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TRANSCEIVER A transceiver is a communication radio that transmits and receives.

The same frequency is used for both.
When transmitting, the receiver does not function. The push to talk (PTT) switch
blocks the receiving circuitry and allows the transmitter circuitry to be active. In a
transceiver, some of the circuitry is shared by the transmitting and receiving functions of
the device. So is the antenna. This saves space and the number of components used.
Transceivers are half duplex systems where communication can occur in both directions
but only one party can speak while the other must listen. VHF aircraft communication
radios are usually transceivers.
REVISION IMPORTANT POINTS
A radiating wire is most efficient when its length is equal to half a wavelength. Thus, for a frequency of 100 MHz the wire
should be. ----1.5 metre long
VHF RT set is used for -Short range communication.
A single VHF installation on aircraft consists of three parts namely --Control Unit, Transceiver, and antenna.
Modern VHF set provide -720 channels at 25 KHz spacing between 118 MHz and 135.975 MHz
Squelch Control on control panel of set (RT Control Panel) --Disables the receiver output when no signals are being
received so preventing the noise being fed to the crew headsets.
Modulation can be defined as Superimposing of modulating signal or audio signal over transmitter carrier
frequency or transmitter chain supply called modulation.
Type of Modulation used in VHF communication transceiver in aircraft is--AM Modulation
Power output of VHF Transmitter fitted in aeroplane is approximately-- 25 to 40 watts
Sensitivity of VHF Transceiver communication Set fitted in aircraft is approximately –
3 microVolt,30 percent Modulation at 1000 Hz or 6 dB.

Antenna used on aircraft for VHF communication is --Vertically polarised and omnidirectional.
The frequency Range used in HF communication transceiver on aircraft is --- 2 to 30 MHz covered in 1 KHz steps

For High -flying aircraft (most Jets) The HF communication Transceiver Antenna Tuning Unit is pressurized with --
Nitrogen

The Power Output or the Transceiver’s transmitter output power of HF Transceiver fitted in aircraft is approximately
Compressibility effects begin, drag begins to rise sharply.
400-Watt p.e.p (with Absolute Maximum power output 600-watt p.e.p
The HF Transceiver antenna length on aircraft is equal to a quarter of a wavelength, therefore presenting an ---
Impedance of approximately 50 Ohms.
Audio Output from HF Transceiver of airplane is approximately
100 milli Watt in to 600 Ohm load
HF probe antenna which is aerodynamically acceptable may be fitted on aircraft
At either of the wingtips or on top of the Vertical stabilizer
The selective calling system allows --- A ground station to call an aircraft or group of aircraft using HF or VHF
communication without the flight crew having continuously to monitor the station frequency.
In SELCAL (selective calling system)
coded signal is transmitted from the ground station and it is received by the VHF or HF receiver which is tuned
to the appropriate frequency and decoded by SELCAL decoder in aircraft.
In SELCAL System -- There are a total of four tones per call, The frequency of tones determines the code. Selcal
codes received on the corresponding receiver will be fed to decoder and one annunciator lamp for flashing or
constant supply to the chimes to sound once.
The system allows announcement to be made by the crew to the passengers is called ----
Passenger address system
VHF RT communication operate in frequency range from 118.0 MHz to 136.975 MHz have
Channel spacing with 25 KHz spacing and in Europe 8.33 KHz spacing .
In VHF aircraft communication Radios, Intermediate Frequency used is--- 10.8 MHz
ARINC is a organisation called--- Aeronautical Radio Incorporated
In super heterodyne receiver if an RF frequency of 1000 KHz is combined with an oscillator frequency of 1455 KHz, the
two new frequencies will be 2455 and 455 KHz. Intermediate Frequency ( IF) signal --- 455 KHz
In modern aircraft ADF are fitted with fixed loop and--- Goniometer
The first requirement of any ADF is-- Directional antenna that is loop antenna
In the plane of the loop antenna--- One coil is aligned with ac longitudinal axis while the other is aligned with
lateral axis
Radio Spectrum used in aviation for VHF NAV(VOR)--- 108MHz to 118 MHz
ICAO is a organisation-- International Civil Aviation organisation
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What frequencies are VOR and ILS ? --- VHF

