Programming Scala

Download at WoweBook.
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Programming Scala
Download at WoweBook.Com
Programming Scala
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Beijing • Cambridge • Farnham • Köln • Sebastopol • Taipei • Tokyo
Programming Scala
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Table of Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
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1. Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

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2. Type Less, Do More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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3. Rounding Out the Essentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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4. Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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5. Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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6. Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

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Table of Contents | ix
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7. The Scala Object System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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8. Functional Programming in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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9. Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
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10. Herding XML in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

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11. Domain-Specific Languages in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

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12. The Scala Type System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

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Table of Contents | xi
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13. Application Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

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14. Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

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Appendix: References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
xiv | Table of Contents
Foreword
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xvi | Foreword
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Welcome to Programming Scala

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CHAPTER 1
Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala
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Welcome to Scala version 2.8.0.final (Java ...).
Type in expressions to have them evaluated.
Type :help for more information.
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val book = "Programming Scala"
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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/upper1-script.scala
class Upper {
def upper(strings: String*): Seq[String] = {
strings.map((s:String) => s.toUpperCase())
}
}
val up = new Upper

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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/upper2-script.scala
object Upper {
def upper(strings: String*) = strings.map(_.toUpperCase())
}
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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/upper3.scala
object Upper {
def main(args: Array[String]) = {
args.map(_.toUpperCase()).foreach(printf("%s ",_))
println("")
}
}
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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes.scala
package shapes {
class Point(val x: Double, val y: Double) {
override def toString() = "Point(" + x + "," + y + ")"
}
abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}
class Circle(val center: Point, val radius: Double) extends Shape {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() = "Circle(" + center + "," + radius + ")"
}
class Rectangle(val lowerLeft: Point, val height: Double, val width: Double)
extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Rectangle(" + lowerLeft + "," + height + "," + width + ")"
}
class Triangle(val point1: Point, val point2: Point, val point3: Point)
extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
"Triangle(" + point1 + "," + point2 + "," + point3 + ")"
}
}
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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes-actor.scala
package shapes {
import scala.actors._
import scala.actors.Actor._
object ShapeDrawingActor extends Actor {

def act() {
loop {
receive {
case s: Shape => s.draw()
case "exit" => println("exiting..."); exit
case x: Any => println("Error: Unknown message! " + x)
}
}
}
}
}
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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes-actor-script.scala
import shapes._
ShapeDrawingActor.start()
ShapeDrawingActor ! new Circle(new Point(0.0,0.0), 1.0)

ShapeDrawingActor ! new Rectangle(new Point(0.0,0.0), 2, 5)
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Triangle.draw: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0))
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Recap and What’s Next

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Recap and What’s Next | 21
CHAPTER 2
Type Less, Do More
In This Chapter
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// Trailing equals sign indicates more code on next line

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val reallySuperLongValueNameThatGoesOnForeverSoYouNeedANewLine =
"wow that was a long value name"
println(reallySuperLongValueNameThatGoesOnForeverSoYouNeedANewLine)
23
}
// Trailing opening curly brace indicates more code on next line

def equalsign2(s: String) = {
println("equalsign2: " + s)
}
// Trailing comma, operator, etc. indicates more code on next line

def commas(s1: String,
s2: String) = {
println("comma: " + s1 +
", " + s2)
}
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exit
...
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array: Array[String] = Array(null, null, null, null, null)
scala> array = new Array(2)

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array = new Array(2)
24 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More
^
scala> array(0) = "Hello"
scala> array
res3: Array[String] = Array(Hello, null, null, null, null)
scala>
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scala> var stockPrice: Double = 100.
stockPrice: Double = 100.0
scala> stockPrice = 10.

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scala>
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Method Declarations
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Method Declarations | 25
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v1-script.scala
// Version 1 of "StringUtil".
object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String): String =
strings.mkString(separator)
def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = joiner(strings, " ")

}
import StringUtil._ // Import the joiner methods.
println( joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")) )
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v2-v28-script.scala
// Version 2 of "StringUtil" for Scala v2.8 only.
object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String = " "): String =
}
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")))
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println(joiner(strings = List("Programming", "Scala")))
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala"), " ")) // #1
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala"), separator = " ")) // #2
println(joiner(strings = List("Programming", "Scala"), separator = " "))
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/user-profile-v28-script.scala
// Scala v2.8 only.
object OptionalUserProfileInfo {
val UnknownLocation = ""
val UnknownAge = -1
val UnknownWebSite = ""
}
class OptionalUserProfileInfo(
location: String = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownLocation,
age: Int = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownAge,
webSite: String = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownWebSite)
println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo )

println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo(age = 29) )
println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo(age = 29, location="Earth") )
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Method Declarations | 27
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/factorial-script.scala
def factorial(i: Int): Int = {

def fact(i: Int, accumulator: Int): Int = {
if (i <= 1)
accumulator
else
fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
}
fact(i, 1)
}
println( factorial(0) )
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/count-to-script.scala
def countTo(n: Int):Unit = {

def count(i: Int): Unit = {
if (i <= n) {
println(i)
count(i + 1)
}
}
count(1)
}
countTo(5)
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-nested-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile until you put a String return type on upCase.
def upCase(s: String) = {

if (s.length == 0)
return s
else
s.toUpperCase()
}
println( upCase("") )
println( upCase("Hello") )
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return s
^
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def upCase(s: String): String = {
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-recursive-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile until you put an Int return type on "fact".
def factorial(i: Int) = {

def fact(i: Int, accumulator: Int) = {
if (i <= 1)
accumulator
else
}
fact(i, 1)
}
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^
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-overloaded-return-script.scala
// Version 1 of "StringUtil" (with a compilation error).
// ERROR: Won't compile: needs a String return type on the second "joiner".
object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String]) = joiner(strings, " ")

}
println( joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")) )
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def joiner(strings: List[String]) = joiner(strings, "")
^
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def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = joiner(strings, " ")
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-broad-inference-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile; needs a String return type on the second "joiner".
def makeList(strings: String*) = {

if (strings.length == 0)
List(0) // #1
else
strings.toList
}
val list: List[String] = makeList()
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...11: error: type mismatch;
found : List[Any]
required: List[String]
val list: List[String] = makeList()
^
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v3.scala
// Version 3 of "StringUtil" (for all versions of Scala).
object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = strings.mkString(" ")
def toCollection(string: String) = string.split(' ')

}
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-client.scala
import StringUtil._
object StringUtilClient {
args foreach { s => toCollection(s).foreach { x => println(x) } }
}
}
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object StringUtil {
...
def toCollection(string: String) = string.split(' ').toList // changed!

}
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java.lang.NoSuchMethodError: StringUtil$.toCollection(...
at StringUtilClient$$anonfun$main$1.apply(string-util-client.scala:6)
at StringUtilClient$$anonfun$main$1.apply(string-util-client.scala:6)
...
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val map = Map()DVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
val map = Map()
map.update("book", "Programming Scala")

... 3: error: type mismatch;
found : java.lang.String("book")
required: Nothing
map.update("book", "Programming Scala")
^
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/tuple-example-script.scala
def tupleator(x1: Any, x2: Any, x3: Any) = (x1, x2, x3)
val t = tupleator("Hello", 1, 2.3)

println( "Print the whole tuple: " + t )
println( "Print the first item: " + t._1 )
println( "Print the second item: " + t._2 )
println( "Print the third item: " + t._3 )
val (t1, t2, t3) = tupleator("World", '!', 0x22)

println( t1 + " " + t2 + " " + t3 )
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t: (java.lang.String, Int, Double) = (Hello,1,2.3)
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res0: (Int, Int) = (1,2)
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/state-capitals-subset-script.scala
val stateCapitals = Map(

"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
// ...
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")
println( "Get the capitals wrapped in Options:" )

println( "Alabama: " + stateCapitals.get("Alabama") )
println( "Wyoming: " + stateCapitals.get("Wyoming") )
println( "Unknown: " + stateCapitals.get("Unknown") )
println( "Get the capitals themselves out of the Options:" )

println( "Alabama: " + stateCapitals.get("Alabama").get )
println( "Wyoming: " + stateCapitals.get("Wyoming").getOrElse("Oops!") )
println( "Unknown: " + stateCapitals.get("Unknown").getOrElse("Oops2!") )
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Get the capitals wrapped in Options:
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Wyoming: Some(Cheyenne)
Unknown: None
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Alabama: Montgomery
Wyoming: Cheyenne
Unknown: Oops2!
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Organizing Code in Files and Namespaces
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package com.example.mypkg
class MyClass {
// ...
}
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package com {
package example {
package pkg1 {
class Class11 {
def m = "m11"
}
class Class12 {
def m = "m12"
}
}
package pkg2 {
class Class21 {
def m = "m21"
def makeClass11 = {
new pkg1.Class11
}
def makeClass12 = {
new pkg1.Class12
}
}
}
package pkg3.pkg31.pkg311 {
class Class311 {
def m = "m21"
}
}
}
}
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/import-example1.scala
import java.awt._
import java.io.File
import java.io.File._
import java.util.{Map, HashMap}
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/import-example2-script.scala
def writeAboutBigInteger() = {
import java.math.BigInteger.{
ONE => _,
TEN,
ZERO => JAVAZERO }
// ONE is effectively undefined

// println( "ONE: "+ONE )
println( "TEN: "+TEN )
println( "ZERO: "+JAVAZERO )
}
writeAboutBigInteger()
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/relative-imports.scala
import scala.collection.mutable._
import collection.immutable._ // Since "scala" is already imported
import _root_.scala.collection.jcl._ // full path from real "root"
package scala.actors {
import remote._ // We're in the scope of "scala.actors"
}
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Abstract Types And Parameterized Types

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Abstract Types And Parameterized Types | 47
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/abstract-types-script.scala
import java.io._
abstract class BulkReader {

type In
val source: In
def read: String
}
class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader {

type In = String
def read = source
}
class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader {

type In = File
def read = {
val in = new BufferedInputStream(new FileInputStream(source))
val numBytes = in.available()
val bytes = new Array[Byte](numBytes)
in.read(bytes, 0, numBytes)
new String(bytes)
}
}
println( new StringBulkReader("Hello Scala!").read )

println( new FileBulkReader(new File("abstract-types-script.scala")).read )
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abstract class BulkReader[In] {
val source: In
...
}
class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader[String] {...}
class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader[File] {...}
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Word Description See …
abstract Makes a declaration abstract. Unlike Java, the keyword is usually “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
not required for abstract members.
case Start a case clause in a match expression. “Pattern Matching” on page 63
catch Start a clause for catching thrown exceptions. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70
class Start a class declaration. “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
def Start a method declaration. “Method Declarations” on page 25
do Start a do...while loop. “Other Looping Constructs”
on page 61
else Start an else clause for an if clause. “Scala if Statements” on page 58
extends Indicates that the class or trait that follows is the parent type of the “Parent Classes” on page 91
class or trait being declared.
false Boolean false. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
final Applied to a class or trait to prohibit deriving child types from it. “Attempting to Override final Declara-
Applied to a member to prohibit overriding it in a derived class or tions” on page 112
trait.
finally Start a clause that is executed after the corresponding try clause, “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
whether or not an exception is thrown by the try clause. ses” on page 70
Reserved Words | 49
for Start a for comprehension (loop). “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59
forSome Used in existential type declarations to constrain the allowed “Existential Types” on page 284
concrete types that can be used.
if Start an if clause. “Scala if Statements” on page 58
implicit Marks a method as eligible to be used as an implicit type converter. “Implicit Conversions” on page 186
Marks a method parameter as optional, as long as a type-
compatible substitute object is in the scope where the method is
called.
import Import one or more types or members of types into the current “Importing Types and Their Mem-
scope. bers” on page 45
lazy Defer evaluation of a val. “Lazy Vals” on page 190
match Start a pattern matching clause. “Pattern Matching” on page 63
new Create a new instance of a class. “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
null Value of a reference variable that has not been assigned a value. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
object Start a singleton declaration: a class with only one instance. “Classes and Objects: Where Are the
Statics?” on page 148
override Override a concrete member of a class or trait, as long as the original “Overriding Members of Classes and
is not marked final. Traits” on page 111
package Start a package scope declaration. “Organizing Code in Files and Namespa-
ces” on page 44
private Restrict visibility of a declaration. “Visibility Rules” on page 96
protected Restrict visibility of a declaration. “Visibility Rules” on page 96
requires Deprecated. Was used for self typing. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
return Return from a function. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
sealed Applied to a parent class to require all directly derived “Case Classes” on page 136
classes to be declared in the same source file.
super Analogous to this, but binds to the parent type. “Overriding Abstract and Concrete
Methods” on page 112
this How an object refers to itself. The method name for auxiliary “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
constructors.
throw Throw an exception. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70
trait A mixin module that adds additional state and behavior to an Chapter 4
instance of a class.
try Start a block that may throw an exception. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70
true Boolean true. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
type Start a type declaration. “Abstract Types And Parameterized
Types” on page 47
val Start a read-only “variable” declaration. “Variable Declarations” on page 24
var Start a read-write variable declaration. “Variable Declarations” on page 24
while Start a while loop. “Other Looping Constructs”
on page 61
with Include the trait that follows in the class being declared or the object Chapter 4
being instantiated.
yield Return an element in a for comprehension that becomes part of “Yielding” on page 60
a sequence.
_ A placeholder, used in imports, function literals, etc. Many
: Separator between identifiers and type annotations. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
= Assignment. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
=> Used in function literals to separate the argument list from the “Function Literals and Clo-
function body. sures” on page 169
<- Used in for comprehensions in generator expressions. “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59
<: Used in parameterized and abstract type declarations to constrain “Type Bounds” on page 259
the allowed types.
<% Used in parameterized and abstract type “view bounds” “Type Bounds” on page 259
declarations.
>: Used in parameterized and abstract type declarations to constrain “Type Bounds” on page 259
the allowed types.
# Used in type projections. “Path-Dependent Types” on page 272
@ Marks an annotation. “Annotations” on page 289
º (Unicode \u21D2) Same as =>. “Function Literals and Clo-
sures” on page 169
← (Unicode \u2190) Same as <-. “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59
1RWLFHWKDW breakDQG continueDUHQRWOLVWHG7KHVHFRQWURONH\ZRUGVGRQ¦WH[LVWLQ

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XVXDOO\PRUHVXFFLQFWDQGOHVVHUURUSURQH:H¦OOGLVFXVVDOWHUQDWLYHDSSURDFKHVZKHQ
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EDFNTXRWHVHJjava.util.Scanner.ÂmatchÂ
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HVVHQWLDOV EHIRUH ZH GLYH LQWR 6FDOD¦V VXSSRUW IRU REMHFWRULHQWHG SURJUDPPLQJ DQG
IXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJ
CHAPTER 3
Rounding Out the Essentials
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&RQVLGHUWKLVPRVWEDVLFRIH[DPSOHV
// code-examples/Rounding/one-plus-two-script.scala
1 + 2
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53
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World!"5HFDOOWKDWWKLVV\QWD[LVDOVRWKHZD\WRLQYRNHDPHWKRGRQD-DYDRU1(7
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54 | Chapter 3:Rounding Out the Essentials
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Methods Without Parentheses and Dots

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"hello".length()DQG"hello".length
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WKDWWDNHVRQO\RQHDUJXPHQW:LWKWKLVLQPLQGRXU List(1, 2, 3).sizeH[DPSOH
FRXOGEHZULWWHQDV
// code-examples/Rounding/no-dot-script.scala
List(1, 2, 3) size
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Methods Without Parentheses and Dots | 55
// code-examples/Rounding/no-dot-better-script.scala
def isEven(n: Int) = (n % 2) == 0
List(1, 2, 3, 4) filter isEven foreach println
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scala> 2.0 * 4.0 / 3.0 * 5.0
res2: Double = 13.333333333333332
scala> (((2.0 * 4.0) / 3.0) * 5.0)

res3: Double = 13.333333333333332
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list: List[Char] = List(b, c, d)
scala> 'a' :: list

res4: List[Char] = List(a, b, c, d)
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res5: List[Char] = List(a, b, c, d, e, f)
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Domain-Specific Languages
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// code-examples/Rounding/specs-script.scala
"nerd finder" should {
Domain-Specific Languages | 57
"identify nerds from a List" in {
val actors = List("Rick Moranis", "James Dean", "Woody Allen")
val finder = new NerdFinder(actors)
finder.findNerds mustEqual List("Rick Moranis", "Woody Allen")
}
}
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Scala if Statements
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// code-examples/Rounding/if-script.scala
if (2 + 2 == 5) {
println("Hello from 1984.")
} else if (2 + 2 == 3) {
println("Hello from Remedial Math class?")
} else {
println("Hello from a non-Orwellian future.")
}
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// code-examples/Rounding/assigned-if-script.scala
val configFile = new java.io.File("~/.myapprc")
val configFilePath = if (configFile.exists()) {

configFile.getAbsolutePath()
} else {
configFile.createNewFile()
configFile.getAbsolutePath()
}
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scalaLQWHUSUHWHUZLOOWHOOXVZKDWKDSSHQV
scala> val configFile = new java.io.File("~/.myapprc")
configFile: java.io.File = ~/.myapprc
scala> val configFilePath = if (configFile.exists()) {

| configFile.getAbsolutePath()
| }
configFilePath: Unit = ()
scala>
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DW\SHWKDWZRUNVIRUDOORXWFRPHVRIWKHifH[SUHVVLRQUnitLVWKHRQO\SRVVLELOLW\VLQFH
QRYDOXHLVRQHSRVVLEOHRXWFRPH
Scala for Comprehensions

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A Dog-Simple Example
/HW¦VVWDUWZLWKDEDVLFforH[SUHVVLRQ
// code-examples/Rounding/basic-for-script.scala
val dogBreeds = List("Doberman", "Yorkshire Terrier", "Dachshund",

"Scottish Terrier", "Great Dane", "Portuguese Water Dog")
for (breed <- dogBreeds)

println(breed)
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WHPSRUDU\YDULDEOHFDOOHGbreedZLWKWKHYDOXHRIWKDWHOHPHQWWKHQSULQWLW¤7KLQNRI
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Scala for Comprehensions | 59
LVFDOOHGDJHQHUDWRUVRQDPHGEHFDXVHLW¦VJHQHUDWLQJLQGLYLGXDOYDOXHVIURPDFROOHF
WLRQIRUXVHLQDQH[SUHVVLRQ
Filtering
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XVVSHFLI\ZKLFKHOHPHQWVRIDFROOHFWLRQZHZDQWWRZRUNZLWK6RWRILQGDOOWHUULHUV
LQRXUOLVWRIGRJEUHHGVZHFRXOGPRGLI\WKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOHWRWKHIROORZLQJ
// code-examples/Rounding/filtered-for-script.scala
for (breed <- dogBreeds

if breed.contains("Terrier")
) println(breed)
7RDGGPRUHWKDQRQHILOWHUWRDforH[SUHVVLRQVHSDUDWHWKHILOWHUVZLWKVHPLFRORQV
// code-examples/Rounding/double-filtered-for-script.scala
for (breed <- dogBreeds

if breed.contains("Terrier");
if !breed.startsWith("Yorkshire")
) println(breed)
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MXVWKRZXVHIXOILOWHUVFDQEHLQWKHSURFHVV
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// code-examples/Rounding/yielding-for-script.scala
val filteredBreeds = for {

breed <- dogBreeds
if breed.contains("Terrier")
if !breed.startsWith("Yorkshire")
} yield breed
forH[SUHVVLRQVPD\EHGHILQHGZLWKSDUHQWKHVHVRUFXUO\EUDFHVEXW
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Expanded Scope
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// code-examples/Rounding/scoped-for-script.scala
for {
breed <- dogBreeds
upcasedBreed = breed.toUpperCase()
} println(upcasedBreed)
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Other Looping Constructs

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Scala while Loops

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WKHQH[W)ULGD\WKHWKKDVDUULYHG
// code-examples/Rounding/while-script.scala
// WARNING: This script runs for a LOOOONG time!
import java.util.Calendar
def isFridayThirteen(cal: Calendar): Boolean = {

val dayOfWeek = cal.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_WEEK)
val dayOfMonth = cal.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_MONTH)
// Scala returns the result of the last expression in a method

(dayOfWeek == Calendar.FRIDAY) && (dayOfMonth == 13)
}
while (!isFridayThirteen(Calendar.getInstance())) {
println("Today isn't Friday the 13th. Lame.")
Other Looping Constructs | 61
// sleep for a day
Thread.sleep(86400000)
}
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Scala do-while Loops

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UXQQLQJWKHEORFN7RFRXQWXSWRZHFRXOGZULWHWKLV
// code-examples/Rounding/do-while-script.scala
var count = 0
do {
count += 1
println(count)
} while (count < 10)
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Generator Expressions
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// code-examples/Rounding/generator-script.scala
for (i <- 1 to 10) println(i)
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untilLQVWHDGRIto)RUH[DPSOHfor (i <- 0 until 10)
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Conditional Operators
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Operator Operation Description
&& and The values on the left and right of the operator are true. The righthand side is only evaluated
if the lefthand side is true.
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lefthand side is false.
> greater than The value on the left is greater than the value on the right.
>= greater than or The value on the left is greater than or equal to the value on the right.
equals
< less than The value on the left is less than the value on the right.
<= less than or The value on the left is less than or equal to the value on the right.
equals
== equals The value on the left is the same as the value on the right.
!= not equal The value on the left is not the same as the value on the right.
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Pattern Matching
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Pattern Matching | 63
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A Simple Match
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// code-examples/Rounding/match-boolean-script.scala
val bools = List(true, false)
for (bool <- bools) {

bool match {
case true => println("heads")
case false => println("tails")
case _ => println("something other than heads or tails (yikes!)")
}
}
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Variables in Matches
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// code-examples/Rounding/match-variable-script.scala
import scala.util.Random
val randomInt = new Random().nextInt(10)
randomInt match {
case 7 => println("lucky seven!")
case otherNumber => println("boo, got boring ol' " + otherNumber)
}
Matching on Type
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LQJIHDWXUHV/HW¦VWU\PDWFKLQJEDVHGRQW\SH
// code-examples/Rounding/match-type-script.scala
val sundries = List(23, "Hello", 8.5, 'q')
for (sundry <- sundries) {

sundry match {
case i: Int => println("got an Integer: " + i)
case s: String => println("got a String: " + s)
case f: Double => println("got a Double: " + f)
case other => println("got something else: " + other)
}
}
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Matching on Sequences
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RIZKLFKLVWKHLQWHJHU3
// code-examples/Rounding/match-seq-script.scala
val willWork = List(1, 3, 23, 90)

val willNotWork = List(4, 18, 52)
val empty = List()
for (l <- List(willWork, willNotWork, empty)) {

l match {
case List(_, 3, _, _) => println("Four elements, with the 2nd being '3'.")
case List(_*) => println("Any other list with 0 or more elements.")
}
}
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// code-examples/Rounding/match-list-script.scala
val willWork = List(1, 3, 23, 90)

val willNotWork = List(4, 18, 52)
val empty = List()
def processList(l: List[Any]): Unit = l match {

case head :: tail =>
format("%s ", head)
processList(tail)
case Nil => println("")
}
for (l <- List(willWork, willNotWork, empty)) {

print("List: ")
processList(l)
}
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}
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UHFXUVLRQ
Matching on Tuples (and Guards)

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WXSOHPDWFK
// code-examples/Rounding/match-tuple-script.scala
val tupA = ("Good", "Morning!")

val tupB = ("Guten", "Tag!")
for (tup <- List(tupA, tupB)) {

tup match {
case (thingOne, thingTwo) if thingOne == "Good" =>
println("A two-tuple starting with 'Good'.")
case (thingOne, thingTwo) =>
println("This has two things: " + thingOne + " and " + thingTwo)
}
}
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UHFHLYHVVSHFLILFLWHPVWKDWDUHH[SHFWHG
Matching on Case Classes

/HW¦VWU\DGHHSPDWFKH[DPLQLQJWKHFRQWHQWVRIREMHFWVLQRXUSDWWHUQPDWFK
// code-examples/Rounding/match-deep-script.scala
case class Person(name: String, age: Int)
val alice = new Person("Alice", 25)

val bob = new Person("Bob", 32)
val charlie = new Person("Charlie", 32)
for (person <- List(alice, bob, charlie)) {

person match {
case Person("Alice", 25) => println("Hi Alice!")
case Person("Bob", 32) => println("Hi Bob!")
case Person(name, age) =>
println("Who are you, " + age + " year-old person named " + name + "?")
}
}
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Hi Alice!
Hi Bob!
Who are you, 32 year-old person named Charlie?
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// code-examples/Rounding/match-regex-script.scala
val BookExtractorRE = """Book: title=([^,]+),\s+authors=(.+)""".r

val MagazineExtractorRE = """Magazine: title=([^,]+),\s+issue=(.+)""".r
val catalog = List(

