TECHNICAL REPORT

ON

STUDENT’S INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES)

BY

IKOGBA KELVIN OBOKPARO

12BC001893

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
PROGRAMME: B. ENG
LANDMARK UNIVERSITY
UNDERTAKEN

AT

SCOPES PROJECTS NIGERIA LIMITED

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD

OF BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (B.ENG) DEGREE IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING OF LANDMARK UNIVERSITY, OMU-ARAN , KWARA

STATE.

FEBRUARY, 2016.
i
 Certification page

University supervisor’s Name ………………………………………………………………

Rank/Position …………………………………………………………………………………

Department ………………………………………………………………………………….

Signature and date ……………………………………………………………………………

ii
 College of Science and Engineering

1st March, 2016.

Through:

The Head, Department of Civil Engineering

To:

The Coordinator, SIWES Unit,

Landmark University,

Omu-Aran,

Kwara State.

Dear Sir,

LETTER OF TRANSMISSION

In compliance with the requisition of the established authority of Landmark University, Omu-

Aran to prepare a detailed report of the Student Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) between

the period of March 2016 and August 2016, I consequently have the pleasure of submitting this

report.

Yours faithfully,

IKOGBA KELVIN OBOKPARO.

iii
 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to God almighty who is the beginning and the end of my existence, the

reason I breathe, but for his grace and mercies I would not be writing this report this day. Also

to my lovely and wonderful parents Eng. and Mrs. Ikogba Sunday for your labor of love and

support through these years, to my brothers, sisters and friends a big thank you for your support

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Preceding all others in spatial position, I deem it fit to express my sincere gratitude to the

ALMIGHTY GOD, THE SELF EXISTING ONE, ELOHIM, for sustaining my life up till this

present moment, for sound health, for knowledge and understanding, I cannot thank him

enough.

I will also like to acknowledge my parents, Engr. And Mrs. Ikogba S.C for their endless

supports in every areas for their labour of love, my brothers, Martins and Collins, my sisters,

my uncle and his wife, Pharm. And Mrs. Imieje Vincent for taking good care of me throughout

my stay in warri for my SIWES program.

My lecturers would not be left out, God forbid!, I want to acknowledge my lecturers for their

endless effort in trying to bring out the very best in me, for their impact on me, also to the staffs

of SCOPE PROJECTS NIG LTD., may the good lord bless you all.

Finally I must not fail to acknowledge the Christian body here in LCA warri, for their good

will messages, inspiring words and good leadership, special thanks to Rev. AB Ogome and his

ministers, ushers, deacons and the entire body of Christ.

God bless you all……………

v
 ABSTRACT

This technical report bears witness in details, the experience gained by the industrial trainee

during his six month period of attachment to a consultancy firm at SCOPE PROJECTS LTD,

having succeeded in mental design of a bridge between theory and actual practice in civil

engineering. Learning the applications of structural analysis in actual design of structures from

first principle.

The first chapter tells everything about SIWES, its origin, it’s funding, and the role of

government in SIWES, etc. the preceding chapter gives an oversight of what design is, ranging

from reinforced concrete design structures to the design of steel structures, introduction to

various software’s to aid structural design, the rudiments of detailing structural works, tests

carried out and projects involved in.

The third chapter talks about the company of primary assignment, company profile, etc.

services rendered and experience gained was nailed down in chapter four also problems

encountered was also discussed here. At the end of it all, in the fifth chapter, conclusions and

recommendations are drawn out by the trainee on his personal opinion about the scheme, its

importance and relevance to the growth of engineering practice in our nation and schools and

suggestions on how it has further helped the trainee in preparing to face the challenges existing

as an essential constituent in the engineering profession.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Cover page

Title page …………………………………………………………………………………….i

CERTIFICATION page............................................................................................................ii