In what frequency range does the automatic direction finder system operate? --- 190 – 1750 KHz
How does an aircraft distinguish its own Distance Measuring Equipment reply from those for other aircraft? -- By
changing at random the time delay between the pulse pairs of the interrogation signal
From where is bearing information received for display on the Digital Distance Radio Magnetic Indicator (DDRMI)?-----
From VOR and ADF system
ADF works by using -- Both loop and sense antenna
ADF operate by a signal transmitted from--- Non directional beacon
If the instrument has a fixed scale in ADF system is known as--- Relative bearing Indicator (RBI)
If the instrument has a rotating scale slaved to compass heading it is called
Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) which will give magnetic bearing of the NDB
In ADF errors, the effect is most noticeable at sunrise or sunset when the ionosphere is changing most rapidly is called----
Night effect
In ADF system on aircraft if the two fixed loops are not identical in electrical characteristics bearing indicated by search
coil will be incorrect. Error has maximum value once in each quadrant called. Quadrantal error
Function Switch on ADF control unit have OFF-ANT-ADF. If the switch kept at ANT position.
The receiver operates from the sense antenna only, the bearing pointer being parked at 90-degree relative
bearing.
Frequency of OMEGA -- MF band
Emergency frequency is. -- 121.5 M Hz.
112.1 MHz is what frequency? ------ VOR
Why is an aerial tuning unit used in a high frequency (HF) communication system?
To electrically lengthen or shorten the aerial for optimum matching of impedance
The procedure for determining the sign and size of errors in an ADF installation is known as
Loop swing, carried out on initial installation at 15 degree heading intervals.
In ADF system on aircraft, check swing is carried out at 45-degree intervals if a lightning strike or when an airframe
modification close to ADF antenna is carried out. This check swings should not be carried out within +/- 2 hrs of
sunset or sunrise to avoid night effect.  
VOR system operates in the Frequency band of ---- 108 MHz to 118MHz
Terminal VOR transmitter Frequency used and its approximate power output is
108 to 112 MHz, 40 channels, Power output 50-watt distance range about 25 miles.
Frequency range for VOR stations intended for En-route navigation having 120 channels and power output of these
transmitters are ----- 112 MHz to 118 MHz (120 channels) Power output approximately 200 watt providing service
up to 200 nautical miles.
The radiation from a conventional VOR (CVOR) station is
A Horizontally polarised VHF wave modulated 30 Hz amplitude modulated variable phase signal and 30 Hz FM
reference phase signal.
VOR (CVOR) station is horizontally polarised having VHF wave modulated as follows.
30 Hz amplitude modulated signal the variable phase signal, 9960 Hz a.m. subcarrier +/- 480 Hz with 30 Hz FM reference
phase signal, 1020 Hz identification code at least three times each 30 seconds. All of the above
The airborne VOR equipment receive s the composite signal radiated by station to which the station is tuned. Then
---The 30Hz reference signal is phase compared with the 30 Hz variable phase signal. The phase difference giving
the bearing from the station.
The airborne VOR equipment receive s the composite signal radiated by station to which the station is tuned. Then the
30Hz reference signal is phase compared with the 30 Hz variable phase signal. The phase difference giving the bearing
from the station
If the difference in phase between variable and reference signal is 135 degree the to bearing would be 135+180 =
315 degree.
A VOR emits an omnidirectional pulse of radiation or light every time the beam is pointing. In reality a VOR station
radiates VHF energy modulated with a reference phase signal -the omnidirectional light and a variable phase signal the
rotating beam--- Due North
In the DVOR --- The reference signal is 30 Hz a.m while the variable signal is 30 Hz f.m on a 9960 Hz sub carrier.

VOR and ILS localizers occupy the same band of frequencies they -- Share the same receiver which will also contain
the necessary circuit to extract the required information.