"Book: title=Programming Scala, authors=Dean Wampler, Alex Payne",
"Magazine: title=The New Yorker, issue=January 2009",
"Book: title=War and Peace, authors=Leo Tolstoy",
"Magazine: title=The Atlantic, issue=February 2009",
"BadData: text=Who put this here??"
)
for (item <- catalog) {

item match {
case BookExtractorRE(title, authors) =>
println("Book \"" + title + "\", written by " + authors)
case MagazineExtractorRE(title, issue) =>
println("Magazine \"" + title + "\", issue " + issue)
case entry => println("Unrecognized entry: " + entry)
}
}
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// code-examples/Rounding/match-deep-pair-script.scala
class Role
case object Manager extends Role
case object Developer extends Role
case class Person(name: String, age: Int, role: Role)
val alice = new Person("Alice", 25, Developer)

val bob = new Person("Bob", 32, Manager)
val charlie = new Person("Charlie", 32, Developer)
for (item <- Map(1 -> alice, 2 -> bob, 3 -> charlie)) {
item match {
case (id, p @ Person(_, _, Manager)) => format("%s is overpaid.\n", p)
case (id, p @ Person(_, _, _)) => format("%s is underpaid.\n", p)
}
}
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}
}
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// code-examples/Rounding/try-catch-script.scala
import java.util.Calendar
val then = null

val now = Calendar.getInstance()
try {
now.compareTo(then)
} catch {
case e: NullPointerException => println("One was null!"); System.exit(-1)
case unknown => println("Unknown exception " + unknown); System.exit(-1)
} finally {
println("It all worked out.")
System.exit(0)
}
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// code-examples/Rounding/enumeration-script.scala
object Breed extends Enumeration {

val doberman = Value("Doberman Pinscher")
val yorkie = Value("Yorkshire Terrier")
val scottie = Value("Scottish Terrier")
val dane = Value("Great Dane")
val portie = Value("Portuguese Water Dog")
}
// print a list of breeds and their IDs

println("ID\tBreed")
for (breed <- Breed) println(breed.id + "\t" + breed)
// print a list of Terrier breeds

println("\nJust Terriers:")
Breed.filter(_.toString.endsWith("Terrier")).foreach(println)
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ID Breed
0 Doberman Pinscher
1 Yorkshire Terrier
2 Scottish Terrier
3 Great Dane
4 Portuguese Water Dog
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Yorkshire Terrier
Scottish Terrier
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// code-examples/Rounding/days-enumeration-script.scala
object WeekDay extends Enumeration {

type WeekDay = Value
val Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat, Sun = Value
}
import WeekDay._
def isWorkingDay(d: WeekDay) = ! (d == Sat || d == Sun)
WeekDay filter isWorkingDay foreach println
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CHAPTER 4
Traits
Introducing Traits
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks.scala
package ui
class ButtonWithCallbacks(val label: String,

val clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit]) extends Widget {
require(clickedCallbacks != null, "Callback list can't be null!")
def this(label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(label, List(clickedCallback))
def this(label: String) = {
75
this(label, Nil)
println("Warning: button has no click callbacks!")
}
def click() = {
// ... logic to give the appearance of clicking a physical button ...
clickedCallbacks.foreach(f => f())
}
}
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76 | Chapter 4:Traits
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button.scala
package ui
class Button(val label: String) extends Widget {

def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...
}
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/widget.scala
package ui
abstract class Widget
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// code-examples/Traits/observer/observer.scala
package observer
trait Subject {
type Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }
private var observers = List[Observer]()

def addObserver(observer:Observer) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(this))
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/observable-button.scala
package ui
import observer._
class ObservableButton(name: String) extends Button(name) with Subject {

override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
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// ERROR:
class ObservableButton(name: String) with Button(name) with Subject {...}
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... error: ';' expected but 'with' found.
class ObservableButton(name: String) with Button(name) with Subject {...}
^
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-count-observer.scala
package ui
import observer._
class ButtonCountObserver {
var count = 0
def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) = count += 1
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-observer-spec.scala
package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._
object ButtonObserverSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton = new ObservableButton("Okay")
val buttonObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonObserver)
for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
}
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Specification "ButtonCountObserverSpec"
A Button Observer should
+ observe button clicks
Total for specification "ButtonCountObserverSpec":
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1 example, 1 expectation, 0 failure, 0 error
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-observer-anon-spec.scala
package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._
object ButtonObserverAnonSpec extends Specification {

val observableButton = new Button("Okay") with Subject {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}


}
}
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/clickable.scala
package ui2
trait Clickable {
def click()
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button.scala
package ui2
import ui.Widget
class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {

def click() = {
}
}
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Clickable
// code-examples/Traits/ui2/observable-clicks.scala
package ui2
import observer._
trait ObservableClicks extends Clickable with Subject {

abstract override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-clickable-observer-spec.scala
package ui2
Stackable Traits | 83
import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver
object ButtonClickableObserverSpec extends Specification {

val observableButton = new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)

buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/vetoable-clicks.scala
package ui2
import observer._
trait VetoableClicks extends Clickable {

val maxAllowed = 1 // default
private var count = 0

if (count < maxAllowed) {
count += 1
super.click()
}
}
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-clickable-observer-vetoable-spec.scala
package ui2
import org.specs._
import observer._
object ButtonClickableObserverVetoableSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer with Vetoable Clicks" should {
"observe only the first button click" in {
val observableButton =
new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks with VetoableClicks

}
}
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-vetoable-clickable-observer-spec.scala
package ui2
import org.specs._
import observer._
object ButtonVetoableClickableObserverSpec extends Specification {

"A Vetoable Button with Click Observer" should {
"observe all the button clicks, even when some are vetoed" in {
new Button("Okay") with VetoableClicks with ObservableClicks
Stackable Traits | 85
}
}
}
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// code-examples/Traits/trait-construction-script.scala
trait T1 {
println( " in T1: x = " + x )
val x=1
println( " in T1: x = " + x )
}
trait T2 {
println( " in T2: y = " + y )
val y="T2"
println( " in T2: y = " + y )
}
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println( " in Base12: b = " + b )
val b="Base12"
println( " in Base12: b = " + b )
}
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val c="C12"
println( " in C12: c = " + c )
}
println( "Creating C12:" )
new C12
println( "After Creating C12" )
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223
CHAPTER 5
Basic Object-Oriented Programming
in Scala
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// code-examples/BasicOOP/type-erasure-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
object Foo {
def bar(list: List[String]) = list.toString
def bar(list: List[Int]) = list.size.toString
}
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90 | Chapter 5:Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala
FDQEHXVHGLQVWHDGHJval name = "Programming Scala"LVHTXLYDOHQWWRval name =
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import java.io._

// ...
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks.scala
package ui
class ButtonWithCallbacks(val label: String,

val clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit]) extends Widget {
require(clickedCallbacks != null, "Callback list can't be null!")
def this(label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(label, List(clickedCallback))
def this(label: String) = {

this(label, Nil)
println("Warning: button has no click callbacks!")
}
def click() = {
// ... logic to give the appearance of clicking a physical button ...
clickedCallbacks.foreach(f => f())
}
}
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requireVWDWHPHQWLQXVH
// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks-spec.scala
package ui
import org.specs._
object ButtonWithCallbacksSpec extends Specification {

"A ButtonWithCallbacks" should {
// ...
"not be constructable with a null callback list" in {
val nullList:List[() => Unit] = null
val errorMessage =
"requirement failed: Callback list can't be null!"
(new ButtonWithCallbacks("button1", nullList)) must throwA(
new IllegalArgumentException(errorMessage))
}
}
}
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ZRQ¦WW\SHFKHFNZKHQ\RXFRPSLOHLW+RZHYHU\RXFDQDVVLJQ nullWRDYDOXHDV
VKRZQ ,I ZH GLGQ¦W KDYH WKH must throwA(...) FODXVH ZH ZRXOG VHH WKH IROORZLQJ
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java.lang.IllegalArgumentException: requirement failed: Callback list can't be null!
at scala.Predef$.require(Predef.scala:112)
at ui.ButtonWithCallbacks.<init>(button-callbacks.scala:7)
...
Constructors in Scala | 93
ButtonWithCallbacksGHILQHVWZRDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRUVIRUWKHXVHU¦VFRQYHQLHQFH7KH
ILUVW DX[LOLDU\ FRQVWUXFWRU DFFHSWV D ODEHO DQG D VLQJOH FDOOEDFN ,W FDOOV WKH SULPDU\
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ZLWKNilZKLFKUHSUHVHQWVDQHPSW\ListREMHFW7KHFRQVWUXFWRUWKHQSULQWVDZDUQ
LQJPHVVDJHWKDWWKHUHDUHQRFDOOEDFNVVLQFHOLVWVDUHLPPXWDEOHDQGWKHUHLVQRZD\
WRUHSODFHWKHFDOOEDFNOLVWvalZLWKDQHZRQH
7RDYRLGLQILQLWHUHFXUVLRQ6FDODUHTXLUHVHDFKDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRUWRLQYRNHDQRWKHU
FRQVWUXFWRUGHILQHGEHIRUHLWVHH>6FDOD6SHF@7KHFRQVWUXFWRULQYRNHGPD\EH
HLWKHUDQRWKHUDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRURUWKHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRUDQGLWPXVWEHWKHILUVW
VWDWHPHQWLQWKHDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRU¦VERG\$GGLWLRQDOSURFHVVLQJFDQRFFXUDIWHU
WKLVFDOOVXFKDVWKHZDUQLQJPHVVDJHSULQWHGLQRXUH[DPSOH
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VWUXFWRUORJLFFKHFNVDQGRWKHULQLWLDOL]DWLRQVGRQHLQWKHERG\ZLOOEH
SHUIRUPHGFRQVLVWHQWO\IRUDOOLQVWDQFHVFUHDWHG
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HWHUVLVGHFODUHGDVDvalRUDvar6FDODDXWRPDWLFDOO\JHQHUDWHVDILHOGWKHDSSUR
SULDWHDFFHVVRUPHWKRGVXQOHVVWKH\DUHGHFODUHG privateDQGWKHLQLWLDOL]DWLRQ
ORJLFIRUZKHQLQVWDQFHVDUHFUHDWHG
7KHUHLVDOVRDWOHDVWRQHGLVDGYDQWDJHRI6FDOD¦VFRQVWUDLQWVRQFRQVWUXFWRUV
/HVVIOH[LELOLW\
6RPHWLPHVLW¦VMXVWQRWFRQYHQLHQWWRKDYHRQHFRQVWUXFWRUERG\WKDWDOOFRQVWUXF
WRUVDUHIRUFHGWRXVH+RZHYHUZHILQGWKHVHFLUFXPVWDQFHVWREHUDUH,QVXFK
FDVHVLWPD\VLPSO\EHWKDWWKHFODVVKDVWRRPDQ\UHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDQGLWVKRXOG
EHUHIDFWRUHGLQWRVPDOOHUFODVVHV
Calling Parent Class Constructors

7KHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRULQDGHULYHGFODVVPXVWLQYRNHRQHRIWKHSDUHQWFODVVFRQ
VWUXFWRUVHLWKHUWKHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRURUDQDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRU,QWKHIROORZLQJ
H[DPSOHDFODVVGHULYHGIURPButtonWithCallbacksFDOOHGRadioButtonWithCallbacks
LQYRNHVWKHSULPDU\ ButtonWithCallbacksFRQVWUXFWRU£5DGLR¤EXWWRQVFDQEHHLWKHU
RQRURII
// code-examples/BasicOOP/ui/radio-button-callbacks.scala
package ui
/**
* Button with two states, on or off, like an old-style,
* channel-selection button on a radio.
*/
class RadioButtonWithCallbacks(
var on: Boolean, label: String, clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit])
extends ButtonWithCallbacks(label, clickedCallbacks) {
def this(on: Boolean, label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(on, label, List(clickedCallback))
def this(on: Boolean, label: String) = this(on, label, Nil)

}
7KHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRUIRU RadioButtonWithCallbacksWDNHVWKUHHSDUDPHWHUVDQ on
VWDWHtrueRUfalseDODEHODQGDOLVWRIFDOOEDFNV,WSDVVHVWKHODEHODQGOLVWRIFDOOEDFNV
WRLWVSDUHQWFODVVButtonWithCallbacks7KHonSDUDPHWHULVGHFODUHGDVDvarVRLWLV
PXWDEOHonLVDOVRWKHRQHFRQVWUXFWRUSDUDPHWHUXQLTXHWRDUDGLREXWWRQVRLWLVNHSW
DVDQDWWULEXWHRIRadioButtonWithCallbacks
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LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRUV1RWHWKDWWKH\PXVWLQYRNHDSUHFHGLQJFRQVWUXFWRULQRadioButton
WithCallbacksDVEHIRUH7KH\FDQ¦WLQYRNHDButtonWithCallbacksFRQVWUXFWRUGLUHFWO\
'HFODULQJDOOWKHVHFRQVWUXFWRUVLQHDFKFODVVFRXOGJHWWHGLRXVDIWHUDZKLOHEXWZH
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:KLOHsuperLVXVHGWRLQYRNHRYHUULGGHQPHWKRGVDVLQ-DYDLWFDQQRW
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Nested Classes
6FDODOHWV\RXQHVWFODVVGHFODUDWLRQVOLNHPDQ\REMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHV6XSSRVHZH
ZDQWDOO WidgetsWRKDYHDPDSRISURSHUWLHV7KHVHSURSHUWLHVFRXOGEHVL]HFRORU
ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKH ZLGJHW LV YLVLEOH HWF :H PLJKW XVH D VLPSOH map WR KROG WKH
SURSHUWLHVEXWOHW¦VDVVXPHWKDWZHDOVRZDQWWRFRQWURODFFHVVWRWKHSURSHUWLHVDQG
WRSHUIRUPRWKHURSHUDWLRQVZKHQWKH\FKDQJH
+HUHLVRQHZD\ZHPLJKWH[SDQGRXURULJLQDO WidgetH[DPSOHIURP£7UDLWV$V0L[
LQV¤RQSDJHWRDGGWKLVIHDWXUH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/ui/widget.scala
package ui
Nested Classes | 95
abstract class Widget {
class Properties {
import scala.collection.immutable.HashMap
private var values: Map[String, Any] = new HashMap
def size = values.size
def get(key: String) = values.get(key)
def update(key: String, value: Any) = {

// Do some preprocessing, e.g., filtering.
values = values.update(key, value)
// Do some postprocessing.
}
}
val properties = new Properties

}
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HashMap:HDOVRDGGHGWKUHHSXEOLFPHWKRGVWKDWUHWULHYHWKHVL]HLHWKHQXPEHURI
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EDVLFVRILQKHULWDQFH,QWKHQH[WVHFWLRQZH¦OOGLVFXVVYLVLELOLW\UXOHVZLWKLQFODVVHVDQG
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Visibility Rules
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VKRXOGVHHDQGXVH.HHSLQPLQGWKDWWKHVHWRISXEOLFO\YLVLEOHPHPEHUVIRUPWKH
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DQGPRUHIOH[LEOH)RUH[DPSOHLQ-DYDLIDQLQQHUFODVVKDVD privatePHPEHUWKH
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protectedDSSHDUDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIGHFODUDWLRQV<RX¦OOILQGWKHPEHIRUHWKH class
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EHIRUH WKH DUJXPHQW OLVW DV LQ WKLV H[DPSOH class Restricted[+A]
private (name: String) {...}
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Name Keyword Description
public none Public members and types are visible everywhere, across all boundaries.
protected protected Protected members are visible to the defining type, to derived types, and to
nested types. Protected types are visible only within the same package and
subpackages.
Visibility Rules | 97
Name Keyword Description
private private Private members are visible only within the defining type and nested types.
Private types are visible only within the same package.
scoped protected protected[scope] Visibility is limited to scope, which can be a package, type, or this (meaning
the same instance, when applied to members, or the enclosing package, when
applied to types). See the text below for details.
scoped private private[scope] Synonymous with scoped protected visibility, except under inheritance (dis-
cussed below).
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8QIRUWXQDWHO\\RXFDQ¦WDSSO\DQ\RIWKHYLVLELOLW\PRGLILHUVWRSDFN
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SXEOLFO\YLVLEOHW\SHV
Public Visibility
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ZKHUH7KHUHLVQRpublicNH\ZRUGLQ6FDOD7KLVLVLQFRQWUDVWWR-DYDZKLFKGHIDXOWV
WRSXEOLFYLVLELOLW\RQO\ZLWKLQWKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJHLH£SDFNDJHSULYDWH¤2WKHU
REMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHVOLNH5XE\DOVRGHIDXOWWRSXEOLFYLVLELOLW\
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/public.scala
package scopeA {
class PublicClass1 {
val publicField = 1
class Nested {
val nestedField = 1
}
val nested = new Nested

}
class PublicClass2 extends PublicClass1 {

val field2 = publicField + 1
val nField2 = new Nested().nestedField
}
}
package scopeB {
class PublicClass1B extends scopeA.PublicClass1
class UsingClass(val publicClass: scopeA.PublicClass1) {

def method = "UsingClass:" +
" field: " + publicClass.publicField +
" nested field: " + publicClass.nested.nestedField
}
}
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DFFHVVscopeA.PublicClass1DQGLWVPHPEHUVLQFOXGLQJWKHLQVWDQFHRINestedDQGLWV
SXEOLFILHOG
Protected Visibility
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WKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJH
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// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/protected-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
class ProtectedClass1(protected val protectedField1: Int) {
protected val protectedField2 = 1
def equalFields(other: ProtectedClass1) =

(protectedField1 == other.protectedField1) &&
(protectedField1 == other.protectedField1) &&
(nested == other.nested)
class Nested {
protected val nestedField = 1
}
protected val nested = new Nested

}
class ProtectedClass2 extends ProtectedClass1(1) {

val field1 = protectedField1
val field2 = protectedField2
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}
class ProtectedClass3 {
val protectedClass1 = new ProtectedClass1(1)
val protectedField1 = protectedClass1.protectedField1 // ERROR
val protectedField2 = protectedClass1.protectedField2 // ERROR
val protectedNField = protectedClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}
protected class ProtectedClass4
class ProtectedClass5 extends ProtectedClass4

protected class ProtectedClass6 extends ProtectedClass4
}
package scopeB {
class ProtectedClass4B extends scopeA.ProtectedClass4 // ERROR
}
:KHQ\RXFRPSLOHWKLVILOHZLWKscalac\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW7KHILOHQDPHV
EHIRUHWKHN:OLQHQXPEHUVKDYHEHHQUHPRYHGIURPWKHRXWSXWWREHWWHUILWWKHVSDFH
16: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in ProtectedClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
20: error: value protectedField1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedField1 = protectedClass1.protectedField1
^
21: error: value protectedField2 cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedField2 = protectedClass1.protectedField2
^
22: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedNField = protectedClass1.nested.nestedField
^
32: error: class ProtectedClass4 cannot be accessed in package scopeA
class ProtectedClass4B extends scopeA.ProtectedClass4
^
5 errors found
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ProtectedClass2 FDQ DFFHVV SURWHFWHG PHPEHUV RI ProtectedClass1 VLQFH LW GHULYHV
IURP LW +RZHYHU LW FDQ¦W DFFHVV WKH SURWHFWHG nestedField LQ protectedClass1.nes
ted $OVR ProtectedClass3 FDQ¦W DFFHVV SURWHFWHG PHPEHUV RI WKH ProtectedClass1
LQVWDQFHLWXVHV
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SDFNDJH
Private Visibility
3ULYDWHYLVLELOLW\FRPSOHWHO\KLGHVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHWDLOVHYHQIURPWKHLPSOHPHQWHUV
RIGHULYHGFODVVHV$Q\PHPEHUGHFODUHGZLWKWKH privateNH\ZRUGLVYLVLEOHRQO\WR
WKHGHILQLQJW\SHLQFOXGLQJRWKHULQVWDQFHVRIWKHVDPHW\SH:KHQDSSOLHGWRDW\SH
privateOLPLWVYLVLELOLW\WRWKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private val privateField1: Int) {
private val privateField2 = 1
def equalFields(other: PrivateClass1) =
(privateField1 == other.privateField1) &&
class Nested {
private val nestedField = 1
}
private val nested = new Nested

}
class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1(1) {

val field1 = privateField1 // ERROR
}
class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1(1)
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1 // ERROR
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}
private class PrivateClass4
class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass4 // ERROR

protected class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass4 // ERROR
private class PrivateClass7 extends PrivateClass4
}
package scopeB {
class PrivateClass4B extends scopeA.PrivateClass4 // ERROR
}
&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
14: error: not found: value privateField1
val field1 = privateField1
^
^
16: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass2.this.Nested
^
20: error: value privateField1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1
^
^
22: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^
27: error: private class PrivateClass4 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass4
class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass4
^
protected class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass4
^
33: error: class PrivateClass4 cannot be accessed in package scopeA
class PrivateClass4B extends scopeA.PrivateClass4
^
9 errors found
1RZ PrivateClass2FDQ¦WDFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRILWVSDUHQWFODVV PrivateClass1

7KH\DUHFRPSOHWHO\LQYLVLEOHWRWKHVXEFODVVDVLQGLFDWHGE\WKHHUURUPHVVDJHV1RU
FDQLWDFFHVVDSULYDWHILHOGLQDNestedFODVV
-XVWDVIRUWKHFDVHRIprotectedDFFHVVPrivateClass3FDQ¦WDFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRI
WKHPrivateClass1LQVWDQFHLWLVXVLQJ1RWHKRZHYHUWKDWWKHequalFieldsPHWKRGFDQ
DFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRIWKHotherLQVWDQFH
7KH GHFODUDWLRQV RI PrivateClass5 DQG PrivateClass6 IDLO EHFDXVH LI DOORZHG WKH\
ZRXOGHQDEOHPrivateClass4WR£HVFDSHLWVGHILQLQJVFRSH¤+RZHYHUWKHGHFODUDWLRQ
RIPrivateClass7VXFFHHGVEHFDXVHLWLVDOVRGHFODUHGWREHSULYDWH&XULRXVO\RXUSUH
YLRXVH[DPSOHZDVDEOHWRGHFODUHDSXEOLFFODVVWKDWVXEFODVVHGDSURWHFWHGFODVVZLWK
RXWDVLPLODUHUURU
)LQDOO\MXVWDVIRU protectedW\SHGHFODUDWLRQVWKH privateW\SHVFDQ¦WEHVXEFODVVHG
RXWVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJH
Scoped Private and Protected Visibility

6FDOD DOORZV \RX WR ILQHWXQH WKH VFRSH RI YLVLELOLW\ ZLWK WKH VFRSHG private DQG
protectedYLVLELOLW\GHFODUDWLRQV1RWHWKDWXVLQJprivateRUprotectedLQDVFRSHGGHF
ODUDWLRQLVLQWHUFKDQJHDEOHDVWKH\EHKDYHLGHQWLFDOO\H[FHSWXQGHULQKHULWDQFHZKHQ
DSSOLHGWRPHPEHUV
:KLOHHLWKHUFKRLFHEHKDYHVWKHVDPHLQPRVWVFHQDULRVLWLVPRUHFRP
PRQWRVHH private[X]UDWKHUWKDQ protected[X]XVHGLQFRGH,QWKH
FRUHOLEUDULHVLQFOXGHGZLWK6FDODWKHUDWLRLVURXJKO\ILYHWRRQH
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VFRSHG SURWHFWHG¢KRZ WKH\ EHKDYH XQGHU LQKHULWDQFH ZKHQ PHPEHUV KDYH WKHVH
VFRSHV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/scope-inheritance-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
class Class1 {
private[scopeA] val scopeA_privateField = 1
protected[scopeA] val scopeA_protectedField = 2
private[Class1] val class1_privateField = 3
protected[Class1] val class1_protectedField = 4
private[this] val this_privateField = 5
protected[this] val this_protectedField = 6
}
class Class2 extends Class1 {

val field1 = scopeA_privateField
val field2 = scopeA_protectedField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
val field4 = class1_protectedField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
val field6 = this_protectedField
}
}
package scopeB {
class Class2B extends scopeA.Class1 {
val field1 = scopeA_privateField // ERROR
val field2 = scopeA_protectedField
val field4 = class1_protectedField
val field6 = this_protectedField
}
}
17: error: not found: value class1_privateField
^
19: error: not found: value this_privateField
^
26: error: not found: value scopeA_privateField
val field1 = scopeA_privateField // ERROR
^
28: error: not found: value class1_privateField
^
30: error: not found: value this_privateField
^
5 errors found
7KHILUVWWZRHUURUVLQVLGHClass2VKRZXVWKDWDGHULYHGFODVVLQVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJH
FDQ¦WUHIHUHQFHDPHPEHUWKDWLVVFRSHGSULYDWHWRWKHSDUHQWFODVVRU thisEXWLWFDQ
UHIHUHQFHDSULYDWHPHPEHUVFRSHGWRWKHSDFNDJHRUW\SHWKDWHQFORVHVERWKClass1
DQGClass2
,QFRQWUDVWIRUDGHULYHGFODVVRXWVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJHLWKDVQRDFFHVVWRDQ\RIWKH
VFRSHGSULYDWHPHPEHUVRIClass1
+RZHYHUDOOWKHVFRSHGSURWHFWHGPHPEHUVDUHYLVLEOHLQERWKGHULYHGFODVVHV
:H¦OOXVHVFRSHGSULYDWHGHFODUDWLRQVIRUWKHUHVWRIRXUH[DPSOHVDQGGLVFXVVLRQVLQFH
XVHRIVFRSHGSULYDWHLVDOLWWOHPRUHFRPPRQLQWKH6FDODOLEUDU\WKDQVFRSHGSURWHFWHG
ZKHQWKHSUHYLRXVLQKHULWDQFHVFHQDULRVDUHQ¦WDIDFWRU
)LUVW OHW¦V VWDUW ZLWK WKH PRVW UHVWULFWLYH YLVLELOLW\ private[this] DV LW DIIHFWV W\SH
PHPEHUV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-this-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private[this] val privateField1: Int) {
private[this] val privateField2 = 1