Letter of transmission………………………………………………………………………..iii

Dedication…………………………………………………………………………………….iv

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………….v

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………….vi

Table of content……………………………………………………………………………vii-x

List of tables………………………………………………………………………………….xi

List of figures………………………………………………………………………………...xii

List of plates…………………………………………………………………………………xiii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………..……1

1.1 DEFINITION OF SIWES …………………………………………..………………….1

1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES …………………………………………………..………1

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES ……………………………………………..…..1

1.4 IMPORTANCE AS IT RELATES TO MY COURSE OF STUDY. …………………..…2

1.5 JUSTIFICATION FOR MY CHOICE OF INDUSTRY. ………………………..………2

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………..……..3

2.1 WORKING STRESS METHOD VERSES LIMIT STATE……………………………….3

2.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN……………………………………………………4

vii
2.2.1 LOADINGS…………………………………………………………………………...7

2.2.2 DESIGN DATA……………………………………………………………………….8

2.2.2.1 SYMBOLS…………………………………………………………………………..9

2.3 SLAB DESIGN…………………………………………………………………………10

2.4 BEAM DESIGN………………………………………………………..........................14

2.4.1 STEPS IN BEAM DESIGN………………………………………………………….15

2.5 COLUMN DESIGN…………………………………………………………………….15

2.6 FOUNDATION DESIGN………………………………………………………………16

2.6.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATION…………………………………………………………..16

2.7 WIND LOADING……………………………………………………………………….18

2.7.1 FACTORS AFFECTING WIND LOADING…………………………………………19

2.7.1.1 STRUCTURAL MEMBERS TO RESIST WIND LOADING…………………….19

2.8 DETAILING AND BAR BENDING SCHEDULE……………………………………..20

2.8.1 BAR REFERENCING…………………………………………………………………21

2.8.2 SCHEDULING………………………………………………………………………...22

2.9 FAILURES IN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES…………………………22

2.10 RETAINING WALL DESIGN…………………………………………………….…..22

2.10.1 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS……………………………………………….…23

2.10.1.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER WALLS……………………………………………..24

2.10.2 STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS…………………………………………..24

2.10.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE………………………………………………………………25

2.11.0 BEARING CAPACITY DETERMINATION USING THE TRIAXIAL

COMPRESSION TEST, UNDRAINED UNCONSOLIDATED…………….....28

2.11.1 RESULT AND CALCULATION……………………………………………............29

2.11.2 MOHR ENVELOP OF TEST CARRIED OUT……………………………………….32

viii
2.11.3 SOIL BEARING CAPACITY CALCULATIONS……………………………………32

2.12.0 DETAILING OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS…………………………………… ..33

2.13.0 STRUCTURAL DESIGN SOFTWARES……………………………………………33

2.13.1 WHY SOFTWARES? ...................................................................................................33

2.14.0 STEEL DESIGN………………………………………………………………………34

2. 14.1 ROOF TRUSS DESIGN…………………………………………………………..….34

2. 14.1.1 INSTALLATION OF STEEL TRUSSES…………………………………………34

2.14.2 CONNECTIONS IN STEEL………………………………………………………….35

2.14.3 PURLIN DESIGN……………………………………………………………………37

2.14.4 STANCHION DESIGN………………………………………………………...……38

2.14.4.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A STRUT AND A COLUMN…………………………39

2.14.5 SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS……40

2.14.6 SUMMARY OF DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR TENSION MEMBERS……………40

2.15.0 DETERMINATION OF THE UNIT PRICE OF CONCRETE………………………41

2.15.1 TAKEOFF SHEET AND BEME……………………………………………………..42

2.15.1.1 TAKE OFF SHEET ……………………………………………………………...…42

2.15.1.2 BEME (BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION)…..44

2.16.0 SEPTIC TANK DESIGN……………………………………………………………. 44

2.16.1 DRAINAGE TRENCH AND SOAK AWAY DESIGN………………………………46

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 COMPANY PROFILE………………………………………………………………..….47

3.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPANY…………………………………………………..….47

