Pune Institute of Aviation Technology

Approved by DGCA & Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University

16 JUL 21

The range gating necessary to perform automatic tracking offers several

advantages as by products. It isolates one target, excluding targets at other
ranges. This permits the boxcar generator to be employed. Also, range gating
improves the signal-to-noise ratio since it eliminates the noise from the other
range intervals. Hence the width of the gate should be sufficiently narrow to
minimize extraneous noise. On the other hand, it must not be so narrow that an
appreciable fraction of the signal energy is excluded. A reasonable compromise is
to make the gate width two to five times of the pulse width.

Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR)

It is an integrated primary and secondary radar system that has been deployed at
terminal air traffic control sites. ASR is also known as Terminal Area Radar (TAR).
Basically, it is a radar system used at airports to detect and display the position
of aircraft in the terminal area, the airspace around the airports. Let us tell you
that the primary radar consists of a large rotating parabolic antenna dish that
sweeps a vertical fan-shaped beam of microwaves around the airspace
surrounding the airport. The position of the aircraft is detected with the help of
microwaves reflected back to the antenna from the surface of the aircraft. The
second surveillance radar has a second rotating antenna which is mounted on the
primary antenna and interrogates the transponders of the aircraft, which
transmits a radio signal back containing the aircraft's identification and altitude.
This is displayed on the screen of the radar next to the return from the primary
radar. We know that the RADAR word stands for Radio Detection and Ranging. Do
you know that pilots can't see where they are going, so they use the technique
radar to help them? This system sends and receives radio waves. The radar
includes Antenna, Duplexer, Transmitter, Phase-Lock Loop (PLL), Receiver and
Processing. The radio waves used by Radar are produced by equipment known as
magnetron. Radio waves are similar to light waves and they travel at the same
speed but their waves are much longer and have much lower frequencies. No
doubt both light waves and radio waves are a part of electromagnetic spectrum
 Pune Institute of Aviation Technology
Approved by DGCA & Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University

that is they are made up of fluctuating patterns of electrical and magnetic energy
coming through the air.

When radio waves are generated, an antenna, working as a transmitter emits

them into the air in front of it. The antenna doubles up as a radar receiver as well
as a transmitter. It also transmits radio waves for a few thousandths of a second,
and then it listens the reflections for up to several seconds before transmitting
again. Any radio wave that is reflected picked up by the antenna and are directed
into a piece of electronic equipment that processes and displays them on Flat
type LCD screen which is watched all the time by a human operator. Also, the
receiving equipment filters out useless reflections from the ground, buildings and
so on. It displays only significant reflections on the screen itself. Do you know
that by using radar, an operator can see any nearby ships or planes like where
they are, how quickly they are travelling etc.? One more important equipment is
duplexer which makes the antenna swap back and forth between transmitter and
a receiver. While the antenna is transmitting, it cannot receive and vice versa.
 Pune Institute of Aviation Technology
Approved by DGCA & Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University

1. Military applications: In air defence it is used for target detection, target

recognition and directing the weapon to the tracked targets, to guide the weapon
in the missile system and to identify enemy locations in the map.
2. Air Traffic Control: to control air traffic near airports. Also, the Air Surveillance
Radar is used to detect and display the position of the aircraft in the airport
terminals, by using Precision Approach Radar it guide the aircraft to land in bad
weather and to scan the surface of airport for aircraft and ground vehicle
positions.
3. Remote Sensing: For observing weather or observing planetary positions and
monitoring sea ice to ensure smooth route for ships.
4. Ground Traffic Control: Radar technique is used by traffic police also to
determine vehicle speed, controlling the movement of vehicles by giving warnings
about the presence of other vehicles or any type of obstacles behind them.
5. Space: For safe landing on moon to guide the space vehicle, to observe the
planetary systems, to detect and track satellites and to monitor the meteors.
Stealth technology the technique to avoid radar waves or to bypass the waves of
radar is called stealth technology. Its main goal is to make an airplane invisible to
radar. It creates invisibility by two different methods: It depends upon the shape
of the airplane. It is shaped like that any radar signals if reflects are reflected
away from the equipment of the radar.2. The airplanes can be covered in
materials that absorbs radar signals. The conventional shape of the aircraft is
round and in this some of the radar signal gets reflected. On the other hand, a
stealth aircraft is made up of completely flat surface and with very sharp edges.
So, when a radar signal hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away at an angle.
Also, surface of the aircraft is made like that they absorb the energy of radar. So,
it is said that a stealth aircraft can have a radar signature of a small bird rather
than an airplane. So, now you may have understood about the Radar Surveillance
System or Radar technology, how it works, its applications etc.

