488mm
MuSteel = 0.87fyAsz = 0.87 × 500 × 6434 × 488 × 10-6 = 1366 kNm/m
MuConcrete = 0.15fcubd2 = 0.15×40×1000×5742×10-6 = 1977 kNm/m>1366
∴ Mu = 1366 kNm/m > 1137kNm/m ∴ OK.
Check Serviceability Limit State
Combination 1 SLS Design Moment = 842 kNm (345DL + 497LL)
52
Determine depth 'X' to neutral axis of cracked section:

cl. 4.3.2.1 Table 3 Young’s Modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec =31 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2 Young’s Modulus for steel reinforcement = Es = 200 kN/mm2
Case 1) When the bridge has just opened (when only a small amount of
creep has occurred):
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 31 = 6.45
Taking first moments of area about the neutral axis:
1000 × X2 / 2 = 6.45 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 41510X - 23.83×106 = 0
X = 177 mm
Second Moment of Area of cracked section:
Ixx = 1000×1773 / 3 + 6.45×6434×(574-177)2 = 8.39×109 mm4
Cl 4.1.1.3 Max compressive stress in concrete=842×106 ×177/8.39×109
=17.8 N/mm2
Table 2 Allowable compressive stress = 0.5fcu = 20 N/mm2 > 17.8 ∴ OK
Case 2) When creep and shrinkage in the bridge are substantially

complete:
cl. 4.3.2.1(b) Young’s Modulus for concrete for long term loading = Ec/2
= 15.5 kN/mm2
Hence Modified Ec for (345DL + 497LL) = (345 × 15.5 + 497 × 31) / 842
= 24.65 kN/mm2
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 24.65 = 8.1
1000 × X2 / 2 = 8.1 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 52115X - 30×106 = 0
X = 198 mm
Ixx = 1000×1983 / 3 + 8.1×6434×(574-198)2 = 9.96×109 mm4
Cl 4.1.1.3 Max compressive stress in concrete = 842×106 × 198 / 9.96×109
= 16.7 N/mm2
Tensile stress in reinforcement = 842×106 × (574 -198) × 8.1/9.96×109
= 257.5 N/mm2
Table 2 Allowable tensile stress = 0.75fy = 375 N/mm2 > 257.5 ∴ OK
Crack Control:
Strain in reinforcement = ∈1 = 257.5 / 200000 = 0.00129
Table 13 Notional surface for crack calculation = 35mm cover to reinforcement
53
5.8.8.2 acr = √[(125/2)2 + (16+35)2] - 16 = 65

Allow for stiffening effect of concrete:
eqn 25 ∈m = ∈1 - [{3.8bth(a'-dc)} / {∈sAs(h-dc)}] × [(1-Mq/Mg)×10-9]
∈m = ∈1 - [{3.8×1000×650×(625 - 198)} / {0.00129×6434×(650 - 198)}] ×
[(1 - 497/345)×10-9]
∈m = ∈1 - [-0.00012] but not greater than ∈1 Hence no stiffening effect
∈m = ∈1 = 0.00129 × (625 - 198) / (574 - 198) = 0.00146
Design crack width = 3 × 65 × 0.00146 / [1 + 2 × (65 - 35) / (650 - 198)]
= 0.25 mm
eqn 24 Design crack width = 3acr∈m / [1+2(acr-cnom)/(h-dc)]
Table 1 Maximum allowable crack width = 0.25 mm ∴ OK
Combination 3 SLS Design Moment = 759 kNm (345DL + 414LL)
Determine depth 'X' to neutral axis of cracked section:

cl. 4.3.2.1 Table 3 Youngs Modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec
= 31 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.1(b) Young’s Modulus for concrete for long term loading = Ec/2
= 15.5 kN/mm2
Hence Modified Ec for (345DL + 414LL) = (345 × 15.5 + 414 × 31) / 759
= 23.95 kN/mm2
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 23.95 = 8.35
1000 × X2 / 2 = 8.35 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 53724X - 30.84×106
X = 200 mm

Ixx = 1000×2003 / 3 + 8.35×6434×(574-200)2 = 10.18×109 mm4>
Cl 4.1.1.3 Max compressive bending stress in concrete = 759×106 ×200/ 10.18×109
= 14.9 N/mm2
Max compressive stress due to positive temperature difference
= γfL × 2.31 = 0.8 × 2.31 = 1.8 N/mm2
Total compressive stress in concrete = 14.9 + 1.8 = 16.7 N/mm2
Tensile stress in reinforcement = 759×106 ×(574-200)×8.35/ 10.18×109
= 232.8 N/mm2
Tensile stress due to reverse temperature difference
= γfL × 8.35×[{(1.43+0.06)×(130-60-16)/130}-0.06] = 0.8×4.7=3.8 N/mm2
Total tensile stress in reinforcement = 232.8 + 3.8 = 237 N/mm2
Table 2 Allowable tensile stress = 0.75fy = 375 N/mm2 > 237 ∴ OK
Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for the mid span.
54
Shear Design
Shear is designed for ultimate limit state.

cl. 5.4.4 V = shear force due to ultimate loads.
Maximum Dead Load V = γf3 × 12 × (1.15 × 16.3 + 1.75 × 2.4) / 2
Maximum Dead Load V = 1.1 × 137.7 kN = 151 kN
Determine shear effects at distance d away from the support.

Try 32mm dia. bars at 125 c/c : d = 574mm
Maximum HA V = γf3 × 1.5×(12×17.5/2+33×11.426/12-17.5×0.574)

Maximum HA V = 1.1 × 190 kN = 209 kN
Maximum HB V = γf3 × 1.3 × 75 × (11.426 + 9.626 + 3.626 + 1.826) / 12