(privateField1 == other.privateField1) && // ERROR
class Nested {
private[this] val nestedField = 1
}
private[this] val nested = new Nested

}

}
}
}
5: error: value privateField1 is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
^
^
^
16: error: value nestedField is not a member of PrivateClass2.this.Nested
^
^
^
22: error: value nested is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
^
7 errors found
/LQHV¡DOVRZRQ¦WSDUVH6LQFHWKH\DUHSDUWRIWKHH[SUHVVLRQWKDW
VWDUWHGRQOLQHWKHFRPSLOHUVWRSSHGDIWHUWKHILUVWHUURU
7KHprivate[this]PHPEHUVDUHRQO\YLVLEOHWRWKHVDPHLQVWDQFH$QLQVWDQFHRIWKH
VDPHFODVVFDQ¦WVHH private[this]PHPEHUVRIDQRWKHULQVWDQFHVRWKH equalFields
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VSHFLILHU
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SDFNDJHDVVKRZQKHUH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-this-pkg-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
private[this] class PrivateClass1
package scopeA2 {
private[this] class PrivateClass2
}
class PrivateClass3 extends PrivateClass1 // ERROR

protected class PrivateClass4 extends PrivateClass1 // ERROR
private[this] class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass1
private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2 // ERROR

}
package scopeB {
}
^
^
13: error: type PrivateClass2 is not a member of package scopeA.scopeA2
private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2
^
17: error: type PrivateClass1 is not a member of package scopeA
^
four errors found
,QWKHVDPHSDFNDJHDWWHPSWLQJWRGHFODUHDpublicRUprotectedVXEFODVVIDLOV2QO\
privateDQG private[this]VXEFODVVHVDUHDOORZHG$OVR PrivateClass2LVVFRSHGWR
scopeA2VR\RXFDQ¦WGHFODUHLWRXWVLGHscopeA26LPLODUO\DQDWWHPSWWRGHFODUHDFODVV
LQXQUHODWHGscopeBXVLQJPrivateClass1DOVRIDLOV
+HQFHZKHQDSSOLHGWRW\SHV private[this]LVHTXLYDOHQWWR-DYD¦V package private
YLVLELOLW\
1H[WOHW¦VH[DPLQHW\SHOHYHOYLVLELOLW\private[T]ZKHUHTLVDW\SH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-type-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private[PrivateClass1] val privateField1: Int) {
private[PrivateClass1] val privateField2 = 1

class Nested {
private[Nested] val nestedField = 1
}
private[PrivateClass1] val nested = new Nested

val nestedNested = nested.nestedField // ERROR
}

}
}
}
val nestedNested = nested.nestedField
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
7 errors found
$ private[PrivateClass1] PHPEHU LV YLVLEOH WR RWKHU LQVWDQFHV VR WKH equalFields
PHWKRG QRZ SDUVHV +HQFH private[T] LV QRW DV UHVWULFWLYH DV private[this] 1RWH
WKDW PrivateClass1 FDQ¦W VHH Nested.nestedField EHFDXVH WKDW ILHOG LV GHFODUHG
private[Nested]
:KHQPHPEHUVRITDUHGHFODUHGprivate[T]WKHEHKDYLRULVHTXLYDOHQW
WR private ,W LV QRW HTXLYDOHQW WR private[this] ZKLFK LV PRUH
UHVWULFWLYH
:KDWLIZHFKDQJHWKHVFRSHRINested.nestedFieldWREHprivate[PrivateClass1]"/HW¦V
VHHKRZprivate[T]DIIHFWVQHVWHGW\SHV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-type-nested-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
class Nested {
private[PrivateClass1] val nestedField = 1
}
private[PrivateClass1] val nested = new Nested

val nestedNested = nested.nestedField
}
class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1 {

}
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1
}
}
def nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
^
two errors found
1RZnestedFieldLVYLVLEOHWRPrivateClass1EXWLWLVVWLOOLQYLVLEOHRXWVLGHRIPrivate
Class17KLVLVKRZprivateZRUNVLQ-DYD
/HW¦VH[DPLQHVFRSLQJXVLQJDSDFNDJHQDPH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-pkg-type-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
private[scopeA] class PrivateClass1
package scopeA2 {
private [scopeA2] class PrivateClass2
private [scopeA] class PrivateClass3
}

private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends PrivateClass1
private[this] class PrivateClass8 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2 // ERROR

}
package scopeB {
}
14: error: class PrivateClass2 cannot be accessed in package scopeA.scopeA2
^
19: error: class PrivateClass1 cannot be accessed in package scopeA
^
two errors found
1RWHWKDWPrivateClass2FDQ¦WEHVXEFODVVHGRXWVLGHRIscopeA2EXWPrivateClass3FDQ
EHVXEFODVVHGLQscopeAEHFDXVHLWLVGHFODUHGprivate[scopeA]
)LQDOO\OHW¦VORRNDWWKHHIIHFWRISDFNDJHOHYHOVFRSLQJRIW\SHPHPEHUV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-pkg-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package scopeA {
private[scopeA] val privateField = 1
class Nested {
private[scopeA] val nestedField = 1
}
private[scopeA] val nested = new Nested

}
class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1 {

val field = privateField
}
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1
val privateField = privateClass1.privateField
}
package scopeA2 {
private[scopeA2] val field1 = 1
private[scopeA] val field2 = 2
}
}
val privateClass4 = new scopeA2.PrivateClass4
val field1 = privateClass4.field1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateClass4.field2
}
}
package scopeB {
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1 {
val field1 = privateField // ERROR
val privateClass1 = new scopeA.PrivateClass1
val field2 = privateClass1.privateField // ERROR
}
}
28: error: value field1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.scopeA2.PrivateClass4
val field1 = privateClass4.field1
^
35: error: not found: value privateField
val field1 = privateField
^
37: error: value privateField cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val field2 = privateClass1.privateField
^
three errors found
7KHRQO\HUURUVDUHZKHQZHDWWHPSWWRDFFHVVPHPEHUVVFRSHGWR scopeAIURPWKH
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CHAPTER 6
Advanced Object-Oriented
Programming In Scala
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Overriding Members of Classes and Traits

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Attempting to Override final Declarations

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LVSURKLELWHG,QWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHWKHfixedMethodLVGHFODUHGfinalLQWKHSDUHQW
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/final-member-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE.
class NotFixed {
final def fixedMethod = "fixed"
}
class Changeable2 extends NotFixed {

override def fixedMethod = "not fixed" // ERROR
}
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FODVVFixedLVGHFODUHGfinalVRDQDWWHPSWWRGHULYHDQHZW\SHIURPLWZLOODOVRIDLOWR
FRPSLOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/final-class-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE.
final class Fixed {

def doSomething = "Fixed did something!"
}
class Changeable1 extends Fixed // ERROR
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Overriding Abstract and Concrete Methods

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112 | Chapter 6:Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/widget.scala
package ui3

def draw(): Unit
override def toString() = "(widget)"
}
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overrideNH\ZRUGLVUHTXLUHGIRUWidget.toString
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/button.scala
package ui3
def click() = {
}
def draw() = {
// Logic to draw the button on the display, web page, etc.
}

"(button: label=" + label + ", " + super.toString() + ")"
}
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Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 113
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Overriding Abstract and Concrete Fields in Traits

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-val-script.scala
// DANGER! Silent failure to override a trait's "name" (V2.7.5 only).
// Works as expected in V2.8.0.
trait T1 {
val name = "T1"
}
class Base
class ClassWithT1 extends Base with T1 {

override val name = "ClassWithT1"
}
val c = new ClassWithT1()

println(c.name)
class ClassExtendsT1 extends T1 {

override val name = "ClassExtendsT1"
}
val c2 = new ClassExtendsT1()

println(c2.name)
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-abs-val-script.scala
trait AbstractT1 {
val name: String
}
class Base
class ClassWithAbstractT1 extends Base with AbstractT1 {

val name = "ClassWithAbstractT1"
}
val c = new ClassWithAbstractT1()

println(c.name)
class ClassExtendsAbstractT1 extends AbstractT1 {

val name = "ClassExtendsAbstractT1"
}
val c2 = new ClassExtendsAbstractT1()

println(c2.name)
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ClassWithAbstractT1
ClassExtendsAbstractT1
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-invalid-init-val-script.scala
// ERROR: "value" read before initialized.
trait AbstractT2 {
println("In AbstractT2:")
val value: Int
val inverse = 1.0/value // ???
println("AbstractT2: value = "+value+", inverse = "+inverse)
}
val c2b = new AbstractT2 {

println("In c2b:")
val value = 10
}
println("c2b.value = "+c2b.value+", inverse = "+c2b.inverse)
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In AbstractT2:
AbstractT2: value = 0, inverse = Infinity
In c2b:
c2b.value = 10, inverse = Infinity
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10OLQH
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-pre-init-val-script.scala
trait AbstractT2 {
val value: Int
val inverse = 1.0/value
println("AbstractT2: value = "+value+", inverse = "+inverse)
}
val c2c = new {

// Only initializations are allowed in pre-init. blocks.
// println("In c2c:")
val value = 10
} with AbstractT2
println("c2c.value = "+c2c.value+", inverse = "+c2c.inverse)
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In AbstractT2:
AbstractT2: value = 10, inverse = 0.1
c2c.value = 10, inverse = 0.1
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5HWXUQLQJWRRXU VetoableClicksH[DPSOHKHUHLVWKHPRGLILHG VetoableClicksWUDLW
WKDWXVHVDSXEOLFvarIRUmaxAllowed
// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/vetoable-clicks.scala
package ui3
import observer._

var maxAllowed = 1 // default
count += 1
if (count <= maxAllowed)
super.click()
}
}
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FKDQJLQJWKHYDOXHRImaxAllowed
// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/button-clickable-observer-vetoable2-spec.scala
package ui3
import org.specs._
import observer._
object ButtonClickableObserverVetoableSpec2 extends Specification {

"A Button Observer with Vetoable Clicks" should {
"observe only the first 'maxAllowed' clicks" in {
new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks with VetoableClicks {
maxAllowed = 2
}
observableButton.maxAllowed mustEqual 2
}
}
}
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/class-field-script.scala
class C1 {
val name = "C1"
var count = 0
}
class ClassWithC1 extends C1 {

override val name = "ClassWithC1"
count = 1
}
val c = new ClassWithC1()

println(c.name)
println(c.count)
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/class-abs-field-script.scala
abstract class AbstractC1 {

val name: String
var count: Int
}
class ClassWithAbstractC1 extends AbstractC1 {

val name = "ClassWithAbstractC1"
var count = 1
}
val c = new ClassWithAbstractC1()

println(c.name)
println(c.count)
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import java.io._

type In
val source: In
def read: String
}

type In = String
def read = source
}

type In = File
def read = {
new String(bytes)
}
}

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/observer/observer2.scala
package observer
trait AbstractSubject {
type Observer

def notifyObservers = observers foreach (notify(_))
def notify(observer: Observer): Unit

}
trait SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers extends AbstractSubject {

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer.receiveUpdate(this)

}
trait SubjectForFunctionalObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = (AbstractSubject) => Unit
def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer(this)

}
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/observer/button-observer2-spec.scala
package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._
object ButtonObserver2Spec extends Specification {

"An Observer watching a SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers button" should {
new Button(name) with SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
}
}
"An Observer watching a SubjectForFunctionalObservers button" should {
new Button(name) with SubjectForFunctionalObservers {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
var count = 0
observableButton.addObserver((button) => count += 1)
count mustEqual 3
}
}
}
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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-count-observer-script.scala
val bco = new ui.ButtonCountObserver

val oldCount = bco.count
bco.count = 5
val newCount = bco.count
println(newCount + " == 5 and " + oldCount + " == 0?")
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var count = 0 // public field access (original definition)
// ...
}
private var cnt = 0 // private field
def count = cnt // reader method
def count_=(newCount: Int) = cnt = newCount // writer method
// ...
}
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obj.field_=(newValue)
// or
obj.field = newValue
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/member-namespace-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
class IllegalMemberNameUse {
def member(i: Int) = 2 * i
val member = 2 // ERROR
object member { // ERROR
def apply() = 2
}
}
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/method-field-class-script.scala
class Parent {
def name = "Parent"
}
class Child extends Parent {
override val name = "Child"
}
println(new Child().name) // => "Child"
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/abs-method-field-class-script.scala
abstract class AbstractParent {

def name: String
}
class ConcreteChild extends AbstractParent {

val name = "Child"
}
println(new ConcreteChild().name) // => "Child"
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/method-field-trait-script.scala
trait NameTrait {
def name = "NameTrait"
}
class ConcreteNameClass extends NameTrait {

override val name = "ConcreteNameClass"
}
println(new ConcreteNameClass().name) // => "ConcreteNameClass"
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/abs-method-field-trait-script.scala
trait AbstractNameTrait {
def name: String
}
class ConcreteNameClass extends AbstractNameTrait {

val name = "ConcreteNameClass"
}
println(new ConcreteNameClass().name) // => "ConcreteNameClass"
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type Pair[+A, +B] = Tuple2[A, B]
object Pair {
def apply[A, B](x: A, y: B) = Tuple2(x, y)
def unapply[A, B](x: Tuple2[A, B]): Option[Tuple2[A, B]] = Some(x)
}
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val p = Pair(1, "one")
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GHILQLQJVHYHUDORYHUORDGHGapplyPHWKRGVRQWKHFRPSDQLRQREMHFWWR
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UHWXUQDQLQVWDQFHRIDVXEFODVVRIWKHFRPSDQLRQFODVV+HUHLVDQH[DPSOHZKHUHZH
GHILQHDFRPSDQLRQREMHFW WidgetWKDWXVHVUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVWRSDUVHDVWULQJUHS
UHVHQWLQJDWidgetVXEFODVV:KHQDPDWFKRFFXUVWKHVXEFODVVLVLQVWDQWLDWHGDQGWKH
QHZLQVWDQFHLVUHWXUQHG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/widget.scala
package objects

def draw(): Unit
override def toString() = "(widget)"
}
object Widget {
val ButtonExtractorRE = """$button: label=([^,]+),\s+\(Widget$\)""".r
val TextFieldExtractorRE = """$textfield: text=([^,]+),\s+\(Widget$\)""".r
def apply(specification: String): Option[Widget] = specification match {
Companion Objects | 127
case ButtonExtractorRE(label) => new Some(new Button(label))
case TextFieldExtractorRE(text) => new Some(new TextField(text))
case _ => None
}
}
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case ButtonExtractorRE(label) => new Some(new Button(label))
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+HUHLVDspecsobjectWKDWH[HUFLVHVWidget.apply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/widget-apply-spec.scala
package objects
import org.specs._
object WidgetApplySpec extends Specification {

"Widget.apply with a valid widget specification string" should {
"return a widget instance with the correct fields set" in {
Widget("(button: label=click me, (Widget))") match {
case Some(w) => w match {
case b:Button => b.label mustEqual "click me"
case x => fail(x.toString())
}
case None => fail("None returned.")
}
Widget("(textfield: text=This is text, (Widget))") match {
case Some(w) => w match {
case tf:TextField => tf.text mustEqual "This is text"
case x => fail(x.toString())
}
case None => fail("None returned.")
}
}
}
"Widget.apply with an invalid specification string" should {
"return None" in {
Widget("(button: , (Widget)") mustEqual None
}
}
}
7KHILUVWPDWFKVWDWHPHQWLPSOLFLWO\LQYRNHV Widget.applyZLWKWKHVWULQJ "(button:

label=click me, (Widget))",IDEXWWRQZUDSSHGLQD SomeLVQRWUHWXUQHGZLWKWKH
ODEHO"click me"WKLVWHVWZLOOIDLO1H[WDVLPLODUWHVWIRUDTextFieldZLGJHWLVGRQH
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RQHDFKGHULYHGFODVVRIWidgetLQWidgetLWVHOIZKLFKEUHDNVWKH2SHQ&ORVHG3ULQFL
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GHVLJQSDWWHUQIURP>*2)@1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHH[DPSOHLOOXVWUDWHVKRZDQ apply
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DQ\UHVWULFWLRQRQWKHDUJXPHQWOLVWRUZKDW applyUHWXUQV+RZHYHUEHFDXVHLWLVVR
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SXUSRVHVDVLWFRXOGFRQIXVHXVHUV+RZHYHUWKHUHDUHJRRGFRXQWHUH[DPSOHVVXFK
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7KHIDFWRU\FRQYHQWLRQLVOHVVFRPPRQO\XVHGIRUapplyGHILQHGLQFODVVHV)RUH[DPSOH
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val a = Array(1,2,3,4)
println(a(2)) // => 3
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unapplyPHWKRGVDUHFDOOHGH[WUDFWRUV
+HUHLVDQH[SDQGHGbutton.scalaZLWKDButtonobjectWKDWGHILQHVDQunapplyH[WUDFWRU
PHWKRG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/button.scala
package objects
import ui3.Clickable
def click() = {
}
def draw() = {
// Logic to draw the button on the display, web page, etc.
}
override def toString() = "(button: label="+label+", "+super.toString()+")"

}
object Button {
def unapply(button: Button) = Some(button.label)
}
Button.unapplyWDNHVDVLQJOHButtonDUJXPHQWDQGUHWXUQVDSomeZUDSSLQJWKH label
YDOXH7KLVGHPRQVWUDWHVWKHSURWRFROIRUunapplyPHWKRGV7KH\UHWXUQDSomeZUDS
SLQJWKHH[WUDFWHGILHOGV:H¦OOVHHKRZWRKDQGOHPRUHWKDQRQHILHOGLQDPRPHQW
+HUHLVDspecsobjectWKDWH[HUFLVHVButton.unapply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/button-unapply-spec.scala
package objects
import org.specs._
object ButtonUnapplySpec extends Specification {

"Button.unapply" should {
"match a Button object" in {
val b = new Button("click me")
b match {
case Button(label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"match a RadioButton object" in {
val b = new RadioButton(false, "click me")
b match {
case Button(label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"not match a non-Button object" in {
val tf = new TextField("hello world!")
tf match {
case Button(label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"extract the Button's label" in {
b match {
case Button(label) => label mustEqual "click me"
case _ => fail()
}
}
"extract the RadioButton's label" in {
val rb = new RadioButton(false, "click me, too")
rb match {
case Button(label) => label mustEqual "click me, too"
case _ => fail()
}
}
}
}
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DFWXDOButtonLQVWDQFHVRULQVWDQFHVRIGHULYHGFODVVHVOLNHRadioButton
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DTupleLVUHWXUQHGDVVKRZQLQWKLVXSGDWHGYHUVLRQRIRadioButton
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/radio-button.scala
package objects
/**
* Button with two states, on or off, like an old-style,
* channel-selection botton on a radio.
*/
class RadioButton(val on: Boolean, label: String) extends Button(label)
object RadioButton {
def unapply(button: RadioButton) = Some((button.on, button.label))
// equivalent to: = Some(Pair(button.on, button.label))
}
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FRUUHVSRQGLQJspecsobjectWKDWWHVWVLW
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/radio-button-unapply-spec.scala
package objects
import org.specs._
object RadioButtonUnapplySpec extends Specification {

"RadioButton.unapply" should {
"should match a RadioButton object" in {
val b = new RadioButton(true, "click me")
b match {
case RadioButton(on, label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"not match a Button (parent class) object" in {
b match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"not match a non-RadioButton object" in {
val tf = new TextField("hello world!")
tf match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"extract the RadioButton's on/off state and label" in {
val b = new RadioButton(true, "click me")
b match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => {
label mustEqual "click me"
on mustEqual true
}
case _ => fail()
}
}
}
}
Apply and UnapplySeq for Collections

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def apply[A](xs: A*): List[A] = xs.toList
def unapplySeq[A](x: List[A]): Some[List[A]] = Some(x)
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/list-apply-example-script.scala
val list1 = List()

val list2 = List(1, 2.2, "three", 'four)
val list3 = List("1", "2.2", "three", "four")
println("1: "+list1)
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1: List()
2: List(1, 2.2, three, 'four)
3: List(1, 2.2, three, four)
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/list-unapply-example-script.scala
val list = List(1, 2.2, "three", 'four)

list match {
case List(x, y, _*) => println("x = "+x+", y = "+y)
case _ => throw new Exception("No match! "+list)
}
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Companion Objects and Java Static Methods

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mainPHWKRGWRXVHDVWKHHQWU\SRLQWIRUDQDSSOLFDWLRQ6FDODUHTXLUHV\RXWRSXWLWLQ
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VHH>6FDOD7LSV@&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHRIDVLPSOH PersonFODVVDQGFRP
SDQLRQREMHFWWKDWDWWHPSWVWRGHILQHmain
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/person.scala
package objects
class Person(val name: String, val age: Int) {

override def toString = "name: " + name + ", age: " + age
}
object Person {
def apply(name: String, age: Int) = new Person(name, age)
def unapply(person: Person) = Some((person.name, person.age))

// Test the constructor...
val person = new Person("Buck Trends", 18)
assert(person.name == "Buck Trends")
assert(person.age == 21)
}
}
object PersonTest {
def main(args: Array[String]) = Person.main(args)
}
7KLVFRGHFRPSLOHVILQHEXWLI\RXDWWHPSWWRLQYRNHPerson.mainXVLQJscala -cp ...

objects.Person\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
java.lang.NoSuchMethodException: objects.Person.main([Ljava.lang.String;)
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-cp ... objects.Person$DOVRIDLOVWRILQGWKH£VWDWLF¤main
java.lang.NoSuchMethodException: objects.Person$.main is not static
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est.mainPHWKRGLVLQYRNHGZKLFKLQWXUQLQYRNHVPerson.main<RXJHWDQDVVHUWLRQ
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java.lang.AssertionError: assertion failed
at scala.Predef$.assert(Predef.scala:87)
at objects.Person$.test(person.scala:15)
at objects.PersonTest$.main(person.scala:20)
at objects.PersonTest.main(person.scala)
...
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WRSXWWKHVHPHWKRGVLQVLQJOHWRQREMHFWVLQVWHDG&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJ-DYDFODVV
WKDWDWWHPSWVWRFUHDWHDXVHUZLWKPerson.apply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java
// WON'T COMPILE
package objects;
public class PersonUserWontCompile {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100); // ERROR
System.out.println(buck);
}
}
,IZHFRPSLOHLWDIWHUFRPSLOLQJPerson.scalaZHJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU

$ javac -classpath ... objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java
objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java:5: cannot find symbol
symbol : method apply(java.lang.String,int)
location: class objects.Person
Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100);
^
1 error
+RZHYHUZHFDQXVHWKHIROORZLQJVLQJOHWRQREMHFW
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/person-factory.scala
package objects
object PersonFactory {
def make(name: String, age: Int) = new Person(name, age)
}
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/PersonUser.java
package objects;
public class PersonUser {

// The following line won't compile.
// Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100);
Person buck = PersonFactory.make("Buck Trends", 100);
System.out.println(buck);
}
}
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Case Classes
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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes.scala
package shapes {
class Point(val x: Double, val y: Double) {
}

def draw(): Unit
}
class Circle(val center: Point, val radius: Double) extends Shape {

override def toString() = "Circle(" + center + "," + radius + ")"
}
class Rectangle(val lowerLeft: Point, val height: Double, val width: Double)
extends Shape {
"Rectangle(" + lowerLeft + "," + height + "," + width + ")"
}
class Triangle(val point1: Point, val point2: Point, val point3: Point)
extends Shape() {
"Triangle(" + point1 + "," + point2 + "," + point3 + ")"
}
}
+HUHLVWKHH[DPSOHUHZULWWHQXVLQJWKHcaseNH\ZRUG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case.scala
package shapes {
case class Point(x: Double, y: Double)

def draw(): Unit
}
case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape() {

}
case class Rectangle(lowerLeft: Point, height: Double, width: Double)

extends Shape() {
}
case class Triangle(point1: Point, point2: Point, point3: Point)

extends Shape() {
}
}
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example1-script.scala
import shapes._
val shapesList = List(

Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 1.0),
Circle(Point(5.0, 2.0), 3.0),
Rectangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2, 5),
Rectangle(Point(-2.0, -1.0), 4, 3),
Triangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), Point(1.0, 0.0), Point(0.0, 1.0)))
val shape1 = shapesList.head // grab the first one.

println("shape1: "+shape1+". hash = "+shape1.hashCode)
for (shape2 <- shapesList) {
println("shape2: "+shape2+". 1 == 2 ? "+(shape1 == shape2))
}
Case Classes | 137
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shape1: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),1.0). hash = 2061963534
shape2: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),1.0). 1 == 2 ? true
shape2: Circle(Point(5.0,2.0),3.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,5.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Rectangle(Point(-2.0,-1.0),4.0,3.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0)). 1 == 2 ? false
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example2-script.scala
import shapes._
val shapesList = List(

Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 1.0),
Circle(Point(5.0, 2.0), 3.0),
Rectangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2, 5),
Rectangle(Point(-2.0, -1.0), 4, 3),
Triangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), Point(1.0, 0.0), Point(0.0, 1.0)))
def matchOn(shape: Shape) = shape match {

case Circle(center, radius) =>
println("Circle: center = "+center+", radius = "+radius)
case Rectangle(ll, h, w) =>
println("Rectangle: lower-left = "+ll+", height = "+h+", width = "+w)
case Triangle(p1, p2, p3) =>
println("Triangle: point1 = "+p1+", point2 = "+p2+", point3 = "+p3)
case _ =>
println("Unknown shape!"+shape)
}
shapesList.foreach { shape => matchOn(shape) }
Circle: center = Point(0.0,0.0), radius = 1.0
Circle: center = Point(5.0,2.0), radius = 3.0
Rectangle: lower-left = Point(0.0,0.0), height = 2.0, width = 5.0
Rectangle: lower-left = Point(-2.0,-1.0), height = 4.0, width = 3.0
Triangle: point1 = Point(0.0,0.0), point2 = Point(1.0,0.0), point3 = Point(0.0,1.0)
Syntactic Sugar for Binary Operations

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def matchOn(shape: Shape) = shape match {
case center Circle radius => ...
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case p1 Triangle (p2, p3) => ...
case _ => ...
}
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example3-v28-script.scala
// Scala version 2.8 only.
import shapes._
val circle1 = Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2.0)

val circle2 = circle1 copy (radius = 4.0)
println(circle1)
println(circle2)
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}
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abstract case class Shape(id: String) {
def draw(): Unit
}
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def draw(): Unit
}
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value id needs `override' modifier
case class Circle(id: String, center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape(id){
^
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case-id.scala
package shapesid {
abstract case class Shape(id: String) {

def draw(): Unit
}
case class Circle(override val id: String, center: Point, radius: Double)
extends Shape(id) {
}
case class Rectangle(override val id: String, lowerLeft: Point,

height: Double, width: Double) extends Shape(id) {
}
case class Triangle(override val id: String, point1: Point,

point2: Point, point3: Point) extends Shape(id) {
}
}
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case-equals-ambiguity-script.scala
import shapesid._
case class FancyCircle(name: String, override val id: String,

override val center: Point, override val radius: Double)
extends Circle(id, center, radius) {
override def draw() = println("FancyCircle.draw: " + this)
Case Classes | 141
}
val fc = FancyCircle("me", "circle", Point(0.0,0.0), 10.0)

val c = Circle("circle", Point(0.0,0.0), 10.0)
format("FancyCircle == Circle? %b\n", (fc == c))
format("Circle == FancyCircle? %b\n", (c == fc))
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Equality of Objects | 143
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CHAPTER 7
The Scala Object System
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package object scala {
type Iterable[+A] = scala.collection.Iterable[A]
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type RandomAccessSeq[+A] = scala.collection.Vector[A]

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type BufferedIterator[+A] = scala.collection.BufferedIterator[A]
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type ::[A] = scala.collection.immutable.::[A]

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type Stream[+A] = scala.collection.immutable.Stream[A]

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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/sealed/http-script.scala
sealed abstract class HttpMethod()

case class Connect(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Delete (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Get (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Head (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Options(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Post (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Put (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Trace (body: String) extends HttpMethod
def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

case Connect (body) => println("connect: " + body)
case Delete (body) => println("delete: " + body)
case Get (body) => println("get: " + body)
case Head (body) => println("head: " + body)
case Options (body) => println("options: " + body)
case Post (body) => println("post: " + body)
case Put (body) => println("put: " + body)
case Trace (body) => println("trace: " + body)
}
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Connect("connect body..."),
Delete ("delete body..."),
Get ("get body..."),
Head ("head body..."),
Options("options body..."),
Post ("post body..."),
Put ("put body..."),
Trace ("trace body..."))
methods.foreach { method => handle(method) }
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delete: delete body...
get: get body...
head: head body...
options: options body...
post: post body...
put: put body...
trace: trace body...
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/sealed/http-body-script.scala
sealed abstract class HttpMethod() {

def body: String
def bodyLength = body.length
Sealed Class Hierarchies | 153
}


}
val methods = List(

methods.foreach { method =>

handle(method)
println("body length? " + method.bodyLength)
}
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connect: connect body...
body length? 15
delete: delete body...
body length? 14
get: get body...
body length? 11
head: head body...
body length? 12
options: options body...
body length? 15
post: post body...
body length? 12
put: put body...
body length? 11
trace: trace body...
body length? 13
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The Scala Type Hierarchy | 155
7DEOH$Q\$Q\9DODQG$Q\5HI
Name Parent Description
Any none The root of the hierarchy. Defines a few final methods like ==, !=, isInstanceOf[T] (for type
checking), and asInstanceOf[T] (for type casting), as well as default versions of equals,
hashCode, and toString, which are designed to be overridden by subclasses.
AnyVal Any The parent of all value types, which correspond to the primitive types on the runtime platform, plus
Unit. All the AnyVal instances are immutable value instances, and all the AnyVal types are
abstract final. Hence, none of them can be instantiated with new. Rather, new instances are
created with literal values (e.g., 3.14 for a Double) or by calling methods on instances that return
new values.
AnyRef Any The parent of all reference types, including all java.* and scala.* types. It is equivalent to
java.lang.Object for the JVM and object (System.Object) for the .NET runtime. Instances
of reference types are created with new.
7KHYDOXHW\SHVDUHFKLOGUHQRIAnyVal
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Name Runtime primitive type
Boolean Boolean (true and false).
Byte Byte.
Char Char.
Short Short.
Int Int.
Long Long.
Float Float.
Double Double.
Unit Serves the same role as void in most imperative languages. Used primarily as a function return value.
There is only one instance of Unit, named (). Think of it as a tuple with zero items.
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Collection[+T] Iterable[T] Trait for collections of known size.
Either[+T1, +T2] AnyRef Used most often as a return type when a method could return an instance
of one of two unrelated types. For example, an exception or a “successful”
result. The Either can be pattern matched for its Left or Right
subtypes. (It is analogous to Option, with Some and None.) For the
exception-handling idiom, it is conventional to use Left for the
exception.
FunctionN[-T1, -T2, AnyRef Trait representing a function that takes N arguments, each of which can
..., -TN, +R] have its own type, and returns a value of type R. (Traits are defined for
N = 0 to 22.) The variance annotations (+ and -) in front of the types will
be explained in “Variance Under Inheritance” on page 251.
Iterable[+T] AnyRef Trait with methods for operating on collections of instances. Users
implement the abstract elements method to return an Iterable
instance.
List[+T] Seq[T] sealed abstract class for ordered collections with functional-
style list semantics. It is the most widely used collection in Scala, so it is
defined in the scala package, rather than one of the collection packages.
(In Scala version2.8, it is actually defined in scala.collec
tion.immutable and “aliased” in package object scala). It
has two subclasses, case object Nil, which extends List[Noth
ing] and represents an empty list, and case final class ::
[T], which represents a non-empty list, characterized by a head element
and a tail list, which would be Nil for a one-element list.
Nothing All other types Nothing is the subtype of all other types. It has no instances. It is used
primarily for defining other types in a type-safe way, such as the special
List subtype Nil. See also “Nothing and Null” on page 267.
Null All reference types Null has one instance, null, corresponding to the runtime’s concept
of null.
Option[T] Product Wraps an optional item. It is a sealed abstract type and the only
allowed instances are an instance of its derived case class
Some[T], wrapping an instance of T, or its derived case object
None, which extends Option[Nothing].
Predef AnyRef An object that defines and imports many commonly used types and
methods. See “The Predef Object” on page 145 for details.
Product AnyRef Trait with methods for determining arity and getting the nth item in a
“Cartesian product.” Subtraits are defined for Product, called
ProductN, for dimension N from 1 through 22.
ScalaObject AnyRef Mixin trait added to all Scala reference type instances.
Seq[+T] Collection[T] Trait for ordered collections.
TupleN ProductN Separate case classes for arity N = 1 through 22. Tuples support the
literal syntax (x1, x2, ..., xN).
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The Scala Type Hierarchy | 157
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/typehierarchy/either-script.scala
def exceptionToLeft[T](f: => T): Either[java.lang.Throwable, T] = try {

Right(f)
} catch {
case ex => Left(ex)
}
def throwsOnOddInt(i: Int) = i % 2 match {

case 0 => i
case 1 => throw new RuntimeException(i + " is odd!")
}
for(i <- 0 to 3)
exceptionToLeft(throwsOnOddInt(i)) match {
case Left(ex) => println("Oops, got exception " + ex.toString)
case Right(x) => println(x)
}
7KH exceptionToLeftPHWKRGHYDOXDWHV f,WFDWFKHVD ThrowableDQGUHWXUQVLWDVWKH

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0
Oops, got exception java.lang.RuntimeException: 1 is odd!
2
Oops, got exception java.lang.RuntimeException: 3 is odd!
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new FunctionN {
def apply(t1: T1, ..., tN: TN): R = new R(...)
// other methods
}
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7\SHV¤RQSDJH
Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy

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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization1-script.scala
class C1 {
def m = List("C1")
}
trait T1 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T1" :: super.m }
}
}
}
class C2 extends T1 with T2 with T3 {

override def m = { "C2" :: super.m }
}
val c2 = new C2
println(c2.m)
Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy | 159
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List(C2, T3, T2, T1, C1)
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var clist = List[String]()
class C1 {
clist ::= "C1"
}
clist ::= "T1"
}
clist ::= "T2"
}
clist ::= "T3"
}

clist ::= "C2"
}
val c2 = new C2
println(clist.reverse)
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List(C1, T1, T2, T3, C2)
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class C1 {
def m(previous: String) = List("C1("+previous+")")
}
override def m(p: String) = { "T1" :: super.m("T1") }
}
}
}

override def m(p: String) = { "C2" :: super.m("C2") }
}
val c2 = new C2
println(c2.m(""))
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Linearization Algorithm for Reference Types
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class C1 {
def m = List("C1")
}
}
}
}
class C2A extends T2 {

override def m = { "C2A" :: super.m }
}
class C2 extends C2A with T1 with T2 with T3 {

override def m = { "C2" :: super.m }
}
def calcLinearization(obj: C1, name: String) = {

val lin = obj.m ::: List("ScalaObject", "AnyRef", "Any")
println(name + ": " + lin)
}
calcLinearization(new C2, "C2 ")

println("")
calcLinearization(new T3 {}, "T3 ")
calcLinearization(new C2A, "C2A")
calcLinearization(new C1, "C1 ")
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C2 : List(C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
T3 : List(T3, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

C2A: List(C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
C1 : List(C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
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# Linearization Description
1 C2 Add the type of the instance.
2 C2, T3, C1 Add the linearization for T3 (farthest on the right).
3 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1 Add the linearization for T2.
4 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1, T1, C1 Add the linearization for T1.
5 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1, T1, C1, C2A, T2, C1 Add the linearization for C2A.
6 C2, T3, T2, T1, C2A, T2, C1 Remove duplicates of C1; all but the last C1.
7 C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1 Remove duplicate T2; all but the last T2.
8 C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, Finish!
AnyRef, Any
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CHAPTER 8
Functional Programming in Scala
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What Is Functional Programming?

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var factor = 3
val multiplier = (i:Int) => i * factor
val l1 = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) map multiplier
factor = 5
val l2 = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) map multiplier
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// code-examples/FP/recursion/factorial-loop-script.scala
def factorial_loop(i: BigInt): BigInt = {

var result = BigInt(1)
for (j <- 2 to i.intValue)
result *= j
result
}
for (i <- 1 to 10)

format("%s: %s\n", i, factorial_loop(i))
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// code-examples/FP/recursion/factorial-recur1-script.scala
def factorial(i: BigInt): BigInt = i match {

case _ if i == 1 => i
case _ => i * factorial(i - 1)
}
for (i <- 1 to 10)
format("%s: %s\n", i, factorial(i))
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// code-examples/FP/recursion/factorial-recur2-script.scala
def factorial(i: BigInt): BigInt = {

def fact(i: BigInt, accumulator: BigInt): BigInt = i match {
case _ if i == 1 => accumulator
case _ => fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
}
fact(i, 1)
}
for (i <- 1 to 10)

format("%s: %s\n", i, factorial(i))
Tail Calls and Tail-Call Optimization | 171
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/list-script.scala
val list1 = List("Programming", "Scala")

val list2 = "People" :: "should" :: "read" :: list1
println(list2)
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val list2 = ("People" :: ("should" :: ("read" :: list1)))
val list2 = list1.::("read").::("should").::("People")
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Maps in Functional Programming

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// ...
Functional Data Structures | 173
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Sets in Functional Programming

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Other Data Structures in Functional Programming

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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/foreach-script.scala
List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) foreach { i => println("Int: " + i) }

stateCapitals foreach { kv => println(kv._1 + ": " + kv._2) }
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Traversing, Mapping, Filtering, Folding, and Reducing | 175
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/map-script.scala

val lengths = stateCapitals map { kv => (kv._1, kv._2.length) }

println(lengths)
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/map2-script.scala

val map2 = stateCapitals map { kv => (kv._1, kv._2.length) }
// val lengths = Map(map2) // ERROR: won't work
val lengths = Map[String,Int]() ++ map2
println(lengths)
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object Map {
...
def apply[A, B](elems : (A, B)*) : Map[A, B] = ...
...
}
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/flatmap-script.scala
val graph = List(

"a", List("b1", "b2", "b3"), List("c1", List("c21", Nil, "c22"), Nil, "e")
)
def flatten(list: List[_]): List[_] = list flatMap {

case head :: tail => head :: flatten(tail)
case Nil => Nil
case x => List(x)
}
println(flatten(graph))
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...
def map[B] (f : (A) => B) : Iterable[B] = ...
def flatMap[B](f : (A) => Iterable[B]) : Iterable[B]
...
}
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/filter-script.scala

val map2 = stateCapitals filter { kv => kv._1 startsWith "A" }
println( map2 )
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def dropWhile (p : (A) => Boolean) : Collection[A] = ...
// Apply a predicate p to all elements of this iterable object and

// return true, iff there is at least one element for which p yields true.
def exists (p : (A) => Boolean) : Boolean = ...
// Returns all the elements of this iterable that satisfy the predicate p.
// The order of the elements is preserved.
def filter (p : (A) => Boolean) : Iterable[A] = ...
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def find (p : (A) => Boolean) : Option[A] = ...
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// Apply a predicate p to all elements of this iterable object and return

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def forall (p : (A) => Boolean) : Boolean = ...
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def indexOf [B >: A](elem : B) : Int = ...
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def sameElements [B >: A](that : Iterable[B]) : Boolean = ...
// Returns an iterable consisting only over the first n elements of this

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def take (n : Int) : Collection[A] = ...
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// predicate p.
def takeWhile (p : (A) => Boolean) : Iterable[A] = ...
}
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/foldreduce-script.scala
List(1,2,3,4,5,6) reduceLeft(_ + _)
List(1,2,3,4,5,6).foldLeft(10)(_ * _)
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/foldleft-map-script.scala
List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).foldLeft(List[String]()) {
(list, x) => ("<" + x + ">") :: list
}.reverse
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// op, from right to left, and starting with the value z.
def foldRight [B](z : B)(op : (A, B) => B) : B
// Similar to foldLeft but can be used as an operator with the order of

// list and zero arguments reversed. That is, z /: xs is the same as
// xs foldLeft z
def /: [B](z : B)(op : (B, A) => B) : B
// An alias for foldRight. That is, xs :\ z is the same as xs foldRight z

def :\ [B](z : B)(op : (A, B) => B) : B

// binary operator op, from left to right
def reduceLeft [B >: A](op : (B, A) => B) : B

// binary operator op, from right to left
def reduceRight [B >: A](op : (A, B) => B) : B
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/foldright-map-script.scala
List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).foldRight(List[String]()) {
(x, list) => ("<" + x + ">") :: list
}
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(((((20) * 3) * 4) * 5) * 6)
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(7200)
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/reduceleftright-script.scala
println((1 to 1000000) reduceLeft(_ + _))

println((1 to 1000000) reduceRight(_ + _))
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Functional Options
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/option-script.scala
val someNumber = Some(5)

val noneNumber = None
for (option <- List(noneNumber, someNumber)) {
option.map(n => println(n * 5))
}
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// code-examples/FP/partial/partial-script.scala
def concatUpper(s1: String, s2: String): String = (s1 + " " + s2).toUpperCase
val c = concatUpper _
println(c("short", "pants"))
val c2 = concatUpper("short", _: String)

println(c2("pants"))
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// code-examples/FP/partial/orelse-script.scala
val truthier: PartialFunction[Boolean, String] = { case true => "truthful" }

val fallback: PartialFunction[Boolean, String] = { case x => "sketchy" }
val tester = truthier orElse fallback
println(tester(1 == 1))
println(tester(2 + 2 == 5))
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// code-examples/FP/partial/isdefinedat-script.scala
val pantsTest: PartialFunction[String, String] = {

case "pants" => "yes, we have pants!"
}
println(pantsTest.isDefinedAt("pants"))
println(pantsTest.isDefinedAt("skort"))
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scala> def cat(s1: String, s2: String) = s1 + s2
cat: (String,String)java.lang.String
scala> val curryCat = Function.curried(cat _)

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scala> cat("foo", "bar") == curryCat("foo")("bar")

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scala> partialCurryCat("bar")
res3: java.lang.String = foobar
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val byFive = multiplier(5) _
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scala> byFive(2)
res4: Int = 10
scala> byTen(2)
res5: Int = 20
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// code-examples/FP/implicits/implicit-conversion-script.scala
import scala.runtime.RichString
class FancyString(val str: String)
object FancyString2RichString {
implicit def fancyString2RichString(fs: FancyString) =
new RichString(fs.str)
}
import FancyString2RichString._
val fs = new FancyString("scala")

println(fs.capitalize.reverse)
Implicits | 187
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// code-examples/FP/implicits/implicit-parameter-script.scala
import scala.runtime.RichString
def multiplier(i: Int)(implicit factor: Int) {

println(i * factor)
}
implicit val factor = 2
multiplier(2)
multiplier(2)(3)
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// code-examples/FP/overrides/call-by-name-script.scala
def whileAwesome(conditional: => Boolean)(f: => Unit) {

if (conditional) {
f
whileAwesome(conditional)(f)
}
}
var count = 0
whileAwesome(count < 5) {
println("still awesome")
count += 1
}
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trait AbstractT2 {
val value: Int
lazy val inverse = { println("initializing inverse:"); 1.0/value }
//println("AbstractT2: value = "+value+", inverse = "+inverse)
}
val c2d = new AbstractT2 {

println("In c2d:")
val value = 10
}
println("Using c2d:")
println("c2d.value = "+c2d.value+", inverse = "+c2d.inverse)
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In c2d:
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initializing inverse:
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CHAPTER 9
Robust, Scalable Concurrency
with Actors
The Problems of Shared, Synchronized State

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// code-examples/Concurrency/simple-actor-script.scala
import scala.actors.Actor
class Redford extends Actor {

def act() {
println("A lot of what acting is, is paying attention.")
}
}
val robert = new Redford

robert.start
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194 | Chapter 9:Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors
// code-examples/Concurrency/factory-actor-script.scala
val paulNewman = actor {

println("To be an actor, you have to be a child.")
}
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// code-examples/Concurrency/pattern-match-actor-script.scala
val fussyActor = actor {

loop {
receive {
case s: String => println("I got a String: " + s)
case i: Int => println("I got an Int: " + i.toString)
case _ => println("I have no idea what I just got.")
}
}
}
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// code-examples/Concurrency/actor-mailbox-script.scala
val countActor = actor {

loop {
react {
case "how many?" => {
println("I've got " + mailboxSize.toString + " messages in my mailbox.")
}
}
}
}
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// code-examples/Concurrency/sleepingbarber/customer.scala
package sleepingbarber
case object Haircut
class Customer(val id: Int) extends Actor {

var shorn = false
def act() = {
loop {
react {
case Haircut => {
shorn = true
println("[c] customer " + id + " got a haircut")
}
}
}
}
}
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PHVVDJHDQGXSRQUHFHLSWRIRQHZHVHWWKHshornERROHDQWRtrueCustomerXVHVWKH
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/HW¦VPRYHRQWRWKHEDUEHUKLPVHOI%HFDXVHWKHUH¦VRQO\RQHEDUEHUZHFRXOGKDYH
XVHGWKHactorIDFWRU\PHWKRGWHFKQLTXHPHQWLRQHGHDUOLHUWRFUHDWHKLP)RUWHVWLQJ
SXUSRVHVZH¦YHLQVWHDGGHILQHGRXURZQBarberFODVV
// code-examples/Concurrency/sleepingbarber/barber.scala
class Barber extends Actor {

private val random = new Random()
def helpCustomer(customer: Customer) {

if (self.mailboxSize >= 3) {
println("[b] not enough seats, turning customer " + customer.id + " away")
} else {
println("[b] cutting hair of customer " + customer.id)
Thread.sleep(100 + random.nextInt(400))
customer ! Haircut
}
}
def act() {
loop {
react {
case customer: Customer => helpCustomer(customer)
}
}
}
}
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PHWKRGZHHPSOR\DFKHFNRQWKHPDLOER[VL]HWRVHUYHDVRXU£FKDLUV¤WKDWFXVWRPHUV
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// code-examples/Concurrency/sleepingbarber/shop.scala
class Shop extends Actor {

val barber = new Barber()
barber.start
def act() {
println("[s] the shop is open")
loop {
react {
case customer: Customer => barber ! customer
}
}
}
}
%\QRZWKLVVKRXOGDOOORRNYHU\IDPLOLDU(DFK ShopFUHDWHVDQGVWDUWVDQHZ Barber

SULQWVDPHVVDJHWHOOLQJWKHZRUOGWKDWWKHVKRSLVRSHQDQGVLWVLQDORRSZDLWLQJIRU
FXVWRPHUV:KHQDCustomerFRPHVLQKH¦VVHQWWRWKHEDUEHU:HQRZVHHDQXQH[
SHFWHGEHQHILWRI$FWRUVWKH\DOORZXVWRGHVFULEHFRQFXUUHQWEXVLQHVVORJLFLQHDVLO\
XQGHUVWRRGWHUPV£6HQGWKHFXVWRPHUWRWKHEDUEHU¤PDNHVSHUIHFWVHQVHPXFKPRUH
VRWKDQ£1RWLI\WKHEDUEHUXQORFNWKHPXWH[DURXQGWKHFXVWRPHUVHDWVLQFUHPHQW
WKHQXPEHURIIUHHVHDWV¤DQGVRIRUWK$FWRUVJHWXVFORVHUWRRXUGRPDLQ
)LQDOO\ZHKDYHDGULYHUIRURXUVLPXODWLRQ
// code-examples/Concurrency/sleepingbarber/barbershop-simulator.scala
import scala.collection.{immutable, mutable}
object BarbershopSimulator {
private val random = new Random()
private val customers = new mutable.ArrayBuffer[Customer]()
private val shop = new Shop()
def generateCustomers {
for (i <- 1 to 20) {
val customer = new Customer(i)
customer.start()
customers += customer
}
println("[!] generated " + customers.size + " customers")

}
// customers arrive at random intervals

def trickleCustomers {
for (customer <- customers) {
shop ! customer
Thread.sleep(random.nextInt(450))
}
}
def tallyCuts {
// wait for any remaining concurrent actions to complete
Thread.sleep(2000)
val shornCount = customers.filter(c => c.shorn).size

println("[!] " + shornCount + " customers got haircuts today")
}
def main(args: Array[String]) {

println("[!] starting barbershop simulation")
shop.start()
generateCustomers
trickleCustomers
tallyCuts
System.exit(0)
}
}
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LQE\VHQGLQJWKHPDVPHVVDJHVWRWKHVKRSDQGVOHHSLQJIRUDVHPLUDQGRPDPRXQWRI
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WRPHUVZKRJRWKDLUFXWVE\ILOWHULQJRXWWKHFXVWRPHUVZKRVHLQWHUQDO shornERROHDQ
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fsc *.scala
scala -classpath . sleepingbarber.BarbershopSimulator
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[!] starting barbershop simulation
[s] the shop is open
[!] generated 20 customers
[b] cutting hair of customer 1
[c] customer 1 got a haircut
[b] not enough seats, turning customer 8 away
[!] 15 customers got haircuts today
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Method Returns Description
act Unit Abstract, top-level method for an Actor. Typically contains one of the
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message
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message
react Nothing Requires less overhead (threads) than receive.
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FutureLVDEORFNLQJRSHUDWLRQ
// code-examples/Concurrency/future-script.scala
import scala.actors.Futures._
val eventually = future(5 * 42)

println(eventually())
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Traditional Concurrency in Scala: Threading and Events