REVISION SESSION] BASIC RADAR AND RADIO SYSTEM [IMPORTANT

POINTS]
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Approved by DGCA & Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University

Radar is an Electromagnetic System used to detect the objects which are not visible to
normal eyesight. It can be used To detect Aircrafts, Ships, Space Vehicles etc. Such
objects which are detected by Radar are called 'targets
An airport surveillance radar (ASR) is a - Radar system used at airports to detect and
display the presence and position of aircraft in the terminal area, the airspace
around airports. It is the main air traffic control system for the airspace
around airports
The secondary radar depends Of signal from transponders onboard the aircraft.
Secondary radar requires an airborne transponder which responds to the receipt of
a pulse from a ground-based antenna by transmitting a return signal.
The range to an object is determined by ----- The measurement of the time taken by the
radiated signal to reach the object and come back to the radar.
The location of the stationary object in the space is determined from---- The angle pointed
by the antenna when the echo received is of maximum amplitude.
Radar can see through conditions such as darkness, haze, fog, rain, and snow which is
not possible for human vision. In addition -- Radar has the advantage that it can
measure the distance or range to the object.
The direction, or angular position, of the target is determined from the direction of arrival of
The reflected wave fronts, the usual method of measuring the direction of arrival is
with narrow antenna beams.
If relative motion exists between target and radar, the shift in the carrier frequency of the
reflected wave is a measure of the target's relative (radial) velocity and may be used to
distinguish moving targets from stationary objects. It is known as -- Doppler Effect.
The most common radar waveform is a train of narrow, rectangular-shape pulses
modulating a sine wave carrier. The distance, or range, to the target is determined by
measuring the time TR taken by the pulse to travel to the target and return can be
represented as. Range of a Radar R = cTR / 2
Since electromagnetic energy propagates at the speed of light c (3 x 108 m/s) the range R
is given by : R= cTR /2 [TR in micro seconds]
While counting the range of radar R = cTR / 2 The factor 2 appears in the
denominator because of the two-way propagation of radar. With the range R in
kilometres or nautical miles, and T R in microseconds, the above relation becomes:
R(km) = 0.15 X TR (µS) [TR in micro seconds]
1 nautical mile is equal to = 1.841 km
The range beyond which targets appear as second time-around echoes (or the farthest
target range that can be detected by a Radar without ambiguity) is called---- The
maximum unambiguous range is represented by
R unambig. = C/2fp [Where fp = pulse repetition frequency in Hz. (PRF)
Range R unambig is
Directly proportional to the Pulse period TP (or inversely proportional to the PRF fp).
If the power of the radar transmitter is denoted by Pt and of an isotropic antenna is used
(one which radiates uniformly in all directions) the power density (watts per unit area) at a
distance R from the radar is equal to the transmitter power divided by the surface area
4πR2 of an imaginary sphere of radius R with radar at its centre the
Power density from an isotropic antenna = Pt /4πR 2. Limitations of the simple form of
Radar equation: Does not adequately describe the performance of practical radar, many
important factors that affect range are not explicitly included. In practice, the observed
maximum radar ranges are usually much smaller. All the above
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A certain Radar has PRF of 1250 pulses per second. What is the maximum unambiguous
range? Max. Unambiguous Range is given by
a. R unambig = C /2fp [ R unambig. = 3x108 /2x1250 mtrs = 120X103mts = 120Kms
Standard Radar Frequency of S band as per ITU assignment is
2300MHz - 2500 MHz
Standard Radar Frequency of L band as per ITU assignment is --- 1215 MHz – 1400 MHz
The maximum radar range Rmax is the distance beyond which the target cannot be
detected. It occurs when the received echo signal power Pt just equals the minimum
detectable signal Smin. Therefore, R max
Rmax = [ (Pt.G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2. Smin] 1/4
Standard Radar Frequency of C band as per ITU assignment is --- 5250-5925 MHz
Conventional radars are operated at frequencies extending from about and to
220 MHz to 35 GHz
The simple form of Radar equation derived earlier expresses the maximum radar range
Rmax in terms of radar and target parameters: Where Pt = transmitted power in watts, G =
antenna gain. Ae = antenna effective aperture in meter square (m2),
σ = radar cross section in ( meter square) m 2, Smin = minimum detectable signal in watt .
then ----- Rmax= [ (Pt.G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2 .Smin] 1/4
The process of summing all the Radar echo pulses for the purpose of improving detection
is called … Integration
The pulse repetition frequency PRF is determined by .. The maximum range at which
target are expected
Echo signals received after an interval exceeding the pulse repetition period are called
Multiple time around echoes.
The loss in the transmission lines which connects the transmitter output to the antenna
(cables and wave guides) is called ---- Plumbing Loss
Major Disadvantages of simple CW radar is its --- Inability to obtain a measurement of
Range which is mainly due to lack of a timing mark..
CW Radar provides a measurement of ---- Relative Velocity which may be used to
distinguish moving targets from stationary objects or clutters
In CW radar number of antennas used are -----One for Receiver and one for
Transmitter section separately.
Aircraft Radio altimeter working on the principle of --- FMCW
Frequency band which is reserved for Radio Altimeter is -- 4.2 GHz to 4.4 GHz
Number of antennas used in FMCW Radar --- Two
Frequency used for operation of Precision Approach Radar is---- Between 9Ghz -10 GHz
Frequency used in Secondary Surveillance Radar---- Interrogator 1030 MHz and
Transponder 1090 MHz [ in Mode Pulse].
The types of Radars utilise independent antennas for Transmission and independent
antenna for Reception of signal are known as --- Bistatic Radar System
Monostatic Radar system ---Use a Single antenna for Transmission as well as
reception purpose
Main sub-assemblies or units in bistatic block diagram of Radar Transmitter are
Wave form generator (Oscillator), Pulse Modulator (Modulator), Power Amplifier, one
antenna.
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Main sub-assemblies or units in block diagram of Radar Receivers are