Maximum HB V = 1.1 × 215 kN = 237 kN > 209
∴ HB loading critical
Maximum V = 151 + 237 = 388 kN
Shear stress = V / bd = 388×103 / (1000 × 574) = 0.68 N/mm2
Design for no shear reinforcement condition then ξsvc > 0.68 N/mm2
Table 9 ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500/574)1/4 = 0.97
Table 8 vc = 0.27/γm(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3
vc = (0.27/1.25)×[100×6434/(1000 × 574)]1/3 × (40)1/3 = 0.77 N/mm2
ξsv√ = 0.97 × 0.77 = 0.75 N/mm2 > 0.68 ∴ OK
cl 5.3.3.1 Check that the maximum allowable shear stress is not exceeded:
Maximum allowable shear stress = 0.75√fcu or 4.75 N/mm2
0.75√fcu = 0.75√40 = 4.74 > 0.68 ∴ OK
Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for shear at the ends of
the deck.
Note: Intermediate sections between mid span and the ends of the deck
will have a smaller moment than at mid span and a small shear than at the
ends of the deck. These sections need to be checked to determine where
the reinforcement may be reduced to B25 at 125c/c.
cl. 5.8.4.1 Minimum area of reinforcement = 0.15% of bad = 0.15 × 1000 × 574 / 100
= 861 mm2/m ∴ use B12 bars at 125 centres (As = 905 mm2/m) for
distribution reinforcement.
55
3.5.2 Bridge Abutment Design
Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the abutment are:

i. Vertical loads from self-weight of deck.
ii. Vertical loads from live loading conditions.
iii. Horizontal loads from temperature, creep movements etc. and wind.
iv. Horizontal loads from braking and skidding effects of vehicles.
These loads are carried by the bearings which are seated on the abutment bearing
platform. The horizontal loads may be reduced by depending on the coefficient of
friction of the bearings at the movement joint in the structure.
However, the full braking effect is to be taken, in either direction, on top of the abutment
at carriageway level.
In addition to the structure loads, horizontal pressures exerted by the fill material
against the abutment walls is to be considered. Also a vertical loading from the weight of
the fill acts on the footing.
Vehicle loads at the rear of the abutments are considered by applying a surcharge load
on the rear of the wall.
For certain short single span structures it is possible to use the bridge deck to prop the
two abutments apart. This entails the abutment wall being designed as a propped
cantilever.
a) Earth Pressures
• Active earth pressures (Kaγ h) are considered to ensure that the abutment is
stable.
• At rest earth pressures (Koγ h) are considered to ensure that the structural
elements are adequate.
• Passive earth pressures (Kpγ h) are only considered for integral abutments or
where shear keys are provided.
At rest pressures are initially developed on the back of the abutment wall during
construction and whilst the backfill is compacting. Consequently the structural elements
have to be designed to resist the effects of these pressures.
Any movements in the structure caused by the at rest pressure, either through rotation
or deflection will reduce the pressure on the back of the wall; a state of equilibrium is
reached when the pressure reduces to the active earth pressure value. Consequently the
stability of the structure can be checked by using active earth pressures.
Passive pressures are developed when the structure pushes against the soil. Since
movements required to develop passive pressures are considerably greater than that for
active pressures, and the structure is designed to ensure that the foundations do not
slide under active pressures, then it is unlikely that passive pressures will be developed
in front of the abutment. There is also the chance that, at some time in the future, the soil
in front of the abutment may be removed temporarily. This could happen if services,
such as drainage pipes, water or gas mains, are installed or repaired in front of the
abutment. Consequently the structure needs to be designed to be stable with no soil in
front of the concrete footings.
If shear keys are required to prevent sliding then the key should be located under the
rear half of the base and a factored value of passive pressure is used.
56
Integral bridges experience passive pressures on the back of the abutment wall when
the deck expands.
b) Abutment Construction
Departmental Standard BD 30 gives recommendations for the layout of backfilled
cantilever retaining walls with spread footings or piled foundations. The layout of the
abutment will have implications on the design which need to be considered.
The provision of a drainage layer will allow pore water pressures to be ignored (unless
there is a possibility of a large water main bursting). However the drainage layer
separates the backfill soil from the wall so back of wall friction should not be included.
Traffic vibration will also affect any vertical friction effects on the back of the wall.
Foundation level is usually set at least one meter below ground level to avoid
deterioration of the foundation material through frost action. If services, such as gas
pipes, water mains, electricity cables etc., may be installed in front of the abutment wall
then the depth to foundation level may need to be increased to allow the services to be
installed above the concrete footing.
It is usual to provide granular backfill to the back of the wall which limits the material to
Class 6N or 6P. A typical value for the effective angle of internal friction (ϕ') for Class 6N
or 6P material is 35o. This equates to serviceability limit state values of:
Ka = (1-Sinϕ') / (1+Sinϕ') = 0.27
Ko = (1-Sinϕ') = 0.43
c) Loading
Loading from the deck is applied to the abutment through the bearings. Maximum
vertical bearing loads are obtained from the deck analysis; these loads, together with the
type of restraint required to support the deck, will dictate the type of bearing provided.
57
Horizontal loads from the deck are produced by wind loading, temperature effects, creep
movements, traction, braking and skidding loads, collision loads when high level of
containment parapets are used, and centrifugal loads if the horizontal radius of
curvature of the carriageway is less than 1000 metres.
Longitudinal loads from temperature effects in the deck will be determined according to
the type of bearing used. Elastomeric bearings are effectively 'glued' in place between
the deck soffit and the abutment bearing plinth so that the bearing has to distort when
the deck expands and contracts. The longitudinal force produced by this distortion is
proportional to the shear stiffness of the bearing and the magnitude of the movement.
Sliding bearings, on the other hand, produce a longitudinal load which is proportional to
the dead(permanent) load reaction and the coefficient of friction between the sliding
surfaces. The cofficient of friction (μ) varies between 0.01 and 0.08 depending on the
type of bearing and bearing stress (see BS 5400 Part 9:1, Tables 2 and 3).
The longitudinal load from the temperature effect will act equally on both abutments. If
sliding bearings are used then the load transmitted is equal to the friction at the bearing
under dead and superimposed dead loads (permanent actions). If elastomeric bearings
are used then the load transmitted is equal to the force required to distort the bearing
by the distance the deck expands or contracts.
58
The deck is very stiff in the axial direction so horizontal loads will have negligible effect
on the length of the deck. Hence longitudinal loads due to traction, braking and skidding
are assumed to be transmitted to the fixed abutment only. If only elastomeric bearings
are used, i.e. there is no fixed abutment, then the loads due to traction, braking and
skidding are shared between the two abutments.
Transverse loads on the deck will be transmitted to the abutment through the fixed and
sliding-guided bearings only. These loads are unlikely to have an effect on the stability of
a full height abutment, but the bearing plinths need to be designed to resist the loads.
The stability of small abutments, such as bank seats, may need to be checked for these
loads.
Live loading at the rear of the abutment is represented by a surcharge loading. The
curtain wall (also called up stand wall or ballast wall) does however need to be designed
for braking forces.
Vehicle collision on abutments need not normally be considered as they are assumed to
have sufficient mass to withstand the collision loads for global purposes.
d) Stability
Stability of the abutment is determined by considering:
• Sliding
• Overturning
• Failure of the foundation soil
• Slip failure of the surrounding soil
A comprehensive Ground Investigation Report is essential for the design of the bridge
structure. Boreholes need to provide information about the nature of the ground below
the foundations. Adequate sampling and testing also need to be carried out to obtain
design parameters for allowable bearing pressures, together with friction and cohesion
values of the soil at foundation level.
When using BD 30 sliding and overturning effects are calculated using nominal loads
and active earth pressures. A factor of safety of 2.0 is used to ensure that the abutment is
stable against sliding and overturning.
Several load cases need to be considered to ensure all loading conditions are catered for.
59
Construction sequences also need to be considered. The abutment wall will often be
constructed and backfilled up to bearing shelf level; this provides good access for the
deck construction. A surcharge load can be applied to the wall by the construction plant
used to compact the backfill. This surcharge load, together with the active backfill earth
pressures, will be acting on the back of the wall without the stabilising effects of the
dead load from the deck and can result in a critical loading case.
Allowable bearing pressures are obtained from the Ground Investigation Survey. An
allowable pressure is usually determined to limit settlement to about 20 to 25mm. As
the allowable pressure will be dependent on the size of foundation and loads applied
then there will need to be an initial assessment of the loads and foundation sizes before
an allowable pressure can be given. This results in some redesigning until the correct
base size, applied loads and allowable bearing pressures are obtained.
BS 8002 says that instability of the earth mass involving a slip failure may occur where:
• the wall is built on sloping ground which itself is close to limiting equilibrium; or
• the structure is underlain by a significant depth of clay whose undrained strength
increases only gradually with depth; or
• the strata is founded on a relatively strong stratum underlain by weaker strata;
or
• the structure is underlain by strata within which high pore water pressures may
develop from natural or artificial sources.
If none of these conditions are present then a slip failure analysis will not be necessary.
60
e) Abutment Design Example to BD 30
Design the fixed and free end cantilever abutments to the 20m span deck shown to carry
HA and 45 units of HB loading. Analyse the abutments using a unit strip method. The
bridge site is located south east of Oxford (to establish the range of shade air
temperatures).
Vehicle collision on the abutments need not be considered as they are assumed to have
sufficient mass to withstand the collision loads for global purposes (See BD 60/04
Clause 2.2).
The ground investigation report shows suitable founding strata about 9.5m below the
proposed road level. Test results show the founding strata to be a cohesionless soil
having an angle of shearing resistance (φ) = 30o and a safe bearing capacity of
400kN/m2.
Backfill material will be Class 6N with an effective angle of internal friction (ϕ') =
35o and density (γ) = 19kN/m3.
The proposed deck consists of 11No. Y4 prestressed concrete beams and concrete deck
slab as shown.
61
Loading From the Deck