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One-Off Threads
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// code-examples/Concurrency/threads/by-block-script.scala
new Thread { println("this will run in a new thread") }
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opsREMHFWWRUXQDEORFNDV\QFKURQRXVO\ZLWKspawn
// code-examples/Concurrency/threads/spawn.scala
import scala.concurrent.ops._
object SpawnExample {
println("this will run synchronously")
spawn {
println("this will run asychronously")
}
}
}
Traditional Concurrency in Scala: Threading and Events | 203
Using java.util.concurrent
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// code-examples/Concurrency/threads/util-concurrent-script.scala
import java.util.concurrent._
class ThreadIdentifier extends Runnable {

def run {
println("hello from Thread " + currentThread.getId)
}
}
val pool = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(5)
for (i <- 1 to 10) {

pool.execute(new ThreadIdentifier)
}
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// .../smtpd/src/test/scala/com/programmingscala/smtpd/SmtpDecoderSpec.scala
package com.programmingscala.smtpd
import java.nio.ByteOrder
import net.lag.naggati._
import org.apache.mina.core.buffer.IoBuffer
import org.apache.mina.core.filterchain.IoFilter
import org.apache.mina.core.session.{DummySession, IoSession}
import org.apache.mina.filter.codec._
import org.specs._
object SmtpDecoderSpec extends Specification {

private var fakeSession: IoSession = null
private var fakeDecoderOutput: ProtocolDecoderOutput = null
private var written = new mutable.ListBuffer[Request]
def quickDecode(s: String): Unit = {

Codec.decoder.decode(fakeSession, IoBuffer.wrap(s.getBytes), fakeDecoderOutput)
}
"SmtpRequestDecoder" should {
doBefore {
written.clear()
fakeSession = new DummySession
fakeDecoderOutput = new ProtocolDecoderOutput {
override def flush(nextFilter: IoFilter.NextFilter, s: IoSession) = {}
override def write(obj: AnyRef) = written += obj.asInstanceOf[Request]
}
}
"parse HELO" in {
quickDecode("HELO client.example.org\n")
written.size mustEqual 1
written(0).command mustEqual "HELO"
written(0).data mustEqual "client.example.org"
}
"parse QUIT" in {
quickDecode("QUIT\n")
written.size mustEqual 1
written(0).command mustEqual "QUIT"
written(0).data mustEqual null
}
}
}
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// .../smtpd/src/main/scala/com/programmingscala/smtpd/Codec.scala
import org.apache.mina.core.session.{IdleStatus, IoSession}
import org.apache.mina.filter.codec._
import net.lag.naggati._
import net.lag.naggati.Steps._
case class Request(command: String, data: String)

case class Response(data: IoBuffer)
object Codec {
val encoder = new ProtocolEncoder {
def encode(session: IoSession, message: AnyRef, out: ProtocolEncoderOutput) = {
val buffer = message.asInstanceOf[Response].data
out.write(buffer)
}
def dispose(session: IoSession): Unit = {
// no-op, required by ProtocolEncoder trait
}
}
val decoder = new Decoder(readLine(true, "ISO-8859-1") { line =>

line.split(' ').first match {
case "HELO" => state.out.write(Request("HELO", line.split(' ')(1))); End
case "QUIT" => state.out.write(Request("QUIT", null)); End
case _ => throw new ProtocolError("Malformed request line: " + line)
}
})
}
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// .../smtpd/src/main/scala/com/programmingscala/smtpd/Main.scala
import net.lag.naggati.IoHandlerActorAdapter
import org.apache.mina.filter.codec.ProtocolCodecFilter
import org.apache.mina.transport.socket.SocketAcceptor
import org.apache.mina.transport.socket.nio.{NioProcessor, NioSocketAcceptor}
import java.net.InetSocketAddress
import java.util.concurrent.{Executors, ExecutorService}
object Main {
val listenAddress = "0.0.0.0"
val listenPort = 2525
def setMaxThreads = {
val maxThreads = (Runtime.getRuntime.availableProcessors * 2)
System.setProperty("actors.maxPoolSize", maxThreads.toString)
}
def initializeAcceptor = {
var acceptorExecutor = Executors.newCachedThreadPool()
var acceptor =
new NioSocketAcceptor(acceptorExecutor, new NioProcessor(acceptorExecutor))
acceptor.setBacklog(1000)
acceptor.setReuseAddress(true)
acceptor.getSessionConfig.setTcpNoDelay(true)
acceptor.getFilterChain.addLast("codec",
new ProtocolCodecFilter(smtpd.Codec.encoder, smtpd.Codec.decoder))
acceptor.setHandler(
new IoHandlerActorAdapter(session => new SmtpHandler(session)))
acceptor.bind(new InetSocketAddress(listenAddress, listenPort))
}

setMaxThreads
initializeAcceptor
println("smtpd: up and listening on " + listenAddress + ":" + listenPort)
}
}
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// .../smtpd/src/main/scala/com/programmingscala/smtpd/SmtpHandler.scala
import net.lag.naggati.{IoHandlerActorAdapter, MinaMessage, ProtocolError}

import org.apache.mina.core.session.{IdleStatus, IoSession}
import java.io.IOException
class SmtpHandler(val session: IoSession) extends Actor {

start
def act = {
loop {
react {
case MinaMessage.MessageReceived(msg) =>
handle(msg.asInstanceOf[smtpd.Request])
case MinaMessage.SessionClosed => exit()
case MinaMessage.SessionIdle(status) => session.close
case MinaMessage.SessionOpened => reply("220 localhost Tapir SMTPd 0.1\n")
case MinaMessage.ExceptionCaught(cause) => {
cause.getCause match {
case e: ProtocolError => reply("502 Error: " + e.getMessage + "\n")
case i: IOException => reply("502 Error: " + i.getMessage + "\n")
case _ => reply("502 Error unknown\n")
}
session.close
}
}
}
}
private def handle(request: smtpd.Request) = {

request.command match {
case "HELO" => reply("250 Hi there " + request.data + "\n")
case "QUIT" => reply("221 Peace out girl scout\n"); session.close
}
}
private def reply(s: String) = {

session.write(new smtpd.Response(IoBuffer.wrap(s.getBytes)))
}
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Trying ::1...
Connected to localhost.
Escape character is '^]'.
220 localhost Tapir SMTPd 0.1
HELO jaya.local
250 Hi there jaya.local
QUIT
221 Peace out girl scout
Connection closed by foreign host.
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Trying ::1...
Connected to localhost.
Escape character is '^]'.
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HELO jaya.local
250 Hi there jaya.local
BAD COMMAND
502 Error: Malformed request line: BAD COMMAND
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CHAPTER 10
Herding XML in Scala
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Reading XML
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// code-examples/XML/reading/from-string-script.scala
import scala.xml._
val someXMLInAString = """

<sammich>
<bread>wheat</bread>
211
<meat>salami</meat>
<condiments>
<condiment expired="true">mayo</condiment>
<condiment expired="false">mustard</condiment>
</condiments>
</sammich>
"""
val someXML = XML.loadString(someXMLInAString)

assert(someXML.isInstanceOf[scala.xml.Elem])
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// code-examples/XML/reading/inline-script.scala
import scala.xml._
val someXML =
<sammich>
<meat>salami</meat>
<condiments>
</condiments>
</sammich>
assert(someXML.isInstanceOf[scala.xml.Elem])
Exploring XML
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scala> someXML \ "bread"
res2: scala.xml.NodeSeq = <bread>wheat</bread>
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scala> (someXML \ "bread").text
res3: String = wheat
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212 | Chapter 10:Herding XML in Scala
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scala> someXML \\ "condiment"
res5: scala.xml.NodeSeq = <condiment expired="true">mayo</condiment>
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scala> (someXML \\ "condiment")(0) \ "@expired"
res6: scala.xml.NodeSeq = true
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Looping and Matching XML

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// code-examples/XML/reading/for-loop-script.scala
for (condiment <- (someXML \\ "condiment")) {

if ((condiment \ "@expired").text == "true")
println("the " + condiment.text + " has expired!")
}
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Reading XML | 213
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// code-examples/XML/reading/pattern-matching-script.scala
import scala.xml._
val someXML =
<sammich>
<meat>salami</meat>
<condiments>
</condiments>
</sammich>
someXML match {
case <sammich>{ingredients @ _*}</sammich> => {
for (cond @ <condiments>{_*}</condiments> <- ingredients)
println("condiments: " + cond.text)
}
}
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scala> var name = "Bob"
name: java.lang.String = Bob
scala> val bobXML =

| <person>
| <name>{name}</name>
| </person>
bobXML: scala.xml.Elem =
<person>
<name>Bob</name>
</person>
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SRVW
// code-examples/XML/writing/post.scala
import java.text.SimpleDateFormat
import java.util.Date
class Post(val title: String, val body: String, val updated: Date) {
lazy val dashedDate = {
val dashed = new SimpleDateFormat("yy-MM-dd")
dashed.format(updated)
}
lazy val atomDate = {

val rfc3339 = new SimpleDateFormat("yyyy-MM-dd'T'h:m:ss'-05:00'")
rfc3339.format(updated)
}
lazy val slug = title.toLowerCase.replaceAll("\\W", "-")

lazy val atomId = "tag:example.com," + dashedDate + ":/" + slug
}
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// code-examples/XML/writing/atom-feed.scala
import scala.xml.XML
class AtomFeed(posts: Seq[Post]) {

val feed =
<feed xmlns="">
<title>My Blog</title>
<subtitle>A fancy subtitle.</subtitle>
<link href=""/>
<link href="" rel="self"/>
<updated>{posts(0).atomDate}</updated>
<author>
<name>John Doe</name>
<uri></uri>
Writing XML | 215
</author>
<id></id>
{for (post <- posts) yield
<entry>
<title>{post.title}</title>
<link href={"" + post.slug + ".html"} rel="alternate"/>
<id>{post.atomId}</id>
<updated>{post.atomDate}</updated>
<content type="html">{post.body}</content>
<author>
<name>John Doe</name>
<uri></uri>
</author>
</entry>
}
</feed>
def write = XML.saveFull("/tmp/atom-example.xml", feed, "UTF-8", true, null)

}
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Domain-Specific Languages in Scala
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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/api/payroll-api-script.scala
import payroll.api._
import payroll.api.DeductionsCalculator._
import payroll._
import payroll.Type2Money._
val buck = Employee(Name("Buck", "Trends"), Money(80000))

val jane = Employee(Name("Jane", "Doe"), Money(90000))
List(buck, jane).foreach { employee =>

// Assume annual is based on 52 weeks.
val biweeklyGross = employee.annualGrossSalary / 26.
val deductions = federalIncomeTax(employee, biweeklyGross) +

stateIncomeTax(employee, biweeklyGross) +
insurancePremiums(employee, biweeklyGross) +
retirementFundContributions(employee, biweeklyGross)
val check = Paycheck(biweeklyGross, biweeklyGross - deductions, deductions)
format("%s %s: %s\n", employee.name.first, employee.name.last, check)

}
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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/paycheck.scala
package payroll
/** We're ignoring invalid (?) cases like a negative net

* when deductions exceed the gross.
*/
case class Paycheck(gross: Money, net: Money, deductions: Money) {
def plusGross (m: Money) = Paycheck(gross + m, net + m, deductions)

def plusDeductions (m: Money) = Paycheck(gross, net - m, deductions + m)
}
Internal DSLs | 219
7KHEmployeeW\SHXVHVDNameW\SH
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/employee.scala
package payroll
case class Name(first: String, last: String)
case class Employee(name: Name, annualGrossSalary: Money)
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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/money.scala
package payroll
import java.math.{BigDecimal => JBigDecimal,
MathContext => JMathContext, RoundingMode => JRoundingMode}
/** Most arithmetic is done using JBigDecimals for tighter control.

*/
class Money(val amount: BigDecimal) {
def + (m: Money) =

Money(amount.bigDecimal.add(m.amount.bigDecimal))
def - (m: Money) =
Money(amount.bigDecimal.subtract(m.amount.bigDecimal))
def * (m: Money) =
Money(amount.bigDecimal.multiply(m.amount.bigDecimal))
def / (m: Money) =
Money(amount.bigDecimal.divide(m.amount.bigDecimal,
Money.scale, Money.jroundingMode))
def < (m: Money) = amount < m.amount

def <= (m: Money) = amount <= m.amount
def > (m: Money) = amount > m.amount
def >= (m: Money) = amount >= m.amount
override def equals (o: Any) = o match {

case m: Money => amount equals m.amount
case _ => false
}
override def hashCode = amount.hashCode * 31
// Hack: Must explicitly call the correct conversion: double2Double

override def toString =
String.format("$%.2f", double2Double(amount.doubleValue))
}
object Money {
def apply(amount: BigDecimal) = new Money(amount)
def apply(amount: JBigDecimal) = new Money(scaled(new BigDecimal(amount)))
def apply(amount: Double) = new Money(scaled(BigDecimal(amount)))
def apply(amount: Long) = new Money(scaled(BigDecimal(amount)))
def apply(amount: Int) = new Money(scaled(BigDecimal(amount)))
def unapply(m: Money) = Some(m.amount)
protected def scaled(d: BigDecimal) = d.setScale(scale, roundingMode)
val scale = 4
val jroundingMode = JRoundingMode.HALF_UP
val roundingMode = BigDecimal.RoundingMode.ROUND_HALF_UP
val context = new JMathContext(scale, jroundingMode)
}
object Type2Money {
implicit def bigDecimal2Money(b: BigDecimal) = Money(b)
implicit def jBigDecimal2Money(b: JBigDecimal) = Money(b)
implicit def double2Money(d: Double) = Money(d)
implicit def long2Money(l: Long) = Money(l)
implicit def int2Money(i: Int) = Money(i)
}
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sCalculator
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/api/deductions-calc.scala
package payroll.api
object DeductionsCalculator {
def federalIncomeTax(empl: Employee, gross: Money) = gross * .25
def stateIncomeTax(empl: Employee, gross: Money) = gross * .05
def insurancePremiums(empl: Employee, gross: Money) = Money(500)
def retirementFundContributions(empl: Employee, gross: Money) = gross * .10

}
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(665) $ scala -cp ... payroll-api-script.scala
Buck Trends: Paycheck($3076.92,$1346.15,$1730.77)
Jane Doe: Paycheck($3461.54,$1576.92,$1884.62)
Internal DSLs | 221
A Payroll Internal DSL
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Rules to calculate an employee's paycheck:
employee's gross salary for 2 weeks
minus deductions for
federalIncomeTax, which is 25% of gross
stateIncomeTax, which is 5% of gross
insurancePremiums, which are 500. in gross's currency
retirementFundContributions are 10% of gross
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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/payroll-dsl-script.scala
import payroll._
import payroll.dsl._
import payroll.dsl.rules_
val payrollCalculator = rules { employee =>

employee salary_for 2.weeks minus_deductions_for { gross =>
federalIncomeTax is (25. percent_of gross)
stateIncomeTax is (5. percent_of gross)
insurancePremiums are (500. in gross.currency)
retirementFundContributions are (10. percent_of gross)
}
}
val buck = Employee(Name("Buck", "Trends"), Money(80000))

val jane = Employee(Name("Jane", "Doe"), Money(90000))
List(buck, jane).foreach { employee =>

val check = payrollCalculator(employee)
format("%s %s: %s\n", employee.name.first, employee.name.last, check)
}
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Internal DSLs | 223
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/duration.scala
package payroll.dsl
case class Duration(val amount: Int) {

/** @return the number of work days in "amount" weeks. */
def weeks = amount * 5
/** @return the number of work days in "amount" years. */

def years = amount * 260
}
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Payroll Rules DSL Implementation

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/payroll.scala
package payroll.dsl
import payroll._
object rules {
def apply(rules: Employee => Paycheck) = new PayrollBuilderRules(rules)
implicit def int2Duration(i: Int) = Duration(i)
implicit def employee2GrossPayBuilder(e: Employee) =

new GrossPayBuilder(e)
implicit def grossPayBuilder2DeductionsBuilder(b: GrossPayBuilder)

= new DeductionsBuilder(b)
implicit def double2DeductionsBuilderDeductionHelper(d: Double) =

new DeductionsBuilderDeductionHelper(d)
}
import rules._
...
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class PayrollException(message: String, cause: Throwable)
extends RuntimeException(message, cause)
protected[dsl] class PayrollBuilderRules(rules: Employee => Paycheck) {

def apply(employee: Employee) = {
try {
rules(employee)
} catch {
case th: Throwable => new PayrollException(
"Failed to process payroll for employee: " + employee, th)
}
}
}
...
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... { builder =>
builder federalIncomeTax (25. percent_of gross)
builder stateIncomeTax (5. percent_of gross)
builder insurancePremiums 500.
builder retirementFundContributions (10. percent_of gross)
}
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...
protected[dsl] class GrossPayBuilder(val employee: Employee) {
var gross: Money = 0
def salary_for(days: Int) = {
gross += dailyGrossSalary(employee.annualGrossSalary) * days
this
}
// Assume 260 working days: 52 weeks (including vacation) * 5 days/week.

def weeklyGrossSalary(annual: Money) = annual / 52.0
def dailyGrossSalary(annual: Money) = annual / 260.0
}
...
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...
protected[dsl] class DeductionsBuilder(gpb: GrossPayBuilder) {
val employee = gpb.employee

var paycheck: Paycheck = new Paycheck(gpb.gross, gpb.gross, 0)
def currency = this
def minus_deductions_for(deductionRules: DeductionsBuilder => Unit) = {

deductionRules(this)
paycheck
}
def addDeductions(amount: Money) = paycheck = paycheck plusDeductions amount
def addDeductionsPercentageOfGross(percentage: Double) = {

val amount = paycheck.gross * (percentage/100.)
addDeductions(amount)
}
}
...
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...
class DeductionCalculator {
def is(builder: DeductionsBuilder) = apply(builder)
def are(builder: DeductionsBuilder) = apply(builder)
def apply(builder: DeductionsBuilder) = {}

}
object federalIncomeTax extends DeductionCalculator

object stateIncomeTax extends DeductionCalculator
object insurancePremiums extends DeductionCalculator
object retirementFundContributions extends DeductionCalculator
protected[dsl] class DeductionsBuilderDeductionHelper(val factor: Double) {

def in (builder: DeductionsBuilder) = {
builder addDeductions Money(factor)
builder
}
def percent_of (builder: DeductionsBuilder) = {
builder addDeductionsPercentageOfGross factor
builder
}
}
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empl = "paycheck" "for" "employee" employeeName;
gross = "is" "salary" "for" duration;
deduct = "minus" "deductions" "for" "{" deductItems "}";
employeeName = "\"" name " " name "\"";
name = ...
duration = decimalNumber weeksDays;
weeksDays = "week" | "weeks" | "day" | "days";
External DSLs with Parser Combinators | 231
deductItems = R| deductItem { "," deductItem };
deductItem = deductKind deductAmount;
deductKind = tax | insurance | retirement;
tax = fedState "income" "tax";
fedState = "federal" | "state";
insurance = "insurance" "premiums";
retirement = "retirement" "fund" "contributions";
deductAmount = percentage | amount;
percentage = toBe doubleNumber "percent" "of" "gross";
amount = toBe doubleNumber "in" "gross" "currency";
toBe = "is" | "are";
decimalNumber = ...
doubleNumber = ...
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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/pcdsl/payroll-parser-comb-v1.scala
package payroll.pcdsl
import scala.util.parsing.combinator._
import org.specs._
import payroll._
class PayrollParserCombinatorsV1 extends JavaTokenParsers {
def paycheck = empl ~ gross ~ deduct
def empl = "paycheck" ~> "for" ~> "employee" ~> employeeName
def gross = "is" ~> "salary" ~> "for" ~> duration
def deduct = "minus" ~> "deductions" ~> "for" ~> "{" ~> deductItems <~ "}"
// stringLiteral provided by JavaTokenParsers

def employeeName = stringLiteral
// decimalNumber provided by JavaTokenParsers

def duration = decimalNumber ~ weeksDays
def weeksDays = "weeks" | "week" | "days" | "day"
def deductItems = repsep(deductItem, "," )
def deductItem = deductKind ~> deductAmount
def deductKind = tax | insurance | retirement
def tax = fedState <~ "income" <~ "tax"
def fedState = "federal" | "state"
def insurance = "insurance" ~> "premiums"
def retirement = "retirement" ~> "fund" ~> "contributions"
def deductAmount = percentage | amount
def percentage = toBe ~> doubleNumber <~ "percent" <~ "of" <~ "gross"
def amount = toBe ~> doubleNumber <~ "in" <~ "gross" <~ "currency"
def toBe = "is" | "are"
// floatingPointNumber provided by JavaTokenParsers

def doubleNumber = floatingPointNumber
}
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def paycheck = empl ~ gross ~ deduct
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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/pcdsl/payroll-parser-comb-v1-spec.scala
import org.specs._
import payroll._
object PayrollParserCombinatorsV1Spec
extends Specification("PayrollParserCombinatorsV1") {
"PayrollParserCombinatorsV1" should {
"parse rules when there are no deductions" in {
val input = """paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {}"""
val p = new PayrollParserCombinatorsV1
p.parseAll(p.paycheck, input) match {
case p.Success(r,_) => r.toString mustEqual
"""(("Buck Trends"~(2~weeks))~List())"""
case x => fail(x.toString)
}
}
"calculate the gross, net, and deductions for the pay period" in {
val input =
"""paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {
}"""
case p.Success(r,_) => r.toString mustEqual
"""(("Buck Trends"~(2~weeks))~List(25., 5., 500., 10.))"""
}
}
}
}
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}
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scala> import scala.util.parsing.combinator._
scala> import payroll.pcdsl._

import payroll.pcdsl._
scala> val p = new PayrollParserCombinatorsV1

p: payroll.pcdsl.PayrollParserCombinatorsV1 = \
payroll.pcdsl.PayrollParserCombinatorsV1@79e84310
scala> p.empl
res0: p.Parser[String] = Parser (~>)
scala> p.weeksDays
res2: p.Parser[String] = Parser (|)
scala> p.doubleNumber
res3: p.Parser[String] = Parser ()
scala> p.deduct
res1: p.Parser[List[String]] = Parser (<~)
scala> p.paycheck
res4: p.Parser[p.~[p.~[String,p.~[String,String]],List[String]]] = Parser (~)
scala> p.parseAll(p.weeksDays, "weeks")

res5: p.ParseResult[String] = [1.6] parsed: weeks
scala> val input = """paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"

| is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {}"""
input: java.lang.String =
paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {}
scala> p.parseAll(p.paycheck, input)

res6: p.ParseResult[p.~[p.~[String,p.~[String,String]],List[String]]] = \
[2.53] parsed: (("Buck Trends"~(2~weeks))~List())
scala>
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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/pcdsl/payroll-parser-comb.scala
import org.specs._
import payroll._
class UnknownEmployee(name: Name) extends RuntimeException(name.toString)
class PayrollParserCombinators(val employees: Map[Name, Employee])

extends JavaTokenParsers {
var currentEmployee: Employee = null
var grossAmount: Money = Money(0)
/** @return Parser[(Employee, Paycheck)] */

def paycheck = empl ~ gross ~ deduct ^^ {
case e ~ g ~ d => (e, Paycheck(g, g-d, d))
}
/** @return Parser[Employee] */

def empl = "paycheck" ~> "for" ~> "employee" ~> employeeName ^^ { name =>
val names = name.substring(1, name.length-1).split(" ") // remove ""
val n = Name(names(0), names(1));
if (! employees.contains(n))
throw new UnknownEmployee(n)
currentEmployee = employees(n)
currentEmployee
}
/** @return Parser[Money] */

def gross = "is" ~> "salary" ~> "for" ~> duration ^^ { dur =>
grossAmount = salaryForDays(dur)
grossAmount
}
def deduct = "minus" ~> "deductions" ~> "for" ~> "{" ~> deductItems <~ "}"
/**
* "stringLiteral" provided by JavaTokenParsers
* @return Parser[String]
*/
def employeeName = stringLiteral
/**
* "decimalNumber" provided by JavaTokenParsers
* @return Parser[Int]
*/
def duration = decimalNumber ~ weeksDays ^^ {
case n ~ factor => n.toInt * factor
}
def weeksDays = weeks | days
def weeks = "weeks?".r ^^ { _ => 5 }
def days = "days?".r ^^ { _ => 1 }

def deductItems = repsep(deductItem, ",") ^^ { items =>
items.foldLeft(Money(0)) {_ + _}
}

def deductItem = deductKind ~> deductAmount
def deductKind = tax | insurance | retirement
def fedState = "federal" | "state"
def insurance = "insurance" ~> "premiums"
def retirement = "retirement" ~> "fund" ~> "contributions"
def deductAmount = percentage | amount

def percentage = toBe ~> doubleNumber <~ "percent" <~ "of" <~ "gross" ^^ {
percentage => grossAmount * (percentage / 100.)
}
def amount = toBe ~> doubleNumber <~ "in" <~ "gross" <~ "currency" ^^ {
Money(_)
}
def toBe = "is" | "are"
def doubleNumber = floatingPointNumber ^^ { _.toDouble }
// Support method. Assume 260 (52 * 5) paid work days/year

def salaryForDays(days: Int) =
(currentEmployee.annualGrossSalary / 260.0) * days
}
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case e ~ g ~ d => (e, Paycheck(g, g-d, d))
}
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/** @return Parser[Employee] */
def empl = "paycheck" ~> "for" ~> "employee" ~> employeeName ^^ { name =>
val names = name.substring(1, name.length-1).split(" ") // remove ""
val n = Name(names(0), names(1));
if (! employees.contains(n))
throw new UnknownEmployee(n)
currentEmployee = employees(n)
currentEmployee
}
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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/pcdsl/payroll-parser-comb-spec.scala
import org.specs._
import payroll._
// Doesn't test "sad path" scenarios...

