Creep and Fatigue

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Creep and High Temperature
Failure
⚫ Materials often placed in service at elevated temperatures and static
mechanical stresses (turbine rotors in jet engines and steam
generators that experience centrifugal stresses, and high-pressure
steam lines).
• Such deformation is termed creep.
• Observed in all materials types;
• For metals becomes important at temperatures > 0.4 Tm

⚫ Typical creep test:-subjecting a specimen to constant load/stress at

constant temperature; measure deformation or strain and plot as
function of elapsed time.

⚫ Most tests are constant load type, which yield information of an

engineering nature; constant stress tests are employed to provide a
better understanding of the mechanisms of creep.

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⚫ Constant load applied at constant high temperature
⚫ deformation as a function of time (ε vs. t)
⚫ three stages of creep:
⚫ stage I (primary creep): continuously diminishing creep rate
due to strain hardening

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 Creep Curve
• Stage II (secondary steady-state
creep): constant rate or plot
becomes linear
⚫ Longest and most important
stage
⚫ Balance between competing
strain hardening and
recovery (softening) of the
material
• Stage III (tertiary creep)
⚫ accelerated rate leading to
creep rupture or failure
⚫ intergranular cracking and/or
formation of voids and
cavities
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Creep Testing and Steady-State
Creep Rate
⚫ Performed in uniaxial tension with specimens of similar
geometry to tensile testing
⚫ Brittle materials: uniaxial compression with cylindrical samples
(flaw effect minimized)

Creep Data
⚫ most important parameter is the steady-state creep rate (ε / t)
⚫ used as a design parameter in structures which are expected
to last a long time (minimum strain) e.g. electric power and
chemical plants
⚫ creep rupture lifetime (tr) is more important in design for short
lifetimes, e.g. gas turbine engine blades (F-18 turbine blade)
creep test continued until failure- creep rupture tests

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Stress and Temperature
Effects
⚫ Creep is observed >0.4Tm
⚫ below 0.4Tm, no plastic
strain with time.
⚫ If stress or temperature is
increased:
⚫ increase the creep rate
⚫ instantaneous strain
increases
⚫ steady-state creep rate
increases
⚫ creep rupture lifetime
diminishes

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Stress-Rupture Lifetime
Behaviour
⚫ Most common creep data representation is a plot of log σ versus log tr
(creep rupture lifetime)
⚫ Linear relationship is found for data plotted at different temperatures
⚫ Curve shows data for a nickel alloy at different temperatures
⚫ These data can be used in design of components

Note: not all

materials show
such nice straight
lines.

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Stress-Strain-Time
⚫Creep strength: stress at a given Temp. which produces a certain
steady state creep rate e.g: 0.00001%/hr (0.01%/1,000hr)
⚫ Rupture Strength: stress at a given temperature to produce a life to
rupture of a certain amount, usually 1,000, 10,000 or 100,000 hr.

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 Stress-Steady State Creep Rate
Behaviour
⚫ Empirical relationship exists
between steady-state creep rate
and applied stress

 s = K1 n

⚫ Where K1 and n are material

⚫ constants
⚫ εs versus σ (log-log scale) yields a
linear curve
⚫ slope is n

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Influence
⚫
of Temperature
Diffusion is an exponential function of temperature (thermally activated
process).
⚫ Inclusion of temperature → universal creep equation:
 − Qc 
 s = K 2 exp 
n

 RT 
where K2 is a constant and Qc is the activation energy for creep

• Experimental value of n can be used to predict creep strain rate at

different working conditions.
⚫ Activation energy for creep, Qc, can be obtained from plots of log (ln)
creep rate versus 1/T.
⚫ can relate Qc to the activation for diffusion and correlate it to diffusion
processes.
⚫ this might be expected since creep involves mass transfer or diffusion.