A grillage analysis gave the following reactions for the various load cases:
Critical Reaction Under One Beam
Total Reaction on Each Abutment
Nominal loading on 1m length of abutment:

Deck Dead Load = (1900 + 320) / 11.6 = 191kN/m
HA live Load on Deck = 1140 / 11.6 = 98kN/m
HB live Load on Deck = 1940 / 11.6 = 167kN/m
From BS 5400 Part 2 Figures 7 and 8 the minimum and maximum shade air
temperatures are -19 and +37oC respectively.
For a Group 4 type strucutre (see fig. 9) the corresponding minimum and maximum
effective bridge temperatures are -11 and +36oC from tables 10 and 11.
Hence the temperature range = 11 + 36 = 47oC.
From Clause 5.4.6 the range of movement at the free end of the 20m span deck = 47 × 12
× 10-6 × 20 × 103 = 11.3mm.
The ultimate thermal movement in the deck will be ± [(11.3 / 2) γf3 γfL] = ±[11.3 × 1.1 ×
1.3 /2] = ± 8mm.
Option 1 - Elastomeric Bearing:

With a maximum ultimate reaction = 230 + 60 + 500 = 790kN then a suitable
elastomeric bearing would be Ekspan's Elastomeric Pad: Bearing EKR35:
• Maximum Load = 1053kN
• Shear Deflection = 13.3mm
• Shear Stiffness = 12.14kN/mm
• Bearing Thickness = 19mm
Note: the required shear deflection (8mm) should be limited to between 30% to 50% of
the thickness of the bearing. The figure quoted in the catalogue for the maximum shear
deflection is 70% of the thickness.
A tolerance is also required for setting the bearing if the ambient temperature is not at
the mid range temperature. The design shade air temperature range will be -19 to +37oC
which would require the bearings to be installed at a shade air temperature of
[(37+19)/2 -19] = 9oC to achieve the ± 8mm movement.
62
If the bearings are set at a maximum shade air temperature of 16oC then, by proportion
the deck will:
expand 8×(37-16)/[(37+19)/2] = 6mm and
contract 8×(16+19)/[(37+19)/2] = 10mm.
Let us assume that this maximum shade air temperature of 16oC for fixing the bearings
is specified in the Contract and design the abutments accordingly.
Horizontal load at bearing for 10mm contraction = 12.14 × 10 = 121kN.
This is an ultimate load hence the nominal horizontal load = 121 / 1.1 / 1.3 = 85kN at
each bearing.
Total horizontal load on each abutment = 11 × 85 = 935 kN ≡ 935 / 11.6 = 81kN/m.
Alternatively using BS 5400 Part 9.1 Clause 5.14.2.6:

H = AGδr/tq
Using the Ekspan bearing EKR35
• Area = 610 × 420 = 256200mm2
• Nominl hardness = 60 IRHD
• Bearing Thickness = 19mm
Shear modulus G from Table 8 = 0.9N/mm2
H = 256200 × 0.9 × 10-3 × 10 / 19 = 121kN
This correllates with the value obtained above using the shear stiffness from the
manufacturer's data sheet.
Option 2 - Sliding Bearing:

With a maximum ultimate reaction of 790kN and longitudinal movement of ± 8mm then
a suitable bearing from the Ekspan EA Series would be /80/210/25/25:
• Base Plate A dimension = 210mm
• Base Plate B dimension = 365mm
• Movement ± X = 12.5mm
BS 5400 Part 2 - Clause 5.4.7.3:

Average nominal dead load reaction = (1900 + 320) / 11 = 2220 / 11 = 200kN
Contact pressure under base plate = 200000 / (210 × 365) = 3N/mm2
As the mating surface between the stainless steel and PTFE is smaller than the base
plate then the pressure between the sliding faces will be in the order of 5N/mm2.
From Table3 of BS 5400 Part 9.1 the Coefficient of friction = 0.08 for a bearing stress of
5N/mm2
Hence total horizontal load on each abutment when the deck expands or contracts =
2220 × 0.08 = 180kN ≡ 180 / 11.6 = 16kN/m.
Traction and Braking Load - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 6.10:

Nominal Load for HA = 8kN/m × 20m + 250kN = 410kN
Nominal Load for HB = 25% of 45units × 10kN × 4axles = 450kN
450 > 410kN hence HB braking is critical.
63
Braking load on 1m width of abutment = 450 / 11.6 = 39kN/m.