VOR/ILS receiver contains conventional superhet, a filter for separation of signals and a converter to provide the required
outputs which are---- Audio to AIS, Bearing Information to two RMIs, Deviation from selected radial, To/From signal and
Flag or warning signal. All
Transfer of energy from one point to another by means of electromagnetic wave. The wave consists of
Two oscillating fields electric and magnetic field, mutually perpendicular to each other and to the direction of
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propagation

A RED flag of VOR appear When the VOR receiver is turned off or if the VOR station itself inoperative, or down
for maintenance.
109.5, 110.5 Frequencies are ----- Localizer
110.2, 109.4 Frequencies are ---- VOR
As the aircraft moves closer to the VOR transmitting station, the VOR indicator needle becomes very sensitive and
oscillates from side to side (i.e., the pointer acts in an unstable manner). The time an aircraft remains in the cone depends
on its speed and altitude. Once the aircraft moves out from the area, all erratic indications cease.  An inverted cone that is
cantered over the VOR is called ----- The zone of confusion or cone of confusion
The CVR is constructed to withstand shock and fire damage, and additionally
Is painted in a fire-resistant orange paint to assist in recovery from wreck.
In Ground Crew Call System, the horn and flight -deck call button are
Located in the nose wheels bay while the ground -crew call with illumination and aural warning box are on the
flight deck.
Cockpit Voice Recorder record an endless tape provides --- 30 minutes recording time for audio signals input on
four separate channels
Cockpit Voice Recorder recording of four separate channels are-- Captain’s, First Officer’s, Flight engineer’s
transmitted and received audio and cockpit area conversation.
HDG- Heading Heading is angle measured clockwise between North and the direction in which the aircraft is
pointing
Speed of aircraft in the direction of the track in the “plane “parallel to the earth’s surface (map Speed) compared with
airspeed which is speed of the aircraft relative to the air mass through which it is moving is known as---- Ground speed
Basic superheterodyne receiver block diagram consists of the following subassemblies:
Aerial, RF amplifier Local Oscillator, Mixer, IF Amplifier, Detector, Audio Amplifier and output device Loud
speaker or headset.
The distance from transmitter to a point where first sky wave return is received is known as
----- Skip Distance
Distance between limit of surface wave to the point where first sky wave return is received. In this space there is no signal
available either from ground wave or from sky wave. It is called -- Dead Space

NDB band is From 190 KHz to 530 KHz with a gap between 495 and 505 KHz
In ADF System 180-degree ambiguity is resolved by--- Using sense antenna
What type of Polar diagram of loop and sense antenna and combination of both is there in ADF---- Loop antenna polar
diagram is figure of 8 and sense antenna is a circle, combination of both is a cardioid.
How many Types of Bearing in ADF?True Bearing -Measured from True North, Magnetic bearing – direction measured
from magnetic north , Relative bearing- measured from nose of aircraft or heading. All the above
Omni Bearing Selector or OBS knob used to ---- Manually rotate the course card.
VOR work on the principle ---- Bearing by Phase comparison
Combined polar diagram of VOR transmitter is --- LIMACONs
NAV flag [VOR NAV FLAG] will appear or display ---
a. When not receiving adequate VOR or Localizer signals such as the aircraft is out of range or in the cone of
confusion.

Three characteristics are of major concern when considering antennas: • Length,

Polarization, Directivity The exact shape, and material from which an antenna is made can
alter its transmitting and receiving characteristics. Also note that some non-metallic
aircraft have antennas embedded into the composite material as it is built up.
Length When an AC signal is applied to an antenna, it has a certain frequency.
There is a corresponding wavelength for that frequency. An antenna that is half the length
of this wavelength is resonant. During each phase of the applied AC, all voltage and
current values experience the full range of their variability. As a result, an antenna that is
half the wavelength of the corresponding AC frequency is able to allow full voltage and full
current flow for the positive phase of the AC signal in one direction. The negative phase of
the full AC sign wave is accommodated by the voltage and current simply changing
direction in the conductor. Thus, the applied AC frequency flows through its entire
wavelength, first in one direction and then in the other. This produces the strongest signal
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to be radiated by the transmitting antenna. It also facilitates capture of the wave and
maximum induced voltage in the receiving antenna.