Antenna, Duplexer, Low Noise Amplifier, Local Oscillator or wave form Generator,
Mixer, IF Amplifier, Detector, Video Amplifier, Thresh hold decision unit, Display unit
CRT or Flat Panel Display LCD.
The magnetron is a---- High-powered vacuum tube that works as self -excited
microwave oscillator
Duplexer in Radar Transceiver (Refer monostatic radar block diagram) is used to form    
Isolation between Transmitter and receiver, it allows the use of a single antenna for
both transmission and reception. 
Audio Frequency Range that Most people at best can hear--- 20 Hz to 20000 Hz
Types of Radar beams are Pencil Beam, Fan Beam, Stacked beam and shaped beam
All the above
Radar cross section of a man has been measured at microwave frequencies to be
approximately about 1 Square metre
Wavelength is measured in meters and velocity in meters per second, frequency in Hertz
(Hz). Formula for Frequency----- Frequency = Velocity/ wavelength or (Velocity divided
by Wavelength)
If the Velocity of a wave is 3 meter/second and distance between peak of two wave
(lambda) is approximately 20 meters, then frequency will be---- Freq f =
Velocity/wavelength (Velocity divided by Wavelength) = 0.15 Hz
Modulation Index or depth of Modulation M ----- Ratio between RMS value of Modulating
signal and RMS value of Modulated carrier signal
The FM modulation index is equal to the ratio of the frequency deviation to the modulating
frequency It is represented as FM modulation index[m=
Frequency deviation/Modulation frequency]