object PayrollParserCombinatorsSpec
extends Specification("PayrollParserCombinators") {
val salary = Money(100000.1) // for a full year

val gross = salary / 26. // for two weeks
val buck = Employee(Name("Buck", "Trends"), salary)
val employees = Map(buck.name -> buck)
implicit def money2double(m: Money) = m.amount.doubleValue
"PayrollParserCombinators" should {
"calculate the gross == net when there are no deductions" in {
val input = """paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {}"""
val p = new PayrollParserCombinators(employees)
case p.Success(Pair(employee, paycheck),_) =>
employee mustEqual buck
paycheck.gross must beCloseTo(gross, Money(.001))
paycheck.net must beCloseTo(gross, Money(.001))
// zero deductions?
paycheck.deductions must beCloseTo(Money(0.), Money(.001))
}
}
"calculate the gross, net, and deductions for the pay period" in {
val input =
"""paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {
}"""
val p = new PayrollParserCombinators(employees)

case p.Success(Pair(employee, paycheck),_) =>
employee mustEqual buck
val deductions = (gross * .4) + Money(500)
val net = gross - deductions
paycheck.gross must beCloseTo(gross, Money(.001))
paycheck.net must beCloseTo(net, Money(.001))
paycheck.deductions must beCloseTo(deductions, Money(.001))
}
}
}
}
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248 | Chapter 12:The Scala Type System
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Annotation Java equivalent Description
+ ? extends T Covariant subclassing. E.g., List[Tsub] is a subtype of List[T].
- ? super T Contravariant subclassing. E.g., X[Tsup] is a subtype of X[T].
none T Invariant subclassing. E.g., Can’t substitute Y[Tsup] or Y[Tsub] for Y[T].
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/func-script.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
class CSuper { def msuper = println("CSuper") }

class C extends CSuper { def m = println("C") }
class CSub extends C { def msub = println("CSub") }
var f: C => C = (c: C) => new C // #1

f = (c: CSuper) => new CSub // #2
f = (c: CSuper) => new C // #3
f = (c: C) => new CSub // #4
f = (c: CSub) => new CSuper // #5: ERROR!
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/func2-script.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
class CSuper { def msuper = println("CSuper") }

class C extends CSuper { def m = println("C") }
class CSub extends C { def msub = println("CSub") }
def useF(f: C => C) = {

val c1 = new C // #1
val c2: C = f(c1) // #2
c2.msuper // #3
c2.m // #4
}
useF((c: C) => new C) // #5

useF((c: CSuper) => new CSub) // #6
useF((c: CSub) => {println(c.msub); new CSuper}) // #7: ERROR!
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trait MyFunction2[+T1, +T2, -R] {
def apply(v1:T1, v2:T2): R = { ... }
...
}
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... error: contravariant type R occurs in covariant position in type (T1,T2)R
def apply(v1:T1, v2:T2):R
^
... error: covariant type T1 occurs in contravariant position in type T1 ...
^
... error: covariant type T2 occurs in contravariant position in type T2 ...
^
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/mutable-type-variance-script.scala
// WON'T COMPILE: Mutable parameterized types can't have variance annotations
class ContainerPlus[+A](var value: A) // ERROR

class ContainerMinus[-A](var value: A) // ERROR
println( new ContainerPlus("Hello World!") )

println( new ContainerMinus("Hello World!") )
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... 4: error: covariant type A occurs in contravariant position in type A \
of parameter of setter value_=
class ContainerPlus[+A](var value: A) // ERROR
^
... 5: error: contravariant type A occurs in covariant position in type => A \
of method value
class ContainerMinus[-A](var value: A) // ERROR
^
two errors found
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/Option.java
package variances;
abstract public class Option<T> {

abstract public boolean isEmpty();
abstract public T get();
public T getOrElse(T t) {
return isEmpty() ? t : get();
}
}
// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/Some.java
package variances;
public class Some<T> extends Option<T> {
public Some(T value) {

this.value = value;
}
public boolean isEmpty() { return false; }
private T value;
public T get() { return value; }
public String toString() {

return "Option(" + value + ")";
}
}
// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/None.java
package variances;
public class None<T> extends Option<T> {
public boolean isEmpty() { return true; }
public T get() { throw new java.util.NoSuchElementException(); }
public String toString() {

return "None";
}
}
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/OptionExample.java
package variances;
import java.io.*;
import shapes.*; // From "Introducing Scala" chapter
public class OptionExample {

static String[] shapeNames = {"Rectangle", "Circle", "Triangle", "Unknown"};
static public void main(String[] args) {
Option<? extends Shape> shapeOption =

makeShape(shapeNames[0], new Point(0.,0.), 2., 5.);
print(shapeNames[0], shapeOption);
shapeOption = makeShape(shapeNames[1], new Point(0.,0.), 2.);

shapeOption = makeShape(shapeNames[2],
new Point(0.,0.), new Point(2.,0.), new Point(0.,2.));
shapeOption = makeShape(shapeNames[3]);
}
static public Option<? extends Shape> makeShape(String shapeName,
Object... args) {
if (shapeName == shapeNames[0])
return new Some<Rectangle>(new Rectangle((Point) args[0],
(Double) args[1], (Double) args[2]));
else if (shapeName == shapeNames[1])
return new Some<Circle>(new Circle((Point) args[0], (Double) args[1]));
else if (shapeName == shapeNames[2])
return new Some<Triangle>(new Triangle((Point) args[0],
(Point) args[1], (Point) args[2]));
else
return new None<Shape>();
}
static void print(String name, Option<? extends Shape> shapeOption) {

System.out.println(name + "? " + shapeOption);
}
}
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/shapes/shapes.scala
package shapes {
case class Point(x: Double, y: Double) {
}

def draw(): Unit
}
case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape {

}

extends Shape {
}

extends Shape() {
}
}
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Rectangle? Option(Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,5.0))
Circle? Option(Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0))
Triangle? Option(Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(2.0,0.0),Point(0.0,2.0)))
Unknown? None
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array
}
...
}
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class List[+A] {
...
def ::[B >: A](x : B) : List[B] = new scala.::(x, this)
...
}
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/bounds/list-ab-script.scala
val languages = List("Scala", "Java", "Ruby", "C#", "C++", "Python")

val list = 3.14 :: languages
println(list)
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/bounds/abbrev-list.scala
// Adapted from scala/List.scala in the Scala version 2.7.5 distribution.
package bounds.abbrevlist
sealed abstract class AbbrevList[+A] {
def isEmpty: Boolean

def head: A
Type Bounds | 261
def tail: AbbrevList[A]
def ::[B >: A] (x: B): AbbrevList[B] = new bounds.abbrevlist.::(x, this)
final def foreach(f: A => Unit) = {

var these = this
while (!these.isEmpty) {
f(these.head)
these = these.tail
}
}
}
// The empty AbbrevList.
case object AbbrevNil extends AbbrevList[Nothing] {

override def isEmpty = true
def head: Nothing =

throw new NoSuchElementException("head of empty AbbrevList")
def tail: AbbrevList[Nothing] =

throw new NoSuchElementException("tail of empty AbbrevList")
}
// A non-empty AbbrevList characterized by a head and a tail.
final case class ::[B](private var hd: B,

private[abbrevlist] var tl: AbbrevList[B]) extends AbbrevList[B] {
override def isEmpty: Boolean = false

def head : B = hd
def tail : AbbrevList[B] = tl
}
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Welcome to Scala version 2.7.5.final ...
scala> import bounds.abbrevlist._

import bounds.abbrevlist._
scala> 1 :: 2 :: 3 :: AbbrevNil
res1: bounds.abbrevlist.AbbrevList[Int] = ::(1,::(2,::(3,AbbrevNil)))
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/bounds/node.scala
package bounds
abstract trait Node[+A] {

def payload: A
def next: Node[A]
}
case class ::[+A](val payload: A, val next: Node[A]) extends Node[A] {

override def toString =
String.format("(%s :: %s)", payload.toString, next.toString)
}
object NilNode extends Node[Nothing] {

def payload = throw new NoSuchElementException("No payload in NilNode")
def next = throw new NoSuchElementException("No next in NilNode")
override def toString = "*"

}
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/bounds/view-bounds-script.scala
import bounds._
implicit def any2Node[A](x: A): Node[A] = bounds.::[A](x, NilNode)
case class LinkedList[A <% Node[A]](val head: Node[A]) {
def ::[B >: A <% Node[B]](x: Node[B]) =

LinkedList(bounds.::(x.payload, head))
override def toString = head.toString

}
val list1 = LinkedList(1)

val list2 = 2 :: list1
val list3 = 3 :: list2
val list4 = "FOUR!" :: list3
println(list1)
println(list2)
println(list3)
println(list4)
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Type Bounds | 265
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package observer
Understanding Abstract Types | 267
type Observer


}


}


}
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/abstracttypes/abs-type-examples-script.scala
trait exampleTrait {
type t1 // Unconstrained
type t2 >: t3 <: t1 // t2 must be a supertype of t3 and a subtype of t1
type t3 <: t1 // t3 must be a subtype of t1
type t4 // Unconstrained
type t5 = List[t4] // List of t4, whatever t4 will eventually be...
val v1: t1 // Can't initialize until t1 defined.

val v3: t3 // etc.
val v2: t2 // ...
val v4: t4 // ...
val v5: t5 // ...
}
trait T1 { val name1: String }
trait T2 extends T1 { val name2: String }
class C(val name1: String, val name2: String) extends T2
object example extends exampleTrait {

type t1 = T1
type t2 = T2
type t3 = C
type t4 = Int
val v1 = new T1 { val name1 = "T1"}

val v3 = new C("C1", "C2")
val v2 = new T2 { val name1 = "T1"; val name2 = "T2" }
val v4 = 10
val v5 = List(1,2,3,4,5)
}
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/abstracttypes/abs-type-variances-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
trait T1 { val name1: String }

trait T2 extends T1 { val name2: String }
class C(val name1: String, val name2: String) extends T2
trait T {
type t: +T1 // ERROR, no +/- type variance annotations
val v
}
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case final class Some[+A](val x : A) { ... }
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case final class Some(val x : ???) {
type A
...
}
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class List[+A] {
...
def ::[B >: A](x : B) : List[B] = new scala.::(x, this)
...
}
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trait T1 {
type t
val v: t
}
trait T2 extends T1 {
type t <: SomeType1
}
trait T3 extends T2 {
type t <: SomeType2 // where SomeType2 <: SomeType1
}
class C extends T3 {
type t = Concrete // where Concrete <: SomeType2
val v = new Concrete(...)
}
...
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import java.io._

type In
val source: In
def read: String
}

type In = String
def read = source
}

type In = File
def read = {
new String(bytes)
}
}

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PHWHUL]HGW\SHVPRUHRIWHQWKDQDEVWUDFWW\SHV7KH6FDODVWDQGDUGOLEUDU\WHQGVWR
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Path-Dependent Types
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/typepaths/type-path-wont-compile.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile
trait Service {
trait Logger {
def log(message: String): Unit
}
val logger: Logger
def run = {
logger.log("Starting " + getClass.getSimpleName + ":")
doRun
}
protected def doRun: Boolean

}
object MyService1 extends Service {

class MyService1Logger extends Logger {
def log(message: String) = println("1: "+message)
}
override val logger = new MyService1Logger
def doRun = true // do some real work...
}
object MyService2 extends Service {

override val logger = MyService1.logger // ERROR
def doRun = true // do some real work...
}
,I\RXFRPSLOHWKLVILOH\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
...:27: error: error overriding value logger in trait Service of type \
MyService2.Logger;
value logger has incompatible type MyService1.MyService1Logger
override val logger = MyService1.logger // ERROR
^
one error found
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class C1 {
var x = "1"
def setX1(x:String) = this.x = x
def setX2(x:String) = C1.this.x = x
}
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trait T1 {
class C
val c1 = new C
val c2 = new this.C
}
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class C2 extends C1
class C3 extends C2 {
def setX3(x:String) = super.setX1(x)
def setX4(x:String) = C3.super.setX1(x)
Path-Dependent Types | 273
def setX5(x:String) = C3.super[C2].setX1(x)
}
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class C4 {
class C5
}
class C6 extends C4 {
val c5a = new C5
val c5b = new super.C5
}
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package P1 {
object O1 {
object O2 {
val name = "name"
}
}
}
class C7 {
val name = P1.O1.O2.name
}
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object O3 {
object O4 {
type t = java.io.File
class C
trait T
}
class C2 {
type t = Int
}
}
class C8 {
type t1 = O3.O4.t
type t2 = O3.O4.C
type t3 = O3.O4.T
// type t4 = O3.C2.t // ERROR: C2 is not a "value" in O3
}
Value Types
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class Person // "Person" is a type designator
object O { type t } // "O" and "t" are type designators
...
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Compound Types
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scala> val x = new T1 with T2 {
type z = String
val v: z = "Z"
}
x: java.lang.Object with T1 with T2{type z = String; def zv: this.z} = \
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/valuetypes/infix-types-script.scala
def attempt(operation: => Boolean): Throwable Either Boolean = try {

Right(operation)
} catch {
case t: Throwable => Left(t)
}
println(attempt { throw new RuntimeException("Boo!") })

println(attempt { true })
println(attempt { false })
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VRXUFHIRUscala.Function3RPLWWLQJPRVWFRPPHQWVDQGDIHZRWKHUGHWDLOVWKDW
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// From Scala version 2.7.5: scala.Function3 (excerpt).
package scala
trait Function3[-T1, -T2, -T3, +R] extends AnyRef {

def apply(v1:T1, v2:T2, v3:T3): R
override def toString() = "<function>"
/** f(x1,x2,x3) == (f.curry)(x1)(x2)(x3)

*/
def curry: T1 => T2 => T3 => R = {
(x1: T1) => (x2: T2) => (x3: T3) => apply(x1,x2,x3)
}
}
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SDUDPHWHU
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/valuetypes/function-types-script.scala
val capitalizer = (s: String) => s.toUpperCase
val capitalizer2 = new Function1[String,String] {

def apply(s: String) = s.toUpperCase
}
println( List("Programming", "Scala") map capitalizer)

println( List("Programming", "Scala") map capitalizer2)
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Value Types | 277
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IXQFWLRQZLWK NDUJXPHQWOLVWVHDFKRIZKLFKKDVDVLQJOHDUJXPHQWWDNHQIURPWKH
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/valuetypes/curried-function-script.scala
val f = (x: Double, y: Double, z: Double) => x * y / z

val fc = f.curry
val answer1 = f(2., 5., 4.)

val answer2 = fc(2.)(5.)(4.)
println( answer1 + " == " + answer2 + "? " + (answer1 == answer2))
val fc1 = fc(2.)

val fc2 = fc1(5.)
val answer3 = fc2(4.)
println( answer3 + " == " + answer2 + "? " + (answer3 == answer2))
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2.5 == 2.5? true
2.5 == 2.5? true
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IXQFWLRQRIW\SHT3 => RWKDWLVDouble => Double)LQDOO\LQval answer3 = fc2(4.)
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W\SHV,QWKH6FDODOLEUDU\Seq[+A]LVDVXEFODVVRIPartialFunction[Int,A]ZKLFKLVD
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Type Projections
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/valuetypes/type-projection-script.scala
trait T {
type t <: AnyRef
}
class C1 extends T {
type t = String
}
class C2 extends C1
val ic1: C1#t = "C1"

val ic2: C2#t = "C2"
println(ic1)
println(ic2)
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Singleton Types
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7KLVH[DPSOHXVHVWKHVLQJOHWRQW\SHIRURQHYDOXHLQDGHFODUDWLRQRIDQRWKHU
class C {
val x = "Cx"
}
val c = new C
val x: c.x.type = c.x
Self-Type Annotations
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HQFLQJDPHPEHURIWKHW\SH8VLQJthisLVQRWXVXDOO\QHFHVVDU\IRUWKLVSXUSRVHEXW
LW¦VXVHIXORFFDVLRQDOO\IRUGLVDPELJXDWLQJDUHIHUHQFHZKHQVHYHUDOYDOXHVDUHLQVFRSH
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Self-Type Annotations | 279
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/selftype/this-alias-script.scala
class C1 { self =>

def talk(message: String) = println("C1.talk: " + message)
class C2 {
class C3 {
def talk(message: String) = self.talk("C3.talk: " + message)
}
val c3 = new C3
}
val c2 = new C2
}
val c1 = new C1
c1.talk("Hello")
c1.c2.c3.talk("World")
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C1.talk: Hello
C1.talk: C3.talk: World
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/selftype/selftype-script.scala
trait Persistence {
def startPersistence: Unit
}
trait Midtier {
def startMidtier: Unit
}
trait UI {
def startUI: Unit
}
trait Database extends Persistence {

def startPersistence = println("Starting Database")
}
trait ComputeCluster extends Midtier {

def startMidtier = println("Starting ComputeCluster")
}
trait WebUI extends UI {

def startUI = println("Starting WebUI")
}
trait App {
self: Persistence with Midtier with UI =>
def run = {
startPersistence
startMidtier
startUI
}
}
object MyApp extends App with Database with ComputeCluster with WebUI
MyApp.run
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trait App with Persistence with Midtier with UI {
def run = { ... }

}
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Self-Type Annotations | 281
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/selftype/JavaApp.java
package selftype;
public abstract class JavaApp {

public interface Persistence {
public void startPersistence();
}
public interface Midtier {

public void startMidtier();
}
public interface UI {
public void startUI();
}
private Persistence persistence;

private Midtier midtier;
private UI ui;
public JavaApp(Persistence persistence, Midtier midtier, UI ui) {

this.persistence = persistence;
this.midtier = midtier;
this.ui = ui;
}
public void run() {

persistence.startPersistence();
midtier.startMidtier();
ui.startUI();
}
}
:HQHVWHGWKHFRPSRQHQWLQWHUIDFHVLQVLGHJavaAppWRDYRLGFUHDWLQJVHSDUDWHILOHVIRU
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Structural Types
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// code-examples/Traits/observer/observer.scala
package observer
trait Subject {

}
7KHGHFODUDWLRQtype Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }VD\VWKDWDQ\

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FDVHWKHFRXSOLQJFRQVLVWVRIRQO\DVLQJOHPHWKRGVLJQDWXUHUDWKHUWKDQDW\SHVXFK
DVDVKDUHGWUDLW$GUDZEDFNRIDVWUXFWXUDOW\SHLVWKDWZHVWLOOFRXSOHWRDSDUWLFXODU
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Structural Types | 283
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WRLWKDVPRUHPHULW)RUH[DPSOH foreachLVYHU\FRPPRQQDPHLQWKH6FDODOLEUDU\
ZLWKDSDUWLFXODUPHDQLQJVRGHILQLQJDVWUXFWXUDOW\SHEDVHGRQforeachPLJKWEHEHWWHU
IRUFRQYH\LQJLQWHQWWRWKHXVHUUDWKHUWKDQXVLQJDQDQRQ\PRXVIXQFWLRQRIVRPHNLQG
Existential Types
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/existentials/type-erasure-wont-work.scala
// WARNINGS: Does not work as you might expect.
object ProcessList {
def apply[B](list: List[B]) = list match {
case lInt: List[Int] => // do something
case lDouble: List[Double] => // do something
case lString: List[String] => // do something
case _ => // default behavior
}
}
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case l: List[_] => // do something "generic" with the list
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Shorthand Full Description
List[_] List[T] forSome { type T } T can be any subtype of Any.
List[_ <: List[T] forSome { type T <: T can be any subtype of
scala.actors.AbstractActor] scala.actors.AbstractActor } AbstractActor.
List[_ >: MyFancyActor <: List[T] forSome { type T >: T can be any subtype of
scala.actors.AbstractActor] MyFancyActor <: AbstractActor up to and
scala.actors.AbstractActor } including the subtype
MyFancyActor.
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Infinite Data Structures and Laziness

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OLNH+DVNHOOOD]LQHVVPDNHVLWHDV\WRVXSSRUWLQILQLWHGDWDVWUXFWXUHV
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def fib(n: Int): Int = n match {
case 0 | 1 => n
case _ => fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)
}
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Infinite Data Structures and Laziness | 285
fibonacci_sequence = for (i <- 0 to infinity) yield fib(i)
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/lazy/lazy-ints-script.scala
def from(n: Int): Stream[Int] = Stream.cons(n, from(n+1))
lazy val ints = from(0)

lazy val odds = ints.filter(_ % 2 == 1)
lazy val evens = ints.filter(_ % 2 == 0)
odds.take(10).print
evens.take(10).print
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1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, Stream.empty
0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, Stream.empty
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VWUHDPVDUHFRPSXWHGE\ILOWHULQJints
2QFHZHKDYHGHILQHGWKHVWUHDPVWKHtakePHWKRGUHWXUQVDQHZVWUHDPRIWKHIL[HG
VL]HVSHFLILHGLQWKLVFDVH:KHQZHSULQWWKLVVWUHDPZLWKWKH printPHWKRGLW
SULQWVWKHHOHPHQWVIROORZHGE\Stream.emptyZKHQLWKLWVWKHHQGRIWKHVWUHDP
5HWXUQLQJWRWKH)LERQDFFLVHTXHQFHWKHUHLVDIDPRXVGHILQLWLRQXVLQJLQILQLWHOD]\
VHTXHQFHVWKDWH[SORLWVWKHzipRSHUDWLRQVHHHJ>$EHOVRQ@2XUGLVFXVVLRQIRU
6FDODLVDGDSWHGIURP>2UWL]@
// code-examples/TypeSystem/lazy/lazy-fibonacci-script.scala
lazy val fib: Stream[Int] =