Most radios, especially communication radios, use the same antenna for
transmitting and receiving. Multichannel radios could use a different length antenna for
each frequency; however, this is impractical. Acceptable performance can exist from a
single antenna half the wavelength of a median frequency. This antenna can be made
effectively shorter by placing a properly rated capacitor in series with the transmission
line from the transmitter or receiver. This electrically shortens the resonant circuit of
which the antenna is a part. An antenna may be electrically lengthened by adding an
inductor in the circuit. Adjusting antenna length in this fashion allows the use of a single
antenna for multiple frequencies in a narrow frequency range. Many radios use a tuning
circuit to adjust the effective length of the antenna to match the wavelength of the desired
frequency. It contains a variable capacitor and an inductor connected in parallel in a
circuit. Newer radios use a more efficient tuning circuit. It uses switches to combine
frequencies from crystal-controlled circuits to create a resonant frequency that matches
the desired frequency. Either way, the physical antenna length is a compromise when
using a multichannel communication or navigation device that must be electronically
tuned for the best performance.
A formula can be used to find the ideal length of a half wavelength antenna
required for a particular frequency as follows:
Antenna Length (feet) = 468 /Freq in MHz the formula is derived from the speed of
propagation of radio waves, which is approximately 300 million meters per second.
It takes into account the dielectric effect of the air at the end of an antenna that
effectively shortens the length of the conductor required.
VHF radio frequencies used by aircraft communication radios are 118-136.975 MHz
The corresponding half wavelengths of these frequencies are 3.96-3.44 feet (47.5- 41.2
inches). Therefore, VHF antennas are relatively long. Antennas one-quarter of the
wavelength of the transmitted frequency are often used. This is possible because when
mounted on a metal fuselage, a ground plane is formed and the fuselage acts as the
missing one quarter length of the half wavelength antenna.