In radio communications, a sideband is ----- A band of frequencies higher than or

lower than the carrier frequency, that are the result of the modulation process. 
The distinct feature of Phase Modulation--- The modulating signal only changes the phase
of the carrier signal, The bandwidth is higher than for amplitude modulation, The phase
change manifests itself as a frequency change, but the instantaneous frequency change is
proportional to the derivative of the amplitude. All the above
Radio waves produced at frequencies ranging from 3 kHz to 3 MHz are known as
Ground waves or surface waves because they follow the curvature of the earth, they
travel from the broadcast antenna to receiving antenna
Radio waves produced at frequencies ranging between 3 MHz and 30 MHz, travel straight
line and do not curve to follow the earth ‘s surface having limited transmission from the
broadcasting to receiving antenna. These HF radio waves---- Bounce off the ionosphere
layer of the atmosphere and the refraction extends the range of HF signal beyond
line-of-sight through sky waves.
Most aviation communication and navigation aids operate with
Space wave which includes VHF (30-300MHz), UHF (300MHz-3GHz), and SHF(3GHz-
30GHz) radio waves.
Types of basic antennas used in aviation--Dipole antenna, Marconi antenna, Loop antenna
All the above
VHF Radios in aircraft are used for
Communication between aircraft and air traffic control (ATC), as well air to air
communication between aircraft using VHF, each party transmits and receives on
the same channel.
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The following standard form of Radar range equation, which is useful for calculating the
maximum range of Radar for given specifications. RMax = [Pt.G.σ.Ae / (4π)2.Smin]1/4
From the Radar range equation RMax = [Pt.G.σ. Ae / (4π)2. Smin]1/4
, we can conclude that the following conditions should be considered in order to get the
range of the Radar as maximum. -----Peak power transmitted by the Radar Pt should
be high, gain of the transmitting Antenna G should be high, Radar cross section of
the target σ should be high, Effective aperture of the receiving Antenna Ae should
be high, Power of minimum detectable signal Smin should be low.
 Artificial cloud consisting of a large number of tiny metallic reflecting strips that create
strong echoes over a large area to mask the presence of real target echoes or to create
confusion, known as --- Chaffs
PRI (Pulse Repetition Interval) is ---- The reciprocal of PRF is called the Pulse
Repetition Time (PRT), Pulse Repetition Interval (PRI), or  Inter-Pulse Period (IPP),
which is the elapsed time from the beginning of one pulse to the beginning of the
next pulse.
A certain Radar has PRF of 1250 pulses per second. What is the maximum unambiguous
range? ----- 120 Kms.
A Pulse Radar transmits a peak power of 1 Mega Watt. It has a PRT equal to 1000 micro
sec and the transmitted pulse width is 1 micro sec. Calculate Maximum unambiguous
range
[when Maximum unambiguous range = c.T P /2]------- 150 Kms
In Doppler system a moving target will cause
The frequency of the echo signal to increase, if it is approaching the radar, or to
decrease if it is receding or going away from the radar.
Radar can distinguish one kind of target from another Target recognition is accomplished
by ---- Measuring the size and speed of the target and by observing the target with
high resolution in one or more dimensions
The type of Radar, that map areas of the Earth’s surface with resolutions of a few metres
can provide information about the nature of the terrain and what is on the surface known
as. Synthetic Aperture Radars

A SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radars) preferred to operate

On a moving vehicle, such as an aircraft or spacecraft, to take image of stationary
objects or planetary surfaces. Since relative motion is the basis for the Doppler
resolution, high resolution (in cross range) it can also accomplished its function if
the radar is stationary, and the target is moving.
For display purpose in Radar, Flat-Panel Displays  are preferred because ---- Flat Panel
Display displays occupy less volume and require less power than CRTs.