Stream.cons(0, Stream.cons(1, fib.zip(fib.tail).map(p => p._1 + p._2)))
fib.take(10).print
,WSURGXFHVWKLVRXWSXW
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, Stream.empty
+RZGRHVWKLVZRUN"/LNHRXULWHUDWLYHGHILQLWLRQDWWKHVWDUWRIWKLVVHFWLRQZHH[SOLFLWO\
VSHFLI\WKHILUVWWZRYDOXHVDQG7KHUHVWRIWKHQXPEHUVDUHFRPSXWHGXVLQJzip
H[SORLWLQJWKHIDFWWKDWfib(n) = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)IRUn > 1
7KHFDOOfib.zip(fib.tail)FUHDWHVDQHZVWUHDPRIWXSOHVZLWKWKHHOHPHQWVRIfibLQ
WKHILUVWSRVLWLRQRIWKHWXSOHDQGWKHHOHPHQWVRI fib.tailLQWKHVHFRQGSRVLWLRQRI
WKHWXSOH7RJHWEDFNWRDVLQJOHLQWHJHUIRUHDFKSRVLWLRQLQWKHVWUHDPZHPDSWKH
VWUHDPRIWXSOHVWRDVWUHDPRIIntsE\DGGLQJWKHWXSOHHOHPHQWV+HUHDUHWKHWXSOHV
FDOFXODWHG
(0,1), (1,1), (1,2), (2,3), (3,5), (5,8), (8,13), (13, 21), (21, 34), ...
1RWHWKDWHDFKVHFRQGHOHPHQWLVWKHQH[WQXPEHULQWKH)LERQDFFLVHTXHQFHDIWHUWKH
ILUVWHOHPHQWLQWKHWXSOH$GGLQJWKHPZHJHWWKHIROORZLQJ
1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, ...
6LQFHZHFRQFDWHQDWHWKLVVWUHDPDIWHUDQGZHJHWWKH)LERQDFFLVHTXHQFH
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, ...
$QRWKHUOD]\6FDODW\SHDOEHLWDILQLWHRQHLVRange7\SLFDOO\\RXZULWHOLWHUDOUDQJHV
VXFKDV1 to 1000RangeLVOD]\VRYHU\ODUJHUDQJHVGRQ¦WFRQVXPHWRRPDQ\UHVRXUFHV
+RZHYHUWKLVIHDWXUHFDQOHDGWRVXEWOHSUREOHPVXQOHVV\RXDUHFDUHIXODVGRFXPHQWHG
E\>6PLWKE@DQGFRPPHQWHUV8VLQJWKHH[DPSOHGHVFULEHGWKHUHFRQVLGHUWKLV
IXQFWLRQIRUUHWXUQLQJDSeqRIWKUHHUDQGRPLQWHJHUV
// code-examples/TypeSystem/lazy/lazy-range-danger-script.scala
def mkRandomInts() = {
val randInts = for {
i <- 1 to 3
val rand = i + (new scala.util.Random).nextInt
} yield rand
randInts
}
val ints1 = mkRandomInts
println("Calling first on ints1 Seq:")

for (i <- 1 to 3) {
println( ints1.first)
}
val ints2 = ints1.toList

println("Calling first on List created from ints1 Seq:")
for (i <- 1 to 3) {
println( ints2.first)
}
+HUHLVWKHRXWSXWIURPRQHUXQ7KHDFWXDOYDOXHVZLOOYDU\IURPUXQWRUXQ
Calling first on ints1 Seq:
-1532554511
-1532939260
-1532939260
Calling first on List created from ints1 Seq:
-1537171498
-1537171498
-1537171498
Infinite Data Structures and Laziness | 287
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CHAPTER 13
Application Design
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// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/Pre.java
package org.contract4j5.contract;
import java.lang.annotation.Documented;
import java.lang.annotation.ElementType;
import java.lang.annotation.Retention;
import java.lang.annotation.RetentionPolicy;
import java.lang.annotation.Target;
289
@Documented
@Retention(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME)
@Target({ElementType.PARAMETER, ElementType.METHOD, ElementType.CONSTRUCTOR})
public @interface Pre {
/**
* The "value" is the test expression, which must evaluate to true or false.
* It must be a valid expression in the scripting language you are using.
*/
String value() default "";
/**
* An optional message to print with the standard message when the contract
* fails.
*/
String message() default "";
}
7KH @PreDQQRWDWLRQLVXVHGWRVSHFLI\£SUHFRQGLWLRQV¤WKDWPXVWEHVDWLVILHGZKHQ
HQWHULQJDPHWKRGRUFRQVWUXFWRURUEHIRUHXVLQJDSDUDPHWHUSDVVHGWRDPHWKRGRU
FRQVWUXFWRU7KHFRQGLWLRQVDUHVSHFLILHGDVDVWULQJWKDWLVDFWXDOO\DVQLSSHWRIVRXUFH
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messageSDUDPHWHUV
// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/pre-example.scala
import org.contract4j5.contract._
class Person(
@Pre( "name != null && name.length() > 0" )
val name: String,
@Pre{ val value = "age > 0", val message = "You're too young!" }
val age: Int,
@Pre( "ssn != null" )
val ssn: SSN)
class SSN(
@Pre( "valid(ssn)" ) { val message = "Format must be NNN-NN-NNNN." }
val ssn: String) {
private def valid(value: String) =

value.matches("""^\s*\d{3}-\d{2}-\d{4}\s*$""")
}
290 | Chapter 13:Application Design
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package scala
class SerialVersionUID(uid: Long) extends StaticAnnotation
7KH@SerialVersionUIDDQQRWDWLRQLVDSSOLHGWRDFODVVWRGHILQHDJOREDOO\XQLTXH,'
DVDLong:KHQWKHDQQRWDWLRQLVXVHGWKH,'LVVSHFLILHGDVDFRQVWUXFWRUDUJXPHQW
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Annotations | 291
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@MyAnnotation LI WKH DQQRWDWLRQ FRQVWUXFWRU WDNHV QR SDUDPHWHUV RU @MyAnnota
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VXEFODVVRIscala.Annotation
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// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/anno-example.scala
import scala.StaticAnnotation
class Persist(tableName: String, params: Map[String,Any])

extends StaticAnnotation
// Doesn't compile:
//@Persist("ACCOUNTS", Map("dbms" -> "MySql", "writeAutomatically" -> true))
@Persist("ACCOUNTS", Map(("dbms", "MySql"), ("writeAutomatically", true)))
class Account(val balance: Double)
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...: warning: implementation restriction: subclassing Classfile does not
make your annotation visible at runtime. If that is what
you want, you must write the annotation class in Java.
...
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Name Java equivalent Description
ClassfileAnnotation Annotate with @Retention The parent trait for annotations that should be retained
(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME) in the class file for runtime access, but it doesn’t actually
work on the JDK!
BeanDescription BeanDescriptor (class) An annotation for JavaBean types or members that
associates a short description (provided as the anno-
tation argument) that will be included when gener-
ating bean information.
BeanDisplayName BeanDescriptor (class) An annotation for JavaBean types or members that
associates a name (provided as the annotation argu-
ment) that will be included when generating bean
information.
BeanInfo BeanInfo (class) A marker that indicates that a BeanInfo class should
be generated for the marked Scala class. A val
becomes a read-only property. A var becomes a read-
write property. A def becomes a method.
BeanInfoSkip N.A. A marker that indicates that bean information should
not be generated for the annotated member.
StaticAnnotation Static fields, The parent trait of annotations that should be visible
@Target(ElementType.TYPE) across compilation units and define “static” metadata.
Annotations | 293
TypeConstraint N.A. An annotation trait that can be applied to other an-
notations that define constraints on a type, relying
only on information defined within the type itself, as
opposed to external context information where the
type is defined or used. The compiler can exploit this
restriction to rewrite the constraint. There are currently
no library annotations that use this trait.
unchecked N.A. A marker annotation for the selector in a match state-
ment (e.g., the x in x match {...}) that sup-
presses a compiler warning if the case clauses are not
“exhaustive.” You can still have a runtime MatchEr
ror occur if a value of x fails to match any of the
case clauses. See the upcoming example.
unsealed N.A. Deprecated, use @unchecked instead.
7DEOH6FDODDQQRWDWLRQVGHULYHGIURP6WDWLF$QQRWDWLRQ
BeanProperty JavaBean convention A marker for a field (including a constructor argument with
the val or var keyword) that tells the compiler to generate
a JavaBean-style “getter” and “setter” method. The setter is
only generated for var declarations. See the discussion in
“JavaBean Properties” on page 374.
cloneable java.lang.Cloneable A class marker indicating that a class can be cloned.
(interface)
cps N.A. (version 2.8) Generate byte code using continuation passing
style.
deprecated java.lang.Deprecated A marker for any definition indicating that the defined “item”
is obsolete. The compiler will issue a warning when the item
is used.
inline N.A. A method marker telling the compiler that it should try
“especially hard” to inline the method.
native native (keyword) A method marker indicating the method is implemented as
“native” code. The method body will not be generated by the
compiler, but usage of the method will be type checked.
noinline N.A. A method marker that prevents the compiler from inlining the
method, even when it appears to be safe to do so.
remote java.rmi.Remote A class marker indicating that the class can be invoked from a
(interface) remote JVM.
serializable java.io.Serializable A class marker indicating that the class can be serialized.
(interface)
SerialVersionUID serialVersionUID static Defines a globally unique ID for serialization purposes. The
field in a class annotation’s constructor takes a Long argument for the UID.
switch N.A. (version 2.8) An annotation to be applied to a match expression,
e.g., (x: @switch) match {...}. When present, the
compiler will verify that the match has been compiled to a
table-based or lookup-based switch statement. If not, it will
issue an error if it instead compiles into a series of conditional
expressions, which are less efficient.
specialized N.A. (version 2.8) An annotation applied to type parameters in par-
ameterized types and methods. It tells the compiler to generate
optimized versions of the type or method for the AnyVal types
corresponding to platform primitive types. Optionally, you can
limit the AnyVal types for which specialized implementations
will be generated. See the upcoming discussion.
tailRec N.A. (version 2.8) A method annotation that tells the compiler to
verify that the method will be compiled with tail-call optimi-
zation. If it is present, the compiler will issue an error if the
method cannot be optimized into a loop. This happens, for
example, when the method is not private or final, when
it could be overridden, and when recursive invocations are not
true tail calls.
throws throws (keyword) Indicates which exceptions are thrown by the annotated
method. See the upcoming discussion.
transient transient (keyword) Marks a method as “transient.”
uncheckedStable N.A. A marker for a value that is assumed to be stable even though
its type is volatile (i.e., annotated with @volatile).
uncheckedVariance N.A. A marker for a type argument that is volatile, when it is used
in a parameterized type, to suppress variance checking.
volatile volatile (keyword, A marker for an individual field or a whole type, which affects
for fields only) all fields, indicating that the field may be modified by a separate
thread.
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ODWHU&RQVLGHU@tailrecDVXVHGLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
import scala.annotation.tailrec
@tailrec
def fib(i: Int): Int = i match {
case _ if i <= 1 => i
case _ => fib(i-1) + fib(i-2)
}
println(fib(5))
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UHFXUVLYHEHFDXVHWKHFDOOWRLWVHOILVQRWWKHYHU\ODVWWKLQJWKDWKDSSHQVLQWKHVHFRQG
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Annotations | 295
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... 4: error: could not optimize @tailrec annotated method
def fib(i: Int): Int = i match {
^
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LQYHUVLRQ
import scala.annotation.switch
def fib(i: Int): Int = (i: @switch) match {

case _ if i <= 1 => i
case _ => fib(i-1) + fib(i-2)
}
println(fib(5))
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... 3: error: could not emit switch for @switch annotated match
def fib(i: Int): Int = (i: @switch) match {
^
one error found
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LVEHFDXVHRIWKHFRQGLWLRQJXDUGFODXVHZHSXWLQWKHILUVWFDVHFODXVHif i <= 1
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...
def process(x: Option[int]) = x match {
case Some(value) => ...
}
...
,I\RXFRPSLOHLW\RXZLOOJHWWKHIROORZLQJZDUQLQJ
...: warning: does not cover case {object None}
def f(x: Option[int]) = x match {
^
one warning found
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...
def process(x: Option[int]) = (x: @unchecked) match {
case Some(value) => ...
}
...
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class SpecialCollection[@specialized +T](...) {
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Annotations | 297
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7KHIROORZLQJ6FDODFODVVSULQWVRXWWKHFRQWHQWVRIDjava.io.File
// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/file-printer.scala
import java.io._
class FilePrinter(val file: File) {
@throws(classOf[IOException])
def print() = {
var reader: LineNumberReader = null
try {
reader = new LineNumberReader(new FileReader(file))
loop(reader)
} finally {
if (reader != null)
reader.close
}
}
private def loop(reader: LineNumberReader): Unit = {

val line = reader.readLine()
if (line != null) {
format("%3d: %s\n", reader.getLineNumber, line)
loop(reader)
}
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/FilePrinterMain.java
import java.io.*;
public class FilePrinterMain {

for (String fileName: args) {
try {
File file = new File(fileName);
new FilePrinter(file).print();
} catch (IOException ioe) {
System.err.println("IOException for file " + fileName);
System.err.println(ioe.getMessage());
}
}
}
}
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scala -cp build FilePrinterMain annotations/FilePrinterMain.java
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1: import java.io.*;
2:
3: public class FilePrinterMain {
4: public static void main(String[] args) {
5: for (String fileName: args) {
6: try {
7: File file = new File(fileName);
8: new FilePrinter(file).print();
9: } catch (IOException ioe) {
10: System.err.println("IOException for file " + fileName);
11: System.err.println(ioe.getMessage());
12: }
13: }
14: }
15: }
1RZUHWXUQLQJWRWKHFilePrinterFODVVVXSSRVH\RXFRPPHQWRXWWKH@throwsOLQH
7KLVILOHZLOOFRQWLQXHWRFRPSLOHEXWZKHQ\RXFRPSLOH FilePrinterMain.java\RX
ZLOOJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
annotations/FilePrinterMain.java:9: exception java.io.IOException is never
thrown in body of corresponding try statement
} catch (IOException ioe) {
^
1 error
Annotations | 299
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Enumerations Versus Pattern Matching

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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/sealed/http-script.scala
sealed abstract class HttpMethod()


}
val methods = List(

methods.foreach { method => handle(method) }
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// code-examples/AppDesign/enumerations/http-enum-script.scala
object HttpMethod extends Enumeration {

type Method = Value
val Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post, Put, Trace = Value
}
import HttpMethod._
def handle (method: HttpMethod.Method) = method match {

case Connect => println("Connect: " + method.id)
case Delete => println("Delete: " + method.id)
case Get => println("Get: " + method.id)
case Head => println("Head: " + method.id)
case Options => println("Options: " + method.id)
case Post => println("Post: " + method.id)
case Put => println("Put: " + method.id)
case Trace => println("Trace: " + method.id)
}
HttpMethod foreach { method => handle(method) }

println( HttpMethod )
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Connect: 0
Delete: 1
Get: 2
Head: 3
Options: 4
Post: 5
Put: 6
Trace: 7
{Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(0), Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(1),
Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(2), Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(3),
Enumerations Versus Pattern Matching | 301
Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(4), Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(5),
Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(6), Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(7)}
:H ZUDSSHG WKH OLQHV IRU WKH RXWSXW EHWZHHQ WKH {...} 7KHUH DUH WZR XVHV RI
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// code-examples/AppDesign/enumerations/http-enum2-script.scala
object HttpMethod extends Enumeration {

type Method = Value
val Connect = Value("Connect")
val Delete = Value("Delete")
val Get = Value("Get")
val Head = Value("Head")
val Options = Value("Options")
val Post = Value("Post")
val Put = Value("Put")
val Trace = Value("Trace")
}
import HttpMethod._

case Connect => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Delete => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Get => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Head => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Options => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Post => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Put => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Trace => println(method + ": " + method.id)
}

,WLVDELWUHGXQGDQWWRKDYHWRXVHWKHVDPHZRUGWZLFHLQGHFODUDWLRQVOLNHval Connect
= Value("Connect")
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Connect: 0
Delete: 1
Get: 2
Head: 3
Options: 4
Post: 5
Put: 6
Trace: 7
{Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post, Put, Trace}
,QWKHVHFRQGDSSURDFKZHSDVVWKHOLVWRIQDPHVWRWKHEnumerationFRQVWUXFWRU
// code-examples/AppDesign/enumerations/http-enum3-script.scala
object HttpMethod extends Enumeration(

"Connect", "Delete", "Get", "Head", "Options", "Post", "Put", "Trace") {
type Method = Value
val Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post, Put, Trace = Value
}
import HttpMethod._

Enumerations Versus Pattern Matching | 303
}

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Thoughts On Annotations and Enumerations

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Enumerations Versus Case Classes and Pattern Matching

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// code-examples/AppDesign/enumerations/http-case-script.scala
sealed abstract class HttpMethod(val id: Int) {

def name = getClass getSimpleName
override def toString = name
}
case object Connect extends HttpMethod(0)

case object Delete extends HttpMethod(1)
case object Get extends HttpMethod(2)
case object Head extends HttpMethod(3)
case object Options extends HttpMethod(4)
case object Post extends HttpMethod(5)
case object Put extends HttpMethod(6)
case object Trace extends HttpMethod(7)

}
List(Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post, Put, Trace) foreach {

method => handle(method)
}
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Main$$anon$1$Delete$: 1
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Main$$anon$1$Options$: 4
Main$$anon$1$Post$: 5
Main$$anon$1$Put$: 6
Main$$anon$1$Trace$: 7
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def getOrElse [B2 >: B](key : A, default : => B2) : B2 = ...
...
}
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...
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case None => println ("No such state!")
case Some(x) => println(x)
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/options-nulls/file-printer-refactored-script.scala
import java.io._
class ScalaIOException(cause: Throwable) extends RuntimeException(cause)
class ScalaLineNumberReader(in: Reader) extends LineNumberReader(in) {

def inputLine() = readLine() match {
case null => None
case line => Some(line)
}
}
object ScalaLineNumberReader {
def apply(file: File) = try {
new ScalaLineNumberReader(new FileReader(file))
} catch {
case ex: IOException => throw new ScalaIOException(ex)
}
}
class FilePrinter(val file: File) {

def print() = {
val reader = ScalaLineNumberReader(file)
try {
loop(reader)
} finally {
if (reader != null)
reader.close
}
}
private def loop(reader: ScalaLineNumberReader): Unit = {

reader.inputLine() match {
case None =>
case Some(line) => {
format("%3d: %s\n", reader.getLineNumber, line)
loop(reader)
Using Nulls Versus Options | 307
}
}
}
}
// Process the command-line arguments (file names):

args.foreach { fileName =>
new FilePrinter(new File(fileName)).print();
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/options-nulls/option-for-comp-v1-script.scala
case class User(userName: String, name: String, email: String, bio: String)
val newUserProfiles = List(

Map("userName" -> "twitspam", "name" -> "Twit Spam"),
Map("userName" -> "bucktrends", "name" -> "Buck Trends",
"email" -> "thebuck@stops.he.re", "bio" -> "World's greatest bloviator"),
Map("userName" -> "lonelygurl", "name" -> "Lonely Gurl",
"bio" -> "Obviously fake..."),
Map("userName" -> "deanwampler", "name" -> "Dean Wampler",
"email" -> "dean@....com", "bio" -> "Scala passionista"),
Map("userName" -> "al3x", "name" -> "Alex Payne",
"email" -> "al3x@....com", "bio" -> "Twitter API genius"))
// Version #1
var validUsers = for {
user <- newUserProfiles
if (user.contains("userName") && user.contains("name") && // #1
user.contains("email") && user.contains("bio")) // #1
userName <- user get "userName"
name <- user get "name"
email <- user get "email"
bio <- user get "bio" }
yield User(userName, name, email, bio)
validUsers.foreach (user => println(user))
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...
var validUsers = for {
user <- newUserProfiles
userName <- user get "userName"
name <- user get "name"
email <- user get "email"
bio <- user get "bio" }
yield User(userName, name, email, bio)
validUsers.foreach (user => println(user))
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case userName => user.get("name") flatMap {
case name => user.get("email") flatMap {
case email => user.get("bio") map {
case bio => User(name, userName, email, bio) // #1
}
}
}
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/encoded-string.scala
package encodedstring {
trait EncodedString {
protected[encodedstring] val string: String
val separator: EncodedString.Separator.Delimiter
override def toString = string
def toTokens = string.split(separator.toString).toList

}
object EncodedString {
object Separator extends Enumeration {
type Delimiter = Value
val COMMA = Value(",")
val TAB = Value("\t")
}
def apply(s: String, sep: Separator.Delimiter) = sep match {

case Separator.COMMA => impl.CSV(s)
case Separator.TAB => impl.TSV(s)
}
def unapply(es: EncodedString) = Some(Pair(es.string, es.separator))

}
package impl {
private[encodedstring] case class CSV(override val string: String)
extends EncodedString {
override val separator = EncodedString.Separator.COMMA
}
private[encodedstring] case class TSV(override val string: String)

extends EncodedString {
override val separator = EncodedString.Separator.TAB
}
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/encoded-string-script.scala
import encodedstring._
import encodedstring.EncodedString._
def p(s: EncodedString) = {

println("EncodedString: " + s)
s.toTokens foreach (x => println("token: " + x))
}
val csv = EncodedString("Scala,is,great!", Separator.COMMA)

val tsv = EncodedString("Scala\tis\tgreat!", Separator.TAB)
p(csv)
p(tsv)
println( "\nExtraction:" )
List(csv, "ProgrammingScala", tsv, 3.14159) foreach {
case EncodedString(str, delim) =>
println( "EncodedString: \"" + str + "\", delimiter: \"" + delim + "\"" )
case s: String => println( "String: " + s )
case x => println( "Unknown Value: " + x )
}
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EncodedString: Scala,is,great!
token: Scala
token: is
token: great!
EncodedString: Scala is great!
token: Scala
token: is
token: great!
Extraction:
EncodedString: "Scala,is,great!", delimiter: ","
String: ProgrammingScala
EncodedString: "Scala is great!", delimiter: " "
Unknown Value: 3.14159
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scala> import encodedstring._
import encodedstring._
scala> val csv = impl.CSV("comma,separated,values")

<console>:6: error: object CSV cannot be accessed in package encodedstring.impl
val csv = impl.CSV("comma,separated,values")
^
scala>
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package observer
type Observer


}


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}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/observer3-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE
package observer
abstract class SubjectObserver {

type S <: Subject
type O <: Observer
trait Subject {
private var observers = List[O]()
def addObserver(observer: O) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(this)) // ERROR
}
trait Observer {
def receiveUpdate(subject: S)
}
}
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found : SubjectObserver.this.Subject
required: SubjectObserver.this.S
^
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/observer3.scala
package observer
abstract class SubjectObserver {

type S <: Subject
type O <: Observer
trait Subject {
self: S => // #1
private var observers = List[O]()
def addObserver(observer: O) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(self)) // #2
}
trait Observer {
def receiveUpdate(subject: S)
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/button-observer3.scala
package ui
import observer._
object ButtonSubjectObserver extends SubjectObserver {

type S = ObservableButton
type O = ButtonObserver
class ObservableButton(name: String) extends Button(name) with Subject {

super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
trait ButtonObserver extends Observer {

def receiveUpdate(button: ObservableButton)
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/button-click-observer3.scala
package ui
import observer._
class ButtonClickObserver extends ButtonSubjectObserver.ButtonObserver {

val clicks = new scala.collection.mutable.HashMap[String,Int]()
def receiveUpdate(button: ButtonSubjectObserver.ObservableButton) = {

val count = clicks.getOrElse(button.label, 0) + 1
clicks.update(button.label, count)
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/button-observer3-spec.scala
package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._
object ButtonObserver3Spec extends Specification {
"An Observer counting button clicks" should {
"see all clicks" in {
val button1 = new ButtonSubjectObserver.ObservableButton("button1")
val buttonObserver = new ButtonClickObserver
button1.addObserver(buttonObserver)
clickButton(button1, 1)
buttonObserver.clicks("button1") mustEqual 1
}
}
def clickButton(button: Button, nClicks: Int) =

for (i <- 1 to nClicks)
button.click()
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/vetoable-clicks1-script.scala
trait Clickable {
def click()
}
class Widget
def click() = println("click!")
}

val maxAllowed = 1
if (count < maxAllowed) {
count += 1
super.click()
}
}
}
val button1 = new Button("click me!")

println("new Button(...)")
for (i <- 1 to 3 ) button1.click()
val button2 = new Button("click me!") with VetoableClicks

println("new Button(...) with VetoableClicks")
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Effective Design of Traits | 323
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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/vetoable-clicks2-script.scala
trait Clickable {
private var clicks = 0
def count = clicks
def click() = { clicks += 1 }

}
class Widget
super.click()
println("click!")
}
}

val maxAllowed = 1
if (count < maxAllowed)
super.click()
}
}
val button1 = new Button("click me!")

println("new Button(...)")
val button2 = new Button("click me!") with VetoableClicks

println("new Button(...) with VetoableClicks")
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case.scala
package shapes {

def draw(): Unit
}

}

extends Shape() {
}

extends Shape() {
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-visitor.scala
package shapes {
trait ShapeVisitor {
def visit(circle: Circle): Unit
def visit(rect: Rectangle): Unit
def visit(tri: Triangle): Unit
}
sealed abstract class Shape() {

def accept(visitor: ShapeVisitor): Unit
}

def accept(visitor: ShapeVisitor) = visitor.visit(this)
}

extends Shape() {
}

extends Shape() {
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-visitor.scala
package shapes {
class ShapeDrawingVisitor extends ShapeVisitor {
def visit(circle: Circle): Unit =
println("Circle.draw: " + circle)
def visit(rect: Rectangle): Unit =
println("Rectangle.draw: " + rect)
def visit(tri: Triangle): Unit =

println("Triangle.draw: " + tri)
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-visitor-script.scala
import shapes._
val p00 = Point(0.0, 0.0)

val p10 = Point(1.0, 0.0)
val p01 = Point(0.0, 1.0)
val list = List(Circle(p00, 5.0),

Rectangle(p00, 2.0, 3.0),
Triangle(p00, p10, p01))
val shapesDrawer = new ShapeDrawingVisitor

list foreach { _.accept(shapesDrawer) }
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes.scala
package shapes2 {
sealed abstract class Shape()
case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape()
extends Shape()

extends Shape()
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-implicit.scala
package shapes2 {
class ShapeDrawer(val shape: Shape) {
def draw = shape match {
case c: Circle => println("Circle.draw: " + c)
case r: Rectangle => println("Rectangle.draw: " + r)
case t: Triangle => println("Triangle.draw: " + t)
}
}
object ShapeDrawer {
implicit def shape2ShapeDrawer(shape: Shape) = new ShapeDrawer(shape)
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-implicit-script.scala
import shapes2._
val p00 = Point(0.0, 0.0)

val p10 = Point(1.0, 0.0)
val p01 = Point(0.0, 1.0)

import shapes2.ShapeDrawer._
list foreach { _.draw }
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-pattern-script.scala
import shapes2._
val p00 = Point(0.0, 0.0)

val p10 = Point(1.0, 0.0)
val p01 = Point(0.0, 1.0)

val drawText = (shape:Shape) => shape match {

case circle: Circle => println("Circle.draw: " + circle)
case rect: Rectangle => println("Rectangle.draw: " + rect)
case tri: Triangle => println("Triangle.draw: " + tri)
}
def pointToXML(point: Point) =