Polarization, Directivity, and Field Pattern Antennas are polarized. They radiate and
receive in certain patterns and directions. The electric field cause by the voltage in the
conductor is parallel to the polarization of an antenna. It is caused by the voltage
difference between each end of the antenna. The electromagnetic field component of the
radio wave is at 90 degree to the polarization. It is caused by changing current flow in the
antenna. As radio waves radiate out from the antenna they propagate in a specific
direction and in a specific pattern. This is the antenna field. The orientation of the electric
and electromagnetic fields remains at 90° to each other, but radiate from antenna with
varying strength in different directions.
The strength of the radiated field varies depending on the type of antenna and the
angular proximity to it. All antennas, even those that are omni-directional, radiate a
stronger signal in some direction compared to other directions. This is known as the
antenna field directivity. Receiving antennas with the same polarization as the
transmitting antenna generate the strongest signal. A vertically polarized antenna is
mounted up and down. It radiates waves out from it in all directions. To receive the
strongest signal from these waves, the receiving antenna should also be positioned
vertically so the electromagnetic component of the radio wave can cross it at as close to a
90o angle as possible for most of the possible proximities. (*****) Horizontally polarized
antennas are mounted side to side (horizontally). They radiate in a donut-like field.
As the current alternates, current flow is greatest in the middle of the antenna and
gradually less as it approaches the ends. Then, it changes direction and flows the other
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way. The result is that the largest electromagnetic field is in the middle of the antenna and
the strongest radio wave field is perpendicular to the length of the antenna. Most dipole
antennas in aviation are horizontally polarized. A common dipole antenna is the V-shaped
VHF navigation antenna, known as a VOR antenna, found on numerous aircraft. Each arm
of the V is one-fourth wavelength creating a half wave antenna which is fed in the centre.
This antenna is horizontally polarized. For a dipole receiving antenna, this means it is most
sensitive to signals approaching the antenna from the sides rather than head-on in the
direction of flight. (****) Marconi Antenna A Marconi antenna is a one-fourth wave antenna.
It achieves the efficiency of a half wave antenna by using the mounting surface of the
conductive aircraft skin to create the second one-fourth wavelength. Most aircraft VHF
communications antennas are Marconi antennas. They are vertically polarized and create a
field that is omni-directional. On fabric skinned aircraft, the ground plane that makes up
the second one-fourth wavelength of the antenna must be fashioned under the skin where
the Marconi antenna is mounted. This can be done with thin aluminium or aluminium foil.
Sometimes four or more wires are extended under the skin from the base of the vertical
antenna that serve as the ground plane. This is enough to give the antenna the proper
conductive length. The same practice is also utilized on ground.
Loop Antenna The third type of antenna commonly found on aircraft is the loop
antenna. When the length of an antenna conductor is fashioned into a loop, its field
characteristics are altered significantly from that of a straight-half wavelength antenna. It
also makes the antenna more compact and less prone to damage. Used as a receiving
antenna, the loop antenna's properties are highly direction-sensitive. A radio wave
intercepting the loop directly broadside causes equal current flow in both sides of the loop.
However, the polarity of the current flows is opposite each other. This causes them to
cancel out and produce no signal. When a radio wave strikes the loop antenna in line with
the plane of the loop, current is generated first in one side, and then in the other side. This
causes the current flows to have different phases and the strongest signal can be
generated from this angle. The phase difference (and strength) of the generated current
varies proportionally to the angle at which the radio wave strikes the antenna loop. This is
useful and is discussed further in the section on automatic direction finder (ADF)
navigational aids. (****) Transmission Lines Transmitters and receivers must be connected
to their antenna(s) via conductive wire. These transmission lines are coaxial cable, also
known as coax. Coax consists of a centre wire conductor surrounded by a semi-rigid
insulator. Surrounding the wire and insulator material is a conductive, braided cover that
runs the length of
Communication to and from the aircraft may be in voice or data mode, depending on
the communication system used. The cockpit crew can communicate by using HF and VHF
radio communication systems as well as satellite communication system. Air-ground
communications are available in voice and data mode. Air-air communications are
available in voice mode only. On modern aircraft, once the aircraft is at the gate, airlines
can use the Wireless Airport Communication System (WACS) to transfer some specific
data. The WACS is general installed by aircraft manufactures as optional equipment, if
ordered by a specific airline. Inside the aircraft, on-board communication systems let
pilots, attendants, ground personnel and passengers communicate and interface (****).

In commercial aircraft, there are generally two to three VHF communication

systems installed. The third unit is usually optional. Each system operates in the 118 to
136.975 Megahertz (MHz) frequency spectrum in 8.33 Kilohertz (KHz) channel spacing. It
gives short range airborne to ground (line-of-sight), ground to airborne (data), and airborne
to airborne (two-way voice) communications. The VHF transceiver Amplitude Modulates
(AM) the transmission. The VHF transceiver operates in the following modes: • Power-On
Self-Test (POST) • Operational Maintenance.
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In a typical configuration (Figure 4-46), each VHF transceiver is controlled by the

following equipment: • Standby controller for VHF1 transceiver • Audio and Radio Control
Display Units (ARCDU) • Flight Management System (FMS) MultiFunctional Control Display
Units (MCDUs). The VHF Communication System has the following primary components: •
Transceiver • Unit, standby control • Antenna The VHF COM2 system operates similar to
the VHF COM1 system but cannot be tuned by the VHF COM1 standby controller. On
aircraft with the VHF COM3 installed, this system is usually used with ACARS.