The echo signals due to stationary objects (places) such as land and sea are
called clutters because these are unwanted signals therefore, we must choose the Radar
in such a way that it considers only the echo signal due to movable target but not the
clutters. This is known as ----MTI [Moving Target Indicators] MTI Radars are classified
basically in to --- Two types, based on the type of transmitter that has been used, MTI
Radar with Power Amplifier Transmitter and MTI Radar with Power Oscillator
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Transmitter.
The antennas that SCaN (Space Communications and Navigation) mainly includes a
particular antenna with bowl-shaped that focuses signals at a particular end known as----
Parabolic antenna.
A parabolic antenna of monostatic radar system---- Allows both transmitting and
capturing electromagnetic signals which can move Vertically and horizontally to
transmit and capture the signal
The maximum range of a radar system depends mainly ------ On the average power of
its transmitter and the physical size of its antenna. (In technical terms, this is called
the power-aperture product.).
Airport surveillance radar systems are generally capable of reliably--- Detecting and
tracking aircraft at altitudes below 25,000 feet (7,620 metres) and within 40 to 60
nautical miles (75 to 110 km) of their airport.
Advantages of Phased Array Antenna are--- It offers higher directivity and emit multiple
beams simultaneously., It provides electronic steering, Digital beamforming is also
possible. It can be used for surveillance and tracking in radar. All the above
If the frequency of a CW radar is continually changed with time, the frequency of the echo
signal will differ from that transmitted and the difference will be Proportional to the range of
the target, accordingly, measuring the difference between the transmitted and received
frequencies therefore FMCW ----- Measures not only the speed of the target but also the
distance of the target from the Radar.
The echoes received by the radar due to the presence of birds or insects in the
environment is known as Point clutter, and this point clutter also regarded as ‘angels.
The form of display is the A-scope, which--- Plot’s target amplitude (y axis) vs. range (x
axis), for some fixed direction, it is a deflection-modulated display and is more
suited for tracking-radar application than for surveillance radar.
The purpose of the Doppler amplifier is ---- To eliminate echoes from stationary
targets and to amplify the Doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate an
indicating device.
Applications of CW radar is ---- Measurement of the relative velocity of a moving
target, as in the police speed monitor or in the rate-of-climb meter for vertical-take-off
aircraft., Control of traffic lights, regulation of tollbooths, vehicle counting. As a sensor in
antilock braking systems, For collision avoidance. In railways, as a speedometer.
Monitoring the docking speed of large ship. All these..
A Pulse radar that extracts the Doppler frequency shift for the purpose of detecting moving
targets in the presence of clutter is called--- Either an MTI Radar or a Pulse Doppler
Radar.
Array is a directive antenna made up of individual radiating antennas, or elements, which
generate a radiation pattern whose shape and direction is determined by the relative
phases and amplitudes of the currents at the individual elements is called --- Phased
array

1. Military applications: In air defence it is used for target detection, target

recognition and directing the weapon to the tracked targets, to guide the weapon
in the missile system and to identify enemy locations in the map.
2. Air Traffic Control: to control air traffic near airports. Also, the Air Surveillance
Radar is used to detect and display the position of the aircraft in the airport
terminals, by using Precision Approach Radar it guide the aircraft to land in bad
 Pune Institute of Aviation Technology
Approved by DGCA & Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University

weather and to scan the surface of airport for aircraft and ground vehicle
positions.
3. Remote Sensing: For observing weather or observing planetary positions and
monitoring sea ice to ensure smooth route for ships.
4. Ground Traffic Control: Radar technique is used by traffic police also to
determine vehicle speed, controlling the movement of vehicles by giving warnings
about the presence of other vehicles or any type of obstacles behind them.
5. Space: For safe landing on moon to guide the space vehicle, to observe the
planetary systems, to detect and track satellites and to monitor the meteors.
Stealth technology the technique to avoid radar waves or to bypass the waves of
radar is called stealth technology. Its main goal is to make an airplane invisible to
radar. It creates invisibility by two different methods: It depends upon the shape
of the airplane. It is shaped like that any radar signals if reflects are reflected
away from the equipment of the radar.2. The airplanes can be covered in
materials that absorbs radar signals. The conventional shape of the aircraft is
round and in this some of the radar signal gets reflected. On the other hand, a
stealth aircraft is made up of completely flat surface and with very sharp edges.
So, when a radar signal hits a stealth plane, the signal reflects away at an angle.
Also, surface of the aircraft is made like that they absorb the energy of radar. So,
it is said that a stealth aircraft can have a radar signature of a small bird rather
than an airplane. So, now you may have understood about the Radar Surveillance
System or Radar technology, how it works, its applications etc.