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
 Influence of Temperature
⚫ Line shows 1:1 correlation
⚫ Activation energy for creep in
metals at high temp. is equal to
that for self-diffusion (i.e.
vacancy transport - dislocation
climb).
⚫ If vacancies move faster - metal
creeps faster.
⚫ Other mechanisms are possible;
grain boundary sliding/diffusion.
(superplasticicty)

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 CREEP FAILURE From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of
• Failure: Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87,
along grain boundaries. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
Pergamon Press, Inc.)

g.b. cavities

applied
stress

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 Suggested creep mechanisms
a)Viscous creep for amorphous
solids
b)Diffusional creeps in crystalline
solids.

Vacancy diffusion through bulk

(Nabarro-Herring Creep) or along
grain boundaries (Coble creep).
Hence larger grains or single
grain/crystal better.

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
Suggested creep mechanisms

⚫ Dislocation creeps in crystalline solids. Also

relies on vacancy diffusion.

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Creep Mechanism

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 Data Extrapolation-Larson-Miller
parameter
⚫ Impractical to collect data over
long times, e.g several years.
⚫ solution: perform creep rupture
tests at higher temperatures under
same stress for shorter times
⚫ extrapolate for service conditions
⚫ Larson-Miller parameter:
P1 = T(C + log tr)
⚫ C is a constant (~20)
⚫ T is temperature (K)
⚫ tr is the creep rupture life (hours)
⚫ Plot log σ versus log L-M
parameter

i.e. for a given material at some specific stress level, the time-to-rupture will
vary with temperature such that P1 remains constant. Often plotted as log 16
Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
stress vs log P1.
Data Extrapolation-Larson-Miller
parameter
⚫ Table 3. Time compression operating conditions based on Larson-Miller
parameter. C = 20

long times at low much shorter times

temperatures. at higher temperatures.

As long as still the same creep mechanism!

Note: not all materials have good L-M Parameter plots. Other
extrapolation methods can be used (Sherby-Dorn
Parameter).
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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
Example
Using the Larson–Miller data for
S-590 iron shown in the figure
below, predict the time to rupture
for a component that is subjected
to a stress of 140 MPa(20,000
psi) at 800°C (1073 K).

103 T (20 + log tf) (K-h)

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
⚫ Generally, factors for better creep
resistance include:
⚫ high melting temperature
⚫ high elastic modulus
⚫ larger grain size (small grains allow
more grain boundary sliding)

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Fatigue

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Fatigue
Fatigue: is a form of
failure that occurs due to
fluctuating or dynamic
stresses.

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Introduction
75 % of mechanical components are subject to fatigue cycles.
Examples???

Fatigue Failure

Characteristics No deformation

Material Ductile or brittle

Stress concentration Very important to consider.

Fatigue starts at cracks!
Key stresses Mean and alternating equivalent stresses

Failed surface Smooth velvety surface followed by brittle

surface + beach marks

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Introduction
Static: Find load at which material fails.
Find yield strength or ultimate strength.

How to determine fatigue strength of materials?

Three parameters to vary:
- Mean Stress
- Alternating Stress
- Number of cycles

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
 Fatigue Stresses

Flexural stress

Axial stress Torsional stress

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
Fatigue Stresses
Stress cycle:
⚫ Reversed stress cycle → a sine wave where the maximum
stress and minimum stress differ by a negative sign.
Example: in an axle, where every half turn or half period as
in the case of the sine wave, the stress on a point would be
reversed.
⚫ Repeated stress cycle → the maximum stress (max)and
minimum stress (min) are asymmetric (the curve is a sine
wave) not equal and opposite. This is the most common in
engineering application.
⚫ Random stress cycle → stress and frequency vary
randomly. Example: automobile shocks, where the
frequency magnitude of imperfections in the road will
produce varying minimum and maximum stresses.