When this load is applied on the deck it will act on the fixed abutment only.
Skidding Load - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 6.11:

Nominal Load = 300kN
300 < 450kN hence braking load is critical in the longitudinal direction.
When this load is applied on the deck it will act at bearing shelf level, and will not affect
the free abutment if sliding bearings are used.
Loading at Rear of Abutment
Backfill
For Stability calculations use active earth pressures = Ka γ h
Ka for Class 6N material = (1-Sin35) / (1+Sin35) = 0.27
Density of Class 6N material = 19kN/m3
Active Pressure at depth h = 0.27 × 19 × h = 5.13h kN/m2
Hence Fb = 5.13h2/2 = 2.57h2kN/m
Surcharge - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 5.8.2:

For HA loading surcharge = 10 kN/m2
For HB loading surcharge = 20 kN/m2
Assume a surchage loading for the compaction plant to be equivalent to 30 units of HB
Hence Compaction Plant surcharge = 12 kN/m2.
For surcharge of w kN/m2 :
Fs = Ka w h = 0.27wh kN/m
1) Stability Check
Initial Sizing for Base Dimensions

There are a number of publications that will give guidance on base sizes for free
standing cantilever walls, Reynolds's Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook being
one such book.
Alternatively a simple spreadsheet will achieve a result by trial and error.
64
Load Combinations
Backfill + Backfill + HA Backfill + HA Backfill + HB Backfill + HA Backfill + HA

Construction surcharge + Deck surcharge +
surcharge + Deck surcharge + Braking surcharge +
Deck dead load dead load + HB Deck dead load +
surcharge dead load + Deck behind abutment +
on deck HA on deck +
contraction Deck dead load Braking on deck
(Not applied to
free abutment if
sliding bearings
are provided)
CASE 1 - Fixed Abutment
Density of reinforced concrete = 25kN/m3.

Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 = 163kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 = 160kN/m
Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 = 531kN/m
Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 = 52kN/m
Backfill Force Fb = 0.27 × 19 × 7.52 / 2 = 144kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.27 × 12 × 7.5 = 24 kN/m
65
Restoring Effects:
Overturning Effects:
BD 30 Clause 5.2.4.2 refers to CP 2: 1951 Earth retaining structures for Safety Factors.
Factor of Safety Against Overturning = 3251 / 452 = 7.2 > 2.0 ∴ OK.
For sliding effects:
Active Force = Fb + Fs = 168kN/m
Frictional force on underside of base resisting movement = W tan(φ) = 906 × tan(30o) =
523kN/m
Factor of Safety Against Sliding = 523 / 168 = 3.1 > 2.0 ∴ OK.
Bearing Pressure:
Check bearing pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P × e / Z) where P × e is
the moment about the centre of the base.
P = 906kN/m
A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3251 - 452 = 2799kNm/m
Eccentricity (e) of P about centre-line of base = 3.2 - (2799 / 906) = 0.111m
Pressure under base = (906 / 6.4) ± (906 × 0.111 / 6.827)
Pressure under toe = 142 + 15 = 157kN/m2 < 400kN/m2 ∴ OK.
Pressure under heel = 142 - 15 = 127kN/m2
Hence the abutment will be stable for Case 1.
Analysing the fixed abutment with Load Cases 1 to 6 and the free abutment with Load
Cases 1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained:
66
Fixed Abutment:
Free Abutment:
It can be seen that the use of elastomeric bearings (Case 2) will govern the critical design
load cases on the abutments. We shall assume that there are no specific requirements
for using elastomeric bearings and design the abutments for the lesser load effects by
using sliding bearings.
2) Wall and Base Design
Loads on the back of the wall are calculated using 'at rest' earth pressures. Serviceability
and Ultimate load effects need to be calculated for the load cases 1 to 6 shown above.
Again, these are best carried out using a simple spreadsheet.
Using the Fixed Abutment Load Case 1 again as an example of the calculations:
Wall Design
Ko = 1 - Sin(ϕ') = 1 - Sin(35o) = 0.426

γfL for horizontal loads due to surcharge and backfill from BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 5.8.1.2:
Serviceability = 1.0
Ultimate = 1.5
γf3 = 1.0 for serviceability and 1.1 for ultimate (from BS 5400 Part 4 Clauses 4.2.2 and
4.2.3)
Backfill Force Fb on the rear of the wall = 0.426 × 19 × 6.52 / 2 = 171kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs on the rear of the wall = 0.426 × 12 × 6.5 = 33kN/m
At the base of the Wall (tension in the rear face):
Serviceability moment = (171 × 6.5 / 3) + (33 × 6.5 / 2) = 371 + 107 = 478kNm/m
Ultimate moment = 1.1 × 1.5 × 478 = 789kNm/m
Ultimate shear = 1.1 × 1.5 × (171 + 33) = 337kN/m
67
Cases 1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained for the
design moments and shear at the base of the wall:
Fixed Abutment:
Free Abutment:
Concrete to BS 8500:2006
Use strength class C32/40 with water-cement ratio 0.5 and minimum cement content of
340kg/m3 for exposure condition XD2.
Nominal cover to reinforcement = 60mm (45mm minimum cover plus a tolerance Δc of
15mm).
Reinforcement to BS 4449:2005 Grade B500B: fy = 500N/mm2
Design for critical moments and shear in Free Abutment:
Reinforced concrete walls are designed to BS 5400 Part 4 Clause 5.6.