"<point><x>%.1f</x><y>%.1f</y></point>".format(point.x, point.y)
val drawXML = (shape:Shape) => shape match {

case circle: Circle => {
println("<circle>")
println(" <center>" + pointToXML(circle.center) + "</center>")
println(" <radius>" + circle.radius + "</radius>")
println("</circle>")
}
case rect: Rectangle => {
println("<rectangle>")
println(" <lower-left>" + pointToXML(rect.lowerLeft) + "</lower-left>")
println(" <height>" + rect.height + "</height>")
println(" <width>" + rect.width + "</width>")
println("</rectangle>")
}
case tri: Triangle => {
println("<triangle>")
println(" <point1>" + pointToXML(tri.point1) + "</point1>")
println("</triangle>")
}
}
list foreach (drawText)

println("")
list foreach (drawXML)
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<circle>
<center><point><x>0.0</x><y>0.0</y></point></center>
<radius>5.0</radius>
</circle>
<rectangle>
<lower-left><point><x>0.0</x><y>0.0</y></point></lower-left>
<height>2.0</height>
<width>3.0</width>
</rectangle>
<triangle>
<point1><point><x>0.0</x><y>0.0</y></point></point1>
</triangle>
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-factory.scala
package shapes2 {
trait Drawing {
def draw: Unit
}
trait CircleDrawing extends Drawing {

def draw = println("Circle.draw " + this)
}
trait RectangleDrawing extends Drawing {
def draw = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
}
trait TriangleDrawing extends Drawing {
def draw = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
}
object ShapeFactory {
def makeShape(args: Any*) = args(0) match {
case "circle" => {
val center = args(1).asInstanceOf[Point]
val radius = args(2).asInstanceOf[Double]
new Circle(center, radius) with CircleDrawing
}
case "rectangle" => {
val lowerLeft = args(1).asInstanceOf[Point]
val height = args(2).asInstanceOf[Double]
val width = args(3).asInstanceOf[Double]
new Rectangle(lowerLeft, height, width) with RectangleDrawing
}
case "triangle" => {
val p1 = args(1).asInstanceOf[Point]
new Triangle(p1, p2, p3) with TriangleDrawing
}
case x => throw new IllegalArgumentException("unknown: " + x)
}
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-factory-script.scala
import shapes2._
val p00 = Point(0.0, 0.0)

val p10 = Point(1.0, 0.0)
val p01 = Point(0.0, 1.0)
val list = List(

ShapeFactory.makeShape("circle", p00, 5.0),
ShapeFactory.makeShape("rectangle", p00, 2.0, 3.0),
ShapeFactory.makeShape("triangle", p00, p10, p01))
list foreach { _.draw }
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WRU\:KHQZHZDQWWRGUDZWKHVKDSHVLQWKHforeachVWDWHPHQWZHVLPSO\FDOOdraw
RQHDFKVKDSH$VEHIRUHWKHRXWSXWLVWKHIROORZLQJ
Circle.draw Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),5.0)
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$ scala -cp ...
scala> :load design-patterns/shapes-drawing-factory-script.scala

Loading design-patterns/shapes-drawing-factory-script.scala...
import shapes2._
p00: shapes2.Point = Point(0.0,0.0)
list: List[Product with shapes2.Shape with shapes2.Drawing] = List(...)
scala>
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shapes2.Drawing]7KLVOLQHZDVSULQWHGDIWHUWKHOLVWRIVKDSHVZDVSDUVHG7KHLQIHUUHG
FRPPRQVXSHUW\SHLVProduct with shapes2.Shape with shapes2.DrawingProductLVD
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scala> val s: Shape with Drawing = ShapeFactory.makeShape("circle", p00, 5.0)
s: shapes2.Shape with shapes2.Drawing = Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),5.0)
scala> s.draw
scala>
Dependency Injection in Scala: The Cake Pattern

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// code-examples/AppDesign/dep-injection/twitter-client.scala
package twitterclient
import java.util.Date
import java.text.DateFormat
class TwitterUserProfile(val userName: String) {

override def toString = "@" + userName
}
case class Tweet(

val tweeter: TwitterUserProfile,
val message: String,
val time: Date) {
override def toString = "(" +

DateFormat.getDateInstance(DateFormat.FULL).format(time) + ") " +
tweeter + ": " + message
}
trait Tweeter {
def tweet(message: String)
}
trait TwitterClientUIComponent {
val ui: TwitterClientUI
abstract class TwitterClientUI(val client: Tweeter) {

def sendTweet(message: String) = client.tweet(message)
def showTweet(tweet: Tweet): Unit
}
}
trait TwitterLocalCacheComponent {
val localCache: TwitterLocalCache
trait TwitterLocalCache {
def saveTweet(tweet: Tweet): Unit
def history: List[Tweet]
}
}
trait TwitterServiceComponent {
val service: TwitterService
trait TwitterService {
def sendTweet(tweet: Tweet): Boolean
def history: List[Tweet]
}
}
trait TwitterClientComponent {
self: TwitterClientUIComponent with
TwitterLocalCacheComponent with
TwitterServiceComponent =>
val client: TwitterClient
class TwitterClient(val user: TwitterUserProfile) extends Tweeter {

def tweet(msg: String) = {
val twt = new Tweet(user, msg, new Date)
if (service.sendTweet(twt)) {
localCache.saveTweet(twt)
ui.showTweet(twt)
}
}
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/dep-injection/twitter-text-client.scala
package twitterclient
class TextClient(userProfile: TwitterUserProfile)

extends TwitterClientComponent
with TwitterClientUIComponent
with TwitterLocalCacheComponent
with TwitterServiceComponent {
// From TwitterClientComponent:
val client = new TwitterClient(userProfile)
// From TwitterClientUIComponent:
val ui = new TwitterClientUI(client) {

def showTweet(tweet: Tweet) = println(tweet)
}
// From TwitterLocalCacheComponent:
val localCache = new TwitterLocalCache {

private var tweets: List[Tweet] = Nil
def saveTweet(tweet: Tweet) = tweets ::= tweet
def history = tweets

}
// From TwitterServiceComponent
val service = new TwitterService() {

def sendTweet(tweet: Tweet) = {
println("Sending tweet to Twitter HQ")
true
}
def history = List[Tweet]()
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/dep-injection/twitter-text-client-script.scala
import twitterclient._
val client = new TextClient(new TwitterUserProfile("BuckTrends"))

client.ui.sendTweet("My First Tweet. How's this thing work?")
client.ui.sendTweet("Is this thing on?")
client.ui.sendTweet("Heading to the bathroom...")
println("Chat history:")
client.localCache.history.foreach {t => println(t)}
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WZHHWVWKURXJKWKH8,:HILQLVKE\UHSULQWLQJWKHKLVWRU\RIWZHHWVLQUHYHUVHRUGHU
WKDWDUHFDFKHGORFDOO\5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSW\LHOGVRXWSXWOLNHWKHIROORZLQJ
Sending tweet to Twitter HQ
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: My First Tweet. How's this thing work?
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: Is this thing on?
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: Heading to the bathroom...
Chat history:
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: Heading to the bathroom...
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: Is this thing on?
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: My First Tweet. How's this thing work?
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Better Design with Design By Contract

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// code-examples/AppDesign/design-by-contract/bank-account.scala
class BankAccount(val balance: Double) {

require(balance >= 0.0)
def debit(amount: Double) = {
require(amount > 0.0, "The debit amount must be > 0.0")
assume(balance - amount > 0.0, "Overdrafts are not permitted")
new BankAccount(balance - amount)
}
def credit(amount: Double) = {
require(amount > 0.0, "The credit amount must be > 0.0")
new BankAccount(balance + amount)
}
}
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// code-examples/AppDesign/design-by-contract/bank-account-spec.scala
import org.specs._
object BankAccountSpec extends Specification {

"Creating an account with a negative balance" should {
"fail because the initial balance must be positive." in {
new BankAccount(-100.0) must throwAn[IllegalArgumentException]
}
}
"Debiting an account" should {

"fail if the debit amount is < 0" in {
val account = new BankAccount(100.0)
(account.debit(-10.0)) must throwAn[IllegalArgumentException]
}
}
"Debiting an account" should {

"fail if the debit amount is > the balance" in {
val account = new BankAccount(100.0)
(account.debit(110.0)) must throwAn[AssertionError]
}
}
}
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CHAPTER 14
Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support
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Option Description
-X Print a synopsis of advanced options.
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-d directory Specify where to place generated class files.
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-deprecation Output source locations where deprecated APIs are used.
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(version 2.8)
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-target:target Specify for which target JVM object files should be built: jvm-1.5, jvm-1.4, msil.
-unchecked Enable detailed unchecked warnings.
-uniqid Print identifiers with unique names for debugging.
344 | Chapter 14:Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support
Option Description
-verbose Output messages about what the compiler is doing.
-version Print product version and exit.
@ file A text file containing compiler arguments (options and source files).
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The scala Command-Line Tool

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Command-Line Tools | 345
scala [options ...] [script-or-object] [arguments]
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Option Description
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Option Description
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h=Hello
w=World
function commands {
cat <<-EOF
println("$h")
println("$w")
EOF
}
commands | scala
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/script-wrapper.scala
object Script {
def main(args: Array[String]): Unit = {
new AnyRef {
// Your script code is inserted here.
}
}
}
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package com.example.mypkg
class MyClass {
// ...
}
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/example-script.scala
case class Message(name: String)
def printMessage(msg: Message) = {

println(msg)
}
printMessage(new Message(
"Must compile this script with scalac -Xscript <name>!"))
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def printMessage(msg: Message) = {
^
example-script.scala:7: error: expected class or object definition
printMessage(new Message("Must compile this script with scalac -Xscript <name>!"))
^
two errors found
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package MessagePrinter;
final class MessagePrinter extends scala.AnyRef {
}
object MessagePrinter {
def main(scala.Array[java.lang.String]): scala.Unit;
def $tag(): scala.Int;
throws java.rmi.RemoteException
}
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex.scala
case class Complex(real: Double, imaginary: Double) {

def +(that: Complex) =
new Complex(real + that.real, imaginary + that.imaginary)
def -(that: Complex) =
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}
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex-test.scala
import org.scalatest.FunSuite
class ComplexSuite extends FunSuite {
val c1 = Complex(1.2, 3.4)
Test-Driven Development in Scala | 361
test("addition with (0, 0)") {

assert(c1 + Complex(0.0, 0.0) === c1)
}
test("subtraction with (0, 0)") {

assert(c1 - Complex(0.0, 0.0) === c1)
}
test("addition") {
assert((c1 + c2).real === (c1.real + c2.real))
assert((c1 + c2).imaginary === (c1.imaginary + c2.imaginary))
}
test("subtraction") {
assert((c1 - c2).real === (c1.real - c2.real))
assert((c1 - c2).imaginary === (c1.imaginary - c2.imaginary))
}
}
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scalac -classpath ../lib/scalatest-0.9.5.jar -d build complex.scala complex-test.scala
scala -classpath build:../lib/scalatest-0.9.5.jar org.scalatest.tools.Runner \
-p build -o -s ComplexSuite
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Run starting. Expected test count is: 4
Suite Starting - ComplexSuite: The execute method of a nested suite is \
about to be invoked.
Test Starting - ComplexSuite: addition with (0, 0)
Test Succeeded - ComplexSuite: addition with (0, 0)
Test Starting - ComplexSuite: subtraction with (0, 0)
Test Succeeded - ComplexSuite: subtraction with (0, 0)
Test Starting - ComplexSuite: addition
Test Succeeded - ComplexSuite: addition
Test Starting - ComplexSuite: subtraction
Test Succeeded - ComplexSuite: subtraction
Suite Completed - ComplexSuite: The execute method of a nested suite \
returned normally.
Run completed. Total number of tests run was: 4
All tests passed.
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Specs
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex-spec.scala
import org.specs._
object ComplexSpec extends Specification {

"Complex addition with (0.0, 0.0)" should {
"return a number N' that is identical to original number N" in {
(c1 + Complex(0.0, 0.0)) mustEqual c1
}
}
"Complex subtraction with (0.0, 0.0)" should {
"return a number N' that is identical to original number N" in {
(c1 - Complex(0.0, 0.0)) mustEqual c1
}
}
"Complex addition" should {
"""return a new number where
the real and imaginary parts are the sums of the
input values' real and imaginary parts, respectively.""" in {
(c1 + c2).real mustEqual (c1.real + c2.real)
(c1 + c2).imaginary mustEqual (c1.imaginary + c2.imaginary)
}
}
"Complex subtraction" should {
"""return a new number where
the real and imaginary parts are the differences of the
input values' real and imaginary parts, respectively.""" in {
(c1 - c2).real mustEqual (c1.real - c2.real)
(c1 - c2).imaginary mustEqual (c1.imaginary - c2.imaginary)
}
}
}
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Specification "ComplexSpec"
Complex addition with (0.0, 0.0) should
+ return a number N' that is identical to original number N
Total for SUT "Complex addition with (0.0, 0.0)":

Complex subtraction with (0.0, 0.0) should

Total for SUT "Complex subtraction with (0.0, 0.0)":

Complex addition should

+ return a new number where
the real and imaginary parts are the sums of the
input values real and imaginary parts, respectively.
Total for SUT "Complex addition":

1 example, 2 expectations, 0 failure, 0 error
Complex subtraction should

+ return a new number where
the real and imaginary parts are the differences of the
input values real and imaginary parts, respectively.
Total for SUT "Complex subtraction":

1 example, 2 expectations, 0 failure, 0 error
Total for specification "ComplexSpec":

4 examples, 6 expectations, 0 failure, 0 error
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex-check-script.scala
import org.scalacheck._
import org.scalacheck.Prop._
def toD(i: Int) = i * .1
implicit def arbitraryComplex: Arbitrary[Complex] = Arbitrary {

Gen.sized {s =>
for {
r <- Gen.choose(-toD(s), toD(s))
i <- Gen.choose(-toD(s), toD(s))
} yield Complex(r, i)
}
}
object ComplexSpecification extends Properties("Complex") {
def additionTest(a: Complex, b: Complex) =
(a + b).real.equals(a.real + b.real) &&
(a + b).imaginary.equals(a.imaginary + b.imaginary)
def subtractionTest(a: Complex, b: Complex) =

(a - b).real.equals(a.real - b.real) &&
(a - b).imaginary.equals(a.imaginary - b.imaginary)
val zero = Complex(0.0, 0.0)
specify("addition with (0,0)", (a: Complex) => additionTest(a, zero))

specify("subtraction with (0,0)", (a: Complex) => subtractionTest(a, zero))
specify("addition", (a: Complex, b: Complex) => additionTest(a,b))

specify("subtraction", (a: Complex, b: Complex) => subtractionTest(a,b))
}
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scala -classpath ../lib/scalacheck.jar:build complex-check-script.scala
+ Complex.addition with (0,0): OK, passed 100 tests.
+ Complex.addition: OK, passed 100 tests.
+ Complex.subtraction with (0,0): OK, passed 100 tests.
+ Complex.subtraction: OK, passed 100 tests.
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Miscellaneous Smaller Libraries

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Name Description and URL
Kestrel A tiny, very fast queue system (http://github.com/robey/kestrel/tree/master).
ScalaModules Scala DSL to ease OSGi development (http://code.google.com/p/scalamodules/).
Configgy Managing configuration files and logging for “daemons” written in Scala (http://www.lag.net/configgy/).
scouchdb Scala interface to CouchDB (http://code.google.com/p/scouchdb/).
Akka A project to implement a platform for building fault-tolerant, distributed applications based on REST, Actors,
etc. (http://akkasource.org/).
scala-query A type-safe database query API for Scala (http://github.com/szeiger/scala-query/tree/master).
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SOH-DYDJHQHULFFODVVJStack
// code-examples/ToolsLibs/JStack.java
import java.util.*;
public class JStack<T> {

private List<T> stack = new ArrayList<T>();
public void push(T t) {
stack.add(t);
}
public T pop() {
return stack.remove(stack.size() - 1);
}
}
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/JStack-spec.scala
import org.specs._
object JStackSpec extends Specification {

"Calling a Java generic type from Scala" should {
"Support parameterization" in {
val js = new JStack[String]
js must notBe(null) // Dummy check...
}
Java Interoperability | 369
"Support invoking the the type's methods" in {
val js = new JStack[String]
js.push("one")
js.push("two")
js.pop() mustEqual "two"
js.pop() mustEqual "one"
}
}
}
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/SMapTest.java
import org.junit.*;
import static org.junit.Assert.*;
import scala.*;
import scala.collection.mutable.LinkedHashMap;
public class SMapTest {

static class Name {
public String firstName;
public String lastName;
public Name(String firstName, String lastName) {

this.firstName = firstName;
this.lastName = lastName;
}
}
LinkedHashMap<Integer, Name> map;
@Before
public void setup() {
map = new LinkedHashMap<Integer, Name>();
map.update(1, new Name("Dean", "Wampler"));
map.update(2, new Name("Alex", "Payne"));
}
@Test
public void usingMapGetWithWarnings() {
assertEquals(2, map.size());
Option<Name> n1 = map.get(1); // warning
assertTrue(n1.isDefined());
assertEquals("Dean", n1.get().firstName);
assertEquals("Alex", n2.get().firstName);
}
@Test
public void usingMapGetWithoutWarnings() {
Option<?> n1 = map.get(1);
Option<?> n2 = map.get(2);
assertEquals("Dean", ((Name) n1.get()).firstName);
assertEquals("Alex", ((Name) n2.get()).firstName);
}
}
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javac -Xlint:unchecked \
-cp $SCALA_HOME/lib/scala-library.jar:$JUNIT_HOME/junit-4.4.jar SMapTest.java
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SMapTest.java:29: warning: [unchecked] unchecked conversion
found : scala.Option
required: scala.Option<SMapTest.Name>
^
SMapTest.java:30: warning: [unchecked] unchecked conversion
found : scala.Option
required: scala.Option<SMapTest.Name>
^
2 warnings
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/SMapTestWithFunctions.java
import org.junit.*;
import static org.junit.Assert.*;
import scala.*;
import scala.collection.mutable.LinkedHashMap;
import static scala.collection.Map.Projection;
public class SMapTestWithFunctions {

static class Name {
public String firstName;
public String lastName;
public Name(String firstName, String lastName) {

this.firstName = firstName;
this.lastName = lastName;
}
public static Name emptyName = new Name("","");
public static Function0<Name> empty = new Function0<Name>() {

public Name apply() { return emptyName; }
public int $tag() { return 0; }

};
}
LinkedHashMap<Integer, Name> map;
@Before
public void setup() {
map = new LinkedHashMap<Integer, Name>();
map.update(1, new Name("Dean", "Wampler"));
map.update(2, new Name("Alex", "Payne"));
}
@Test
public void usingMapGetOrElse() {
assertEquals("Dean", ((Name) map.getOrElse(1, Name.empty)).firstName);
assertEquals("Alex", ((Name) map.getOrElse(2, Name.empty)).firstName);
}
Function1<Integer, Boolean> filter = new Function1<Integer, Boolean>() {

public Boolean apply(Integer i) { return i.intValue() <= 1; }
public <A> Function1<A,Boolean> compose(Function1<A,Integer> g) {

return Function1$class.compose(this, g);
}
public <A> Function1<Integer,A> andThen(Function1<Boolean,A> g) {

return Function1$class.andThen(this, g);
}
public int $tag() { return 0; }

};
@Test
public void usingFilterKeys() {
Projection<Integer, Name> filteredMap =
(Projection<Integer, Name>) map.filterKeys(filter);
assertEquals(1, filteredMap.size());
assertEquals("Dean", filteredMap.getOrElse(1, Name.empty).firstName);
assertEquals("", filteredMap.getOrElse(2, Name.empty).firstName);
}
}
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex-javabean.scala
case class ComplexBean(

@scala.reflect.BeanProperty real: Double,
@scala.reflect.BeanProperty imaginary: Double) {
def +(that: ComplexBean) =

new ComplexBean(real + that.real, imaginary + that.imaginary)
def -(that: ComplexBean) =
new ComplexBean(real - that.real, imaginary - that.imaginary)
}
,I\RXFRPSLOHWKLVFODVVWKHQGHFRPSLOHLWZLWK javap -classpath ... ComplexBean

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public class ComplexBean extends java.lang.Object
implements scala.ScalaObject,scala.Product,java.io.Serializable{
public ComplexBean(double, double);
public java.lang.Object productElement(int);
public int productArity();
public java.lang.String productPrefix();
public boolean equals(java.lang.Object);
public java.lang.String toString();
public int hashCode();
public int $tag();
public ComplexBean $minus(ComplexBean);
public ComplexBean $plus(ComplexBean);
public double imaginary();
public double real();
public double getImaginary();
public double getReal();
}
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public class Complex extends java.lang.Object
implements scala.ScalaObject,scala.Product,java.io.Serializable{
public Complex(double, double);
public java.lang.Object productElement(int);
public int productArity();
public java.lang.String productPrefix();
public boolean equals(java.lang.Object);
public java.lang.String toString();
public int hashCode();
public int $tag();
public Complex $minus(Complex);
public Complex $plus(Complex);
public double imaginary();
public double real();
}
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void
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> $greater
< $less
+ $plus
Operator Encoding
- $minus
* $times
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| $bar
! $bang
? $qmark
: $colon
% $percent
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/all-op-chars.scala
trait AllOpChars {
def == : Unit // $eq$eq
def > : Unit // $greater
def < : Unit // $less
def + : Unit // $plus
def - : Unit // $minus
def * : Unit // $times
def / : Unit // $div
def \ : Unit // $bslash
def | : Unit // $bar
def ! : Unit // $bang
def ? : Unit // $qmark
def :: : Unit // $colon$colon
def % : Unit // $percent
def ^ : Unit // $up
def & : Unit // $amp
def @@ : Unit // $at$at
def ## : Unit // $hash$hash
def ~ : Unit // $tilde
}
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Compiled from "all-op-chars.scala"
public interface AllOpChars{
public abstract void $eq$eq();
public abstract void $greater();
public abstract void $less();
public abstract void $plus();
public abstract void $minus();
public abstract void $times();
public abstract void $div();
public abstract void $bslash();
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public abstract void $qmark();
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public abstract void $amp();
public abstract void $at$at();
public abstract void $hash$hash();
public abstract void $tilde();
}
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Java Library Interoperability | 377
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/aspectj/complex.scala
package example.aspectj
case class Complex(real: Double, imaginary: Double) {

def +(that: Complex) =
new Complex(real + that.real, imaginary + that.imaginary)
def -(that: Complex) =
new Complex(real - that.real, imaginary - that.imaginary)
}
+HUHLVDQobjectWKDWXVHVComplex
// code-examples/ToolsLibs/aspectj/complex-main.scala
package example.aspectj
object ComplexMain {
val c12 = c1 + c2
println(c12)
}
}
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/aspectj/LogComplex.aj
package example.aspectj;
public aspect LogComplex {

public pointcut newInstances(double real, double imag):
execution(Complex.new(..)) && args(real, imag);
public pointcut plusInvocations(Complex self, Complex other):

execution(Complex Complex.$plus(Complex)) && this(self) && args(other);
before(double real, double imag): newInstances(real, imag) {

System.out.println("new Complex(" + real + "," + imag + ") called.");
}
before(Complex self, Complex other): plusInvocations(self, other) {

System.out.println("Calling " + self + ".+(" + other + ")");
}
after(Complex self, Complex other) returning(Complex c):

plusInvocations(self, other) {
System.out.println("Complex.+ returned " + c);
}
}
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ajc -classpath .:aspectj-home/lib/aspectjrt.jar:../lib/scala-library.jar \
aspectj/LogComplex.aj
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<aspectj>
<aspects>
<aspect name="example.aspectj.LogComplex" />
<include within="example.aspectj.*" />
</aspects>
<weaver options="-verbose">
<dump within="example.aspectj.*" beforeandafter="true">
<include within="example.aspectj.*" />
</dump>
</weaver>
</aspectj>
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java -classpath .:aspectj-home/lib/aspectjrt.jar:../lib/scala-library.jar \
-javaagent:aspectj-home/lib/aspectjweaver.jar example.aspectj.ComplexMain
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/spring/object-bean.scala
package example.spring
case class NamedObject(name: String)
trait Factory {
@scala.reflect.BeanProperty
var nameOfFactory = "unknown"
def make(name: String): AnyRef

}
object NamedObjectFactory extends Factory {

def make(name: String) = NamedObject(name)
}
case class FactoryUsingBean(factory: Factory)
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xsi:schemaLocation="
">
<bean id="factory" class="example.spring.NamedObjectFactory$">

<property name="nameOfFactory" value="Factory for Named Objects" />
</bean>
<bean id="factoryUsingBean" class="example.spring.FactoryUsingBean">
<constructor-arg ref="factory" />
</bean>
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/spring/object-bean-script.scala
import example.spring._
import org.springframework.context.support._
val context = new ClassPathXmlApplicationContext("spring/scala-spring.xml");
val bean = context.getBean("factoryUsingBean").asInstanceOf[FactoryUsingBean]

println("Factory Name: " + bean.factory.nameOfFactory)
val obj = bean.factory.make("Dean Wampler")

println("Object: " + obj)
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spring-home/dist/spring.jar:spring-home/.../commons-logging.jar:. \
spring/object-bean-script.scala
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APPENDIX
References
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Programming Scala

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Programming Scala

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Beijing • Cambridge • Farnham • Köln • Sebastopol • Taipei • Tokyo

Editor: 0LNH/RXNLGHV Indexer: (OOHQ7URXWPDQ=DLJ

1. Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2. Type Less, Do More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3. Rounding Out the Essentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

viii | Table of Contents

5. Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

6. Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

7. The Scala Object System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

8. Functional Programming in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

10. Herding XML in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

11. Domain-Specific Languages in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

12. The Scala Type System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

13. Application Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

xii | Table of Contents

14. Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

Table of Contents | xiii

Appendix: References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

xiv | Table of Contents

Welcome to Programming Scala

Conventions Used in This Book

Using Code Examples

Getting the Code Examples

Safari® Books Online

If You Are a Java Programmer…

If You Are a Ruby, Python, etc. Programmer…

Statically Typed Versus Dynamically Typed Languages

2 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

4 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

6 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

The Seductions of Scala

8 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

10 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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14 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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16 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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18 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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Pattern Matching Versus Polymorphism

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20 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

Recap and What’s Next

Recap and What’s Next | 21

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24 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

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2 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

4 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

6 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

8 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

10 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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14 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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16 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

18 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

20 | Chapter 1:Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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24 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

26 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

28 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

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30 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

32 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

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34 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

36 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

38 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

40 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

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44 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

46 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

48 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

50 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

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52 | Chapter 2:Type Less, Do More

54 | Chapter 3:Rounding Out the Essentials