It operates like both other VHF COM systems but cannot be tuned by the VHF COM1
standby controller or FMS either.
TRANSCEIVER A typical modern VHF transceiver unit contains subassemblies
mechanically packaged into a lightweight casing furnished with a single recessed rack-
mounted rear panel connector and an RF connector to integrate the system with aircraft
wiring h arness and VHF antenna. The two VHF transceivers are usually located on one of
the shelves of the avionics rack compartment. The mounting tray protects and h olds the
wired assembly in place and helps dissipate heat. The VHF transceiver can operate in
either in Operational Mode or a Maintenance Mode. OPERATIONAL MODE The operational
mode has selections for Mode-OA, Mode-OB and Mode-1A. These modes adjust the
sensitivity and selectivity of the radio. MAINTENANCE MODE The Built In Test Equipment
(BITE) uses the Central Diagnostic System (CDS) to give the condition of the component. It
saves faults in a Non Volatile Memory (NVM) for reporting to line and shop maintenance.
The VHF transceiver has a Built In Test Equipment (BITE) mode to monitor the condition of
the system in the following two ways: • Power-On SelfTest (POST) • Continuous Monitoring.
POWER-ON SELF TEST (POST) The Power-On Self Test (POST) mode automatically starts
and continues for 30 seconds after power-up, or after a long power interruption, (generally
more than more 200 milliseconds). During POST, the VHF transceivers carry out a number
of self-tests which include comprehensive checking of the hardware, ARINC 429 bus
inputs, various discrete inputs, Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR), the Transmission/
Reception feature and further displays the progress of the test itself. If the self-test senses
a malfunction, it is sent to the Central Diagnostic System (CDS) for later analysis during
maintenance functions.

CONTINUOUS MONITORING The continuous monitoring checks the status of the

component in flight. It records faults in a Non-Volatile Memory (NVM) for later
troubleshooting using the Central Diagnostic System (CDS). VHF STANDBY CONTROL
PANEL A standby VHF control panel displays and allows tuning of the VHF frequency on
either VHF1 or VHF2 system. The standby control panel is generally installed in the
forward cockpit, central pedestal area, in easy reach of the pilot and the co-pilot.
ANTENNA The VHF communication system (VHF1, VHF2) has two VHF transceivers with
related antennas. A single coaxial cable is routed to each VHF transceiver. The VHF
antenna is a vertically-polarized antenna that operates in the VHF communications
frequency spectrum of 118 to 156 MHz . The antenna blade has a preformed radiating
element in a thermoplastic assembly. A Radio Frequency (RF) N -type female connector is
attached to the aluminum base. An aluminum foil gasket with an elastomeric sealant
makes electrical contact between the gasket and aircraft structure. The pressure applied
during installation gives a contouring feature to let the gasket contact the two mating
surfaces. The VHF1/3 antenna are generally attached to the upper fuselage and the VHF2
antenna is attached to the lower fuselage. (****)
AUDIO & RADIO CONTROL DISPLAY UNIT (ARCDU) The ARCDU front panel has the controls
and indications to let the pilots control the audio and radio systems installed. The VHF
transceivers are controlled by the two Audio and Radio Control Display Units (ARCDU 1,
ARCDU 2). (***)
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The ARCDU tunes the VHF communication system and controls various operational modes,
while displaying all data that is related to the operation of the VHF communication
systems. On some aircraft (especially Airbus types), the same component is referred to as
Radio Tuning Unit (RTU), Radio Management Panel (RMP) or Radio & Audio Management
Panel (RAMP). The ARCDU also monitors the operation of the VHF communication system
to show any malfunctions, if they arise. It further controls the operation of the Audio
Integration System (AIS) on some aircraft. The key or knobs provided on the panel help in
tuning the desired VHF Communication frequencies and the mode to be used.
A minimum of two steps are required to change the active frequency. The side key
adjacent to the VHF communication display area is pushed to highlight the preset
frequency. It is pushed again to make the preset frequency active. The frequency that was
active now becomes the new preset frequency. When the side key
adjacent to the VHF communication display
area is pushed, the preset frequency in the display area highlights. The TUNE
double rotary knobs located at the lower right side of the ARCDU are turned to change the
present frequency. The side key is pushed again to set the new active frequency. The
frequency that was active now becomes the new preset frequency. To meet the 8.33 KHz
channel spacing requirement, an optional transceiver that is capable of tuning in 8.33 and
25 KHz increments is generally installed on modern aircraft. The ARCDU is supplied with
28 VDC through an appropriately rated circuit breaker from the aircraft ESSENTIAL D C
Bus.