Check classification to clause 5.6.1.1:
Ultimate axial load in wall from deck reactions = 2400 + 600 + 2770 = 5770 kN
0.1fcuAc = 0.1 × 40 × 103 × 11.6 × 1 = 46400 kN > 5770
∴ design as a slab in accordance with clause 5.4
68
Bending
BS 5400 Part 4 Clause 5.4.2 → for reisitance moments in slabs design to clause 5.3.2.3:
z = {1 - [ 1.1fyAs) / (fcubd) ]} d
Use B40 @ 150 c/c in rear face at base of wall:
As = 8378mm2/m, d = 1000 - 60 - 20 = 920mm
z = {1 - [ 1.1 × 500 × 8378) / (40 × 1000 × 920) ]} d = 0.875d < 0.95d ∴ OK
Mu = (0.87fy)Asz = 0.87 × 500 × 8378 × 0.875 × 920 × 10-6 = 2934kNm/m > 2175kNn/m
∴ OK
Carrying out the crack control calculation to Clause 5.8.8.2 gives a crack width of 0.2mm
< 0.25mm.
Also the steel reinforcement and concrete stresses meet the limitations required in
clause 4.1.1.3 ∴ serviceability requirements are satisfied.
Shear
Shear requirements are designed to BS 5400 clause 5.4.4:

v = V / (bd) = 619 × 103 / (1000 × 920) = 0.673 N/mm2
No shear reinforcement is required when v < ξsvc
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 920)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 8378} / {1000 × 920})1/3 ×
(40)1/3 = 0.72
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.72 = 0.62 N/mm2 < 0.673 hence shear reinforcement should be provided,
however check shear at distance H/8 (8.63 / 8 = 1.079m) up the wall.
ULS shear at Section 7H/8 for load case 4 = 487 kN
v = V / (bd) = 487 × 103 / (1000 × 920) = 0.53 N/mm2 < 0.62
Hence height requiring strengthening = 1.073 × (0.673 - 0.62) / (0.673 - 0.53) = 0.4m <
d.
Provide a 500 × 500 splay at the base of the wall with B32 @ 150c/c bars in sloping
face.
Early Thermal Cracking
Considering the effects of casting the wall stem onto the base slab by complying with
the early thermal cracking of concrete to BD 28 then B16 horizontal lacer bars @ 150
c/c will be required in both faces in the bottom half of the wall.
Minimum area of secondary reinforcement to Clause 5.8.4.2 = 0.12% of bad = 0.0012 ×
1000 × 920 = 1104 mm2/m (use B16 @ 150c/c - As = 1340mm2/m)
Base Design
Maximum bending and shear effects in the base slab will occur at sections near the front
and back of the wall. Different load factors are used for serviceability and ultimate limit
states so the calculations need to be carried out for each limit state using 'at rest
pressures'
Using the Fixed Abutment Load Case 1 again as an example of the calculations:
69
CASE 1 - Fixed Abutment Serviceability Limit State
γfL = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0

Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 × 1.0 = 163kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 × 1.0 = 160kN/m
Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 × 1.0 = 531kN/m
Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 × 1.0 = 52 kN/m
B/fill Force Fb = 0.426 × 19 × 7.52 × 1.0 / 2 = 228 kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.426 × 12 × 7.5 × 1.0 = 38 kN/m
Restoring Effects:
Bearing Pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P × e / Z)

P = 906kN/m
A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3251 - 713 = 2538kNm/m
Pressure under toe = 142 + 53 = 195kN/m2
Pressure at front face of wall = 89 + {(195 - 89) × 5.3 / 6.4} = 177kN/m2
Pressure at rear face of wall = 89 + {(195 - 89) × 4.3 / 6.4} = 160kN/m2
70
SLS Moment at a-a = (177 × 1.12 / 2) + ([195 - 177] × 1.12 / 3) - (25 × 1.0 × 1.12 / 2)
= 99kNm/m (tension in bottom face).
SLS Moment at b-b = (89 × 4.32 / 2) + ([160 - 89] × 4.32 / 6) - (25 × 1.0 × 4.32 / 2) - (531
× 4.3 / 2) - (52 × 4.3 / 2) = -443kNm/m (tension in top face).
CASE 1 - Fixed Abutment Ultimate Limit State
γfL for concrete = 1.15

γfL for fill and surcharge(vetical) = 1.2
γfL for fill and surcharge(horizontal) = 1.5
Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 × 1.15 = 187kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 × 1.15 = 184kN/m
Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 × 1.2 = 637kN/m
Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 × 1.2 = 62kN/m
Backfill Force Fb = 0.426 × 19 × 7.52 × 1.5 / 2 = 341kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.426 × 12 × 7.5 × 1.5 = 58 kN/m
Restoring Effects:
71
Bearing Pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P x e / Z)

P = 1070kN/m
A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3859 - 1071 = 2788kNm/m
Pressure under toe = 167 + 93 = 260kN/m2
Pressure at front face of wall = 74 + {(260 - 74) × 5.3 / 6.4} = 228kN/m2
Pressure at rear face of wall = 74 + {(260 - 74) × 4.3 / 6.4} = 199kN/m2
γf3 = 1.1
ULS Shear at a-a = 1.1 × {[(260 + 228) × 1.1 / 2] - (1.15 × 1.1 × 25)} = 260kN/m
ULS Shear at b-b = 1.1 × {[(199 + 74) × 4.3 / 2] - (1.15 × 4.3 × 25) - 637 - 62}
= 259kN/m
ULS Moment at a-a = 1.1 × {(228 × 1.12 / 2) + ([260 - 228] × 1.12 / 3) - (1.15 × 25 × 1.0 ×
1.12 / 2)} = 148kNm/m (tension in bottom face).
ULS Moment at b-b = 1.1 × {(74 × 4.32 / 2) + ([199 - 74] × 4.32 / 6) - (1.15 × 25 × 1.0 ×
4.32 / 2) - (637 × 4.3 / 2) - (62 × 4.3 / 2)} = -769kNm/m (tension in top face).
Cases 1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained:
Fixed Abutment Base:

Section a-a
72
Section b-b
Free Abutment Base:

Section a-a
Section b-b
Design for shear and bending effects at sections a-a and b-b for the Free Abutment:
Bending
BS 5400 Part 4 Clause 5.7.3 → design as a slab for resistance moments to clause 5.3.2.3:
z = {1 - [ 1.1fyAs) / (fcubd) ]} d
Use B32 @ 150 c/c:
As = 5362mm2/m, d = 1000 - 60 - 16 = 924mm
z = {1 - [ 1.1 × 500 × 5362) / (40 × 1000 × 924) ]} d = 0.92d < 0.95d ∴ OK
Mu = (0.87fy)Asz = 0.87 × 500 × 5362 × 0.92 × 924 × 10-6 = 1983kNm/m > 1922kNm/m
73
∴ OK
(1983kNm/m also > 1834kNm/m ∴ B32 @ 150 c/c suitable for fixed abutment.
For the Serviceability check for Case 3 an approximation of the dead load moment can
be obtained by removing the surcharge and braking loads. The spreadsheet result gives
the dead load SLS moment for Case 3 as 723kNm, thus the live load moment = 1233 -
723 = 510kNm.
Carrying out the crack control calculation to Clause 5.8.8.2 gives a crack width of
0.27mm > 0.25mm ∴ Fail.
This could be corrected by reducing the bar spacing, but increase the bar size to
B40@150 c/c as this is required to avoid the use of links (see below).
Using B40@150c/c the crack control calculation gives a crack width of 0.17mm <
0.25mm ∴ OK.
Also the steel reinforcement and concrete stresses meet the limitations required in
clause 4.1.1.3 ∴ serviceability requirements are satisfied.
Shear
Shear on Toe - Use Fixed Abutment Load Case 6:
By inspection B32@150c/c will be adequate for the bending effects in the toe (Muls =
365kNm < 1983kNm)
Shear requirements are designed to BS 5400 clause 5.7.3.2(a) checking shear at d away
from the front face of the wall to clause 5.4.4.1:
ULS Shear on toe = 1.1 × {(620 + 599) × 0.5 × 0.176 - 1.15 × 1 × 0.176 × 25} = 112kN
v = V / (bd) = 112 × 103 / (1000 × 924) = 0.121 N/mm2
Reinforcement in tension = B32 @ 150 c/c
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 924)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 5362} / {1000 × 924})1/3 ×
(40)1/3 = 0.62
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.62 = 0.53 N/mm2 > 0.121N/mm2
∴ OK
Shear on Heel - Use Free Abutment Load Case 3:

Shear requirements are designed at the back face of the wall to clause 5.4.4.1:
74
Length of heel = (6.5 - 1.1 - 1.0) = 4.4m

ULS Shear on heel = 1.1 × {348 × 0.5 × (5.185 - 2.1) - 1.15 × 1 × 4.4 × 25 - 1.2 × 4.4 ×
(8.63 × 19 + 10)} = 559kN
Using B32@150 c/c then:
v = V / (bd) = 559 × 103 / (1000 × 924) = 0.605 N/mm2
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 924)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 5362} / {1000 × 924})1/3 ×
(40)1/3 = 0.62
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.62 = 0.53 N/mm2 < 0.605N/mm2
∴ Fail
Rather than provide shear reinforcement try increasing bars to B40 @ 150 c/c (also
required for crack control as shown above).
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 8378} / {1000 × 920})1/3 ×
(40)1/3 = 0.716
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.716 = 0.616 N/mm2 > 0.605N/mm2 ∴ OK
Early Thermal Cracking
Considering the effects of casting the base slab onto the blinding concrete by complying
with the early thermal cracking of concrete to BD 28 then B16 distribution bars @ 250
c/c will be required.
Minimum area of main reinforcement to Clause 5.8.4.1 = 0.15% of bad = 0.0015 × 1000 ×
924 = 1386 mm2/m (use B20 @ 200c/c - As = 1570mm2/m).
Local Effects
Curtain Wall
This wall is designed to be cast onto the top of the abutment after the deck has been
built. Loading will be applied from the backfill, surcharge and braking loads on top of the
wall.
HB braking load to BS 5400 clause 6.10 = 25% × 45units × 4 × 10kN on 2 axles = 225kN
per axle.
To allow for load distribution effects assume a 45o dispersal to the curtain wall and a
45o dispersal down the wall, with maximum dispersal of the width of the abutment
(11.6m).
This crude analysis will slightly underestimate the peak values in the wall below the
load, but allowance can be made when designing the reinforcement to ensure there is
spare capacity. Then:
75
1st axle load on back of abutment = 225 / 3.0 = 75kN/m

Dispersed to the base of the curtain wall = 225 / 9.0 = 25 kN/m
2nd axle load on back of abutment = 225 / 6.6 = 34.1kN/m
Dispersed to the base of the curtain wall = 225 / 11.6 = 19.4 kN/m
For load effects at the top of the curtain wall:
Maximum load on back of abutment = 75 + 34.1 = 109.1kN/m
For load effects at the base of the curtain wall:
Maximum load on back of abutment = 25 + 19.4 = 44.4kN/m
Bending and Shear at Base of 3m High Curtain Wall
Horizontal load due to HB surcharge = 0.426 × 20 × 3.0 = 25.6 kN/m

Horizontal load due to backfill = 0.426 × 19 × 3.02 / 2 = 36.4 kN/m
SLS Moment = (44.4×3.0) + (25.6×1.5)+(36.4×1.0) = 208 kNm/m (36 dead + 172 live)
ULS Moment = 1.1 × {(1.1×44.4 ×3.0) + (1.5×25.6×1.5)+(1.5×36.4×1.0)} = 285 kNm/m
ULS Shear = 1.1 × {(1.1 × 44.4) + (1.5 × 25.6) + (1.5 × 36.4)} = 156kN/m
400 thick curtain wall with B32 @ 150 c/c:
Mult = 584 kNm/m > 285 kNm/m ∴ OK
SLS Moment produces crack width of 0.14mm < 0.25 ∴ OK
ξsvc = 0.97 N/mm2 > v = 0.48 N/mm2 ∴ Shear OK
76
3.5.3 Bridge Bearings

Bridge bearings are an important element of the bridge and require careful
consideration.
Up to the middle of the 20th century, bridges relied on steel bearings (rollers, rockers, or
sliding bearings) to allow movement. With more advanced designs to make better use of
the materials employed and the increased use of curved and skewed bridges, it was
necessary to develop the bearings to allow for movement in more than one direction.
New types of bearings were developed making use of new materials and improved
technology. This brief note covers bearings types other than the steel roller and rocker
bearings.
Bearings are required to fulfil the following functions:
1) Transfer forces from one part of the bridge (superstructure) to another
(substructure).
2) Allow movement (translation or rotation) of one part of the bridge with respect
to another.
3) Allow free movement in a certain direction but not in others, in order to
constrain the movement of the bridge to specific direction(s).
Design Requirements for bearings:

Bearings ensure the functionality of a bridge by allowing translation and rotation to
occur while supporting vertical loading. The main design requirements are:
1. Movements:
Consideration of movement is important for bearing design. The sources of movement
include bridge skew and curvature effects, initial comber, misalignment or construction
tolerance, settlement of support, thermal effects, construction loads, and traffic loading.
Restraints that restrict the translation movement of a structure may be provided as part
of or separate from the vertical load bearings. Restraints may be provided by separate
dowels, keys, or side restraints on sliding bearings. Table (1) defines the symbolic
representation of bearing displacement and rotation restraints.
Table (1): Symbolic representation of bearing functions.
77
2. Design life:
Bearings should be designed to last as long as the bridge itself. However, with some non-
metallic materials in use today, it is difficult to ascertain this requirement.
Inadequate maintenance of metallic parts of bearings may reduce their service life. It is
thus important to allow for inspection and replacement of bridge bearings, in whole or
in part. Provisions should be made for installation of jacks necessary for the removal of
bearings, insertion of shims, or any other operations requiring lifting the bridge deck
from the bearings. Adequate space should be provided around bearings to facilitate
inspection and replacement. If there is a possibility of differential settlement, provisions
should be made for jacking up the bridge deck and inserting metal shims.
3. Durability:
Bearings should be detailed without recesses and enclosures that may trap moisture and
dirt. The materials used in their manufacture and the method adopted for protection
against corrosion should ensure that the bearings function properly throughout their
life.
4. Limit states:
To meet the serviceability limit state for bearings the design should be such that they do
not suffer damage that would affect their proper functioning or incur excessive
maintenance during their working life. In the ultimate limit state, the strength and
stability of the bearings should be adequate to resist the ultimate design loads and
movements of the structure.
Types of Bearing:
Bridge bearings may be divided into four basic categories;
1) Elastomeric pads.
2) Pot bearings.
3) Sliding surfaces.
4) Curved sliding surfaces.
1. Elastomeric Pads:
Elastomers are used in both elastomeric bearing pads and steel-reinforced elastomeric
bearings. The behavior of both pads and bearings is influenced by the shape factor, S,
defined as:
A
S=
P
where A is the plan area and P is the area of the perimeter free to bulge.
Elastomeric bearing pads and steel reinforced elastomeric bearings have several
advantages. They have a low cost and require minimal maintenance. Further, the
components can sustain higher values than the design loads, which is useful in case of
extreme events that have a low probability of occurrence (earthquakes, for example).
Natural rubber or neoprene may be used in the bearings. Elastomers are visco-elastic
nonlinear materials and thus their properties vary with strain level, rate of loading and
temperature. Elastomers are flexible under shear and uniaxial deformation, but are very
stiff against volume changes. This feature allows for the design of a bearing that is stiff in
compression but flexible in shear. The shear stiffness of the bearing is the most
important property, since it affects the forces transmitted between the superstucture
and substructure.
78
Types of Bearings for Bridge Design

79
Elastomeric bearings:
Elastomeric bearing pads include plain elastomeric pads (PEP), cotton duck reinforced
pads (CDP), and layered fiberglass reinforced bearing pads (FGP).
Elastomeric bearings can accommodate small to moderate compressive loads with
limited or no rotation and translation, so they are best suited for bridges with small
lengths (less than 40 m). CDP may support somewhat larger compressive loads than PEP
and FGP. Translations less than 25 mm and rotations of a degree or less may be
accommodated with GFP, whereas smaller values are possible for PEP, and no sign
significant movements are practical with CDP.
Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings:
The steel reinforcement within elastomeric pads makes their behavior quite different
from plain elastomeric pads. Steel reinforced elastomeric bearings have uniformly
spaced layers of steel and elastomer. The bearing accommodates translation and
rotation by deformation of the elastomer. Under uniaxial compression, the flexible
elastomer would shorten significantly and sustain large increases in its plan dimension,
but the stiff steel layers restrain this lateral expansion. This restraint induces a bulging
pattern and provides a large increase in stiffness under compressive loads. This permits
a steel reinforced elastomeric bearing to support relatively high compressive loads
while accommodating large translations and rotations. The stress in the steel plates and
the strain in the elastomer are controlled by the elastomer thickness and the shape
factor of the bearing. Large rotations and translations require taller bearings.
Translations and rotations may occur about either horizontal axes, thus these bearings
are suitable for bridges where the direction of movement is not precisely defined.
2. Pot bearing:
The basic components of a pot bearing are a shallow cylinder, a pot, an elastomeric pad,
a set of sealing rings and a piston. Pot bearings are fixed against all translation unless
they are used with a PTFE sliding surface. The pot and piston are made from structural
carbon steel, whereas the sealing ring is usually made of a single circular brass ring or a
set of two or three flat brass rings. The brass rings are placed in a recess on the top of
the elastomeric pad.
Vertical load is carried through the piston of the bearing and is resisted by compressive
stress in the elastomeric pad. The pad is deformable but almost incompressible and is
often idealized as behaving hydrostatically, however, in practice; the elastomer has
some shear stiffness. Deformation of the pot wall is a concern, since this deformation
changes the clearance between the pot and the piston and may lead to binding of the
bearing or to elastomer leakage.
Rotation about any axis is accommodated by deformation of the elastomeric pad. Pot
bearings are usually designed for a maximum compressive strain of 15% in the
elastomer due to rotation. To achieve 0.02 radians, the ratio D/t must not exceed 15.
Increasing the pad thickness accommodates larger rotations but increases the required
depth, and thus the cost of the pot. During rotation, the elastomeric pad compresses on
one side and expands on the other, so the elastomer is in contact with the pot wall and
slips against it. This may cause elastomer abrasion and sometimes contributes to
elastomer leakage.
Lateral load is transferred from the piston to the pot by contact between the rim of the
piston and the wall of the pot. The contact stress may be high because the piston rim
may be relatively thin to avoid binding when the piston rotates and the rim slides
80
against the pot. The pot wall must transfer the load down into the base plate (combined
shear and bending). The load is then transferred to the substructure through friction
under the base of the bearing and shear in the anchor bolts.
3. Sliding surfaces:
Lubricated bronze and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) are commonly used as
components of bridge bearings. Sliding surfaces develop a frictional force that acts on
the superstructure, substructure, and bearing. The frictional force, F, can be computed as
F = µN
where μ is the coefficient of friction and N is the normal force on the sliding surface.
Lubricated bronze sliding surfaces are used to accommodate very large translation, and
the load capacity is also big as it is only limited by the surface area. The coefficient of
friction is typically 0.07 under initial lubricated conditions. However, it increases to 0.1
as the surface dissipates with time and movement. Coefficient of friction in the order of
0.4 may be expected after the lubrication has completely dissipated.
Recommended design coefficients of friction for bearings with stainless steel sliding on
pure PTFE continuously lubricated are given in Table (2) below. For design purposes,
the coefficient of friction for pure unlubricated PTFE on stainless steel should be taken
as twice the values given in the Table.
Table (2): Coefficient of friction for stainless steel sliding on pure PTFE continuously
Bearing stress (N/mm2) 5 10 20 30 and over