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Fatigue Failure and Fracture
• The main characteristics of fatigue fracture is the small
deformation on the fracture surface. This type of fracture
is usually catastrophic, because no indication of failure is
present. Cracks that can initiate fatigue fracture are very
fine and are difficult to detect. Once the cracks propagate,
the failure will occur in a very short time.
• The process of fatigue failure is characterised by three
distinct steps: (1) crack initiation, where small crack form
at some point of high concentration, (2) crack propagation,
in which crack propagates incrementally with each stress
cycle, and (3) final failure, which occurs very rapidly once
the propagating crack has reached a critical size. one
after another.

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Fatigue Failure and Fracture

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Fatigue Failure and Fracture

• As a consequence of the three-stage process, the fracture

surface due to fatigue can be divided into three zones: (a)
initial crack zone, (b) striation zone where crack propagates
rapidly, having a granular and relatively rough surface, and
(c) final failure zone.
• Fatigue failure usually starts at the surface of the material,
at some point of stress concentration, such as: surface
scratches, sharp fillets, keyways, threads, dents, etc.

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
 Fatigue Failure and Fracture

• Once a crack has nucleated, it then propagates in two stages.

• Stage I propagation: is usually occur along crystallographic
planes of high shear stress. In polycrystalline materials, cracks
normally extended through ONLY several grains. The fatigue
surface that is formed: flat and has a featureless appearance.
• Stage II propagation: crack extension rate increases
dramatically. There is a change in propagation direction to one
that is roughly perpendicular to the applied tensile stress.
Crack growth proceeds by a repetitive plastic blunting and
sharpening process.

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Fatigue Failure and Fracture

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
Fatigue Failure and Fracture
•One can determine that a material failed by fatigue by examining
the fracture sight. A fatigue fracture will have two distinct regions;
One being smooth or burnished as a result of the rubbing of the
bottom and top of the crack( steps 1 & 2 ); The second is
granular, due to the rapid failure of the material.

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
Fatigue Failure and Fracture

⚫ Other features of a fatigue fracture are beachmarks

and striations.
⚫ Beachmarks, or clamshell marks, may be seen in
fatigue failures of materials that are used for a
period of time, allowed to rest for an equivalent time
period and the loaded again as in factory usage.
⚫ Striations are thought to be steps in crack
propagation, were the distance depends on the
stress range. Beachmarks may contain thousands of
striations.

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Fatigue Failure and Fracture

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Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
Fatigue Failure and Fracture

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Fatigue Failure and Fracture

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Variable influence Fatigue
Endurance
⚫ Stress Cycle Amplitude
⚫ Stress Cycle Frequency
⚫ Average Stress
⚫ Surface finish
⚫ Temperature
⚫ Environment

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S-N Curve

⚫ The basic method to present fatigue data is

by using S – N curves, which shows the
stress level (S) vs stress cycle (N) before
fracture.
⚫ It is common to plot the number of cycle (N)
in logarithmic scale, and stress (S) in σa ,
σmax , atau σmin.

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S-N Curve

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S-N Curve

⚫ Fatigue strength: the stress level at which failure will occur for
some specified number of cycles
⚫ Fatigue life (Nf): the number of cycles to cause failure at a
specified stress level.
Nf = Ni + Np
Where Ni = number of cycles for crack initiation, and Np= number
of cycles for crack propagation
⚫ Endurance limit: the maximum level of stress at which materials
will never fail.

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S-N Curve

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S-N Curve

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Full-scale Fatigue
Example of full-scale fatigue test on “wing upper
skin” Hawk Mk 51

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Full-scale Fatigue
Strain gage setting on Wing Upper Skin for full-
scale fatigue test

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Full-scale Fatigue

Raw data from the full-scale fatigue test on this

component→ very specific to support needs of
manufacturer. 48
Training of Root Cause Failure Analysis
Full-scale Fatigue
Results of raw –data processing

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Full-scale Fatigue

Results of full-scale fatigue:

The first crack initiation occurred after 2000 FH (Flight
hour)
How to calculate this? → must be specifically
calculated for each component with a certain load
assumption.
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