Coefficient of friction 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.03
PTFE sliding surfaces are used to accommodate large translations, and, when combined
with spherical or cylindrical bearings, large rotations. They develop substantially
smaller friction forces than lubricated bronze bearings. However, they require greater
care in design and greater quality control in construction and installation. PTFE is used
with mating surfaces made of very smooth stainless steel (for all flat surfaces and many
curved surfaces) or anodized aluminium (for some spherical or cylindrical surfaces).
The stainless steel is larger than the PTFE surface to achieve full movement without
exposing the PTFE. The steel plate is typically place on top of the PTFE to prevent
contamination with dust or dirt. PTFE sliding surfaces are often used in combination
with a wide range of other bearing systems. PTFE wears under service conditions and
may require replacement after a period of time.
Low temperatures, fast sliding speeds, rough mating surface, lack of lubrication, and
contamination of the sliding interface increase the wear rate.
4. Curved sliding surfaces:

Bearings with curved sliding surfaces include spherical and cylindrical bearings. They
are a special case of lubricated bronze or PTFE sliding surfaces. They are used primarily
to sustain large rotations about one or more axes, and are fixed against translation. The
rotation occurs about the centre of radius of the curved surface, and the maximum
rotation is limited by the geometry and clearances of the bearing. These bearings may
81
develop horizontal resistance by virtue of the geometry. This lateral load capacity is
limited and large lateral loads require an external resisting system.
The centre of rotation of the bearing and the neutral axis of the beam seldom coincide,
and this eccentricity introduces additional translation and girder end moment that must
be considered in the design. An additional flat sliding surface must be added if the
bearing is to accommodate displacements or to reduce the girder end moment. The
moment, M, may be estimated as:
M = µNd
where d is the distance between the centre of radius of the bearing and the centre of
rotation of the girder. This moment must be considered in the design of the bearings,
superstructure and substructure. The inside and outside radii of spherical and
cylindrical bearings must be accurately controlled and machined to assure good
performance. When using PTFE, a small tolerance between the two radii and a smooth
surface finish is required to prevent wear, creep, or cold flow damage due to non-
uniform contact and to ensure a low coefficient of friction.
Selection of Bearing Type:

There are several approaches to selecting a cost-effective and appropriate bearing
system for bridges. An important decision is to define the bearing type suitable for the
design requirements. Table 3 provides a guide for choosing a suitable bearing type.
There are several procedures to follow in the design process. The one outlined here
follows the reference “Steel Bridge Bearing Selection and Design Guide”, published by
the American Iron and Steel Institute. Table 3 is provided to identify the bearing types
that satisfy design requirements. The selection procedure is:
1) Define the design requirements (forces, translation, and rotation limits).
2) Identify the bearing types that satisfy the design requirements.
3) Identify the initial and maintenance cost of the bearings.
4) Choose the appropriate bearing type that meets the design requirement at the
lowest overall cost.
5) Ease of access for inspection, maintenance and possible replacement must also
be considered.
6) Note that the limits provided are not absolute, but are practical limits that
approximate the most economical application of each bearing type.
82
Table (3): Bearing Function.
Bearing Arrangement:
A typical arrangement for the bearings in plan is to provide for one fixed bearing and
one transversally flexible bearing at the "fixed" support, and one longitudinally flexible
and one multi-directionally flexible at the "movable" support. This is used for wide
bridges and where a fair degree of lateral movement must be allowed (see Fig. 2a). If the
bridge is narrow, two fixed bearings with some play for movement in the transverse
direction are provided at the fixed support, and one longitudinally flexible and one
multi-directionally flexible at the flexible support (Fig. 2b). For a slab bridge with
skewed ends, a lot of bearings that are flexible and tiltable in all directions are used, with
lateral restraint provided by bearings on the bridge centrelines (Fig. 2c).
Figure 3 describes the placement of elastomeric bearing supports for precast beams,
where special details are required to ensure that the vertical stress is uniformly
distributed along the bearing cross-section (Fig. 3a & 3b), avoiding stress concentration
on a partly-loaded bearing (Fig. 3c).
83
Figure (2): Bearing arrangement on bridge plan view.
Figure (3): Elastomeric bearing attachment to sloping precast beams.
84

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Moi University

Department of Civil and Structural Engineering

COURSE CODE: CVS 517E COURSE NAME: DESIGN OF BRIDGES

Purpose of the course

Teaching and Learning Methods

Teaching Materials and Aids

1.2 Definitions of terms used in bridge design

Figure 1.1: Schematic representation of skewness

1.3 Bridge Design Principles

1.4 Types of bridges

Figure 1.2: Basic Structural Forms for Bridge Design

Subsequent discussions consider classifications based on structural form.

1.4.1 Slab Bridges

a) Cross-section of Solid slab bridge b) Cross-section of Solid slab bridge

c) Cross-section of a voided slab bridge

Figure 1.3: Typical types of slab bridges

1.4.2 Beam/Girder bridges

Figure 1.4: Typical continuous beam bridge

Cross-section of T concrete beam bridge Cross-section of rectangular concrete beam bridge

Cross-section of I - steel girder bridge Cross-section of a concrete box girder bridge

1.4.3 Portal Frame /Integral abutment Bridges

Figure 1.6: Schematic representation of integral abutment bridge

1.4.4 Arch bridges

Structurally there are four basic arch types:

1.4.5 Truss Bridges

Figure 1.8: Schematic representation of load carrying mechanism in truss bridges

1.4.6 Cable stayed bridges

Load-transfer mechanism in cable

1.4.7 Suspension bridges

1.4.8 Cantilever bridges

Figure 11: Cantilever Bridge

1.5 Components of a bridge

Figure 1.12: Schematic representation of a typical Bridge with important

1.5.3 The Superstructure

Permanent Loads: Transient Loads

Figure 1.13: Schematic representation of loads on a typical bridge

2.1.1 General Bridge Design Considerations

2.1.2 Functional considerations

2.1.3 Aesthetic considerations

2.1.4 Economic considerations

a) Criteria for least cost

2.1.5 Bridge types

2.1.6 Construction and erection considerations

Cast-in-place and precast concrete

Reinforced, partially pre-stressed, and pre-stressed concrete

Post-tensioned segmental construction

2.1.7 Legal considerations

Permits over navigable Waterways-Preliminary plans of a proposed bridge crossing any

2.2 Bridge Site Selection/Location over water bodies

2.2.1 Site selection considerations

2.2.2 Data Collection

c) Field Sketching and Photos

2.2.3 Economical Span

2.2.4 Hydraulic Requirements

2.2.5 Free Board

Discharge (m3/s) Vertical Clearance/Free board

2.2.6 Grade Requirements

2.3 Selection of Bridge Type

e) Economics and ease of maintenance: In comparison of the economics of different

2.4 Summary of the bridge design requirements

Data needed for designing a bridge:

3.2 Calculation of Loads