3.2 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE…………………………………………………….48

ix
3.3 COMPANY’S ORGANOGRAM………………………………………………………..49

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 SERVICES RENDERED, EXPERIENCE GAINED AND

CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED…………………………………………………..…50

4.1 SERVICES RENDERED AND EXPERIENCE GAINED………………………….….50

4.2 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED AND SOLUTIONS…………………………….…51

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION………………………………………….54

5.1 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………….……….54

5.2 RECCOMENDATION…………………………………………………………..………55

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.0 standards and codes relating to structural loading ………………………………..6

Table 2.1 standards relating to the design of structural elements ……………………………6

Table 2.2 Slab design calculation sheet ……………………………………………………..12

Table 2.3 Triaxial test result …………………………………………………………………31

xi
 LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 2.0 Slab layout…………………………………………………………….……..……11

Figure 2.1 retaining wall…………………………………………………………………...…27

Figure 2.2 Mohr envelop…………………………………………………………………..….32

Figure 2.3 Organogram……………………………………………………………………….49

xii
 LIST OF PLATES.

Plate2.0 (a) placement of ground beam reinforcement

(b) ground beam already casted…………………………………………………………………………………………17

Plate 2.1 (a) triaxial test equipment (b) soil in failure mode after test................................ 29

Plate 2.2 (a) Connection of steel truss to stanchion (b) cleat welded to steel truss for

connection to purlin................................................................................................................. 36

Grade 4.8 bolt (d) Hilti bolt ( for anchor) ............................................................................ 36

Plate2.3 (a) installation of roof trusses Using the derrick or hoist (b) installation of zed purlin

and purlin acting as bracing ................................................................................... 37

Plate 2.4 (a) zed purlins (b) bolt holes for connection of purlin to truss via the cleat ........ 38

Plate 2.5 erection of stanchions. ............................................................................................. 39

Plate 2.6 (a) error 1(b) how the error was corrected (c) corrected ....................................... 53

xiii
xiv
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Definition of SIWES

The student work experience scheme (SIWES) is a skills training program designed to expose

and prepare student of Universities, polytechnics/colleges of technology/colleges of agriculture

and colleges of education for the industrial work situation they are likely to meet after

graduation and most importantly to bridge the gap existing between theory and practice of

engineering and technology, science, agriculture and other professional educational programs

in Nigeria tertiary institutions, hence SIWES is a course of study designed to enhance students

relevant productive skills and employability after labor and therefore is a major requirement

for an undergraduate of the above category.

1.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF SIWES

SIWES was established by ITF in the year 1973 to serve the problem of lack of adequate

practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigeria tertiary institutions

graduates. The scheme educates students on industrial based skills essential for a smooth

transition from classroom to the world of work. SIWES training has become a crucial pre-

condition for the award of diploma and degree certificates in specific disciplines in most

institutions of higher learning in Nigeria in line with the government educational policy. The

scheme is funded by the federal government.

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES.

SIWES brings about a hand-on-the job training in the industries. It creates a sort of link

between theory and actual practice in the field.

The aims and objectives of the scheme as stated by ITF are;

1
 1. To provide an avenue for students in industries of higher learning to acquire industrial

skills and experience in the course of their study.

2. To prepare students for the work situations they are to meet after graduation.

3. To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment’s and

machinery that may not be in the educational institutions.

4. To make transition from school to world of work easier and enhance students contact

for later job placement.

5. To provide students an opportunity to apply his knowledge in real work situation

thereby bridging the gap between college work and actual practice.

6. To enlist and strengthen employers involvement in the entire educational process for

preparing students for employment industry.

1.4 IMPORTANCE AS IT RELATES TO MY COURSE OF STUDY

SIWES is not only a necessity in my course of study but mandatory, this is because my course

of study as it were, is a field that requires not only a solid theoretical background but also a

very good practical knowledge on the job, therefore SIWES creates an avenue for this practical

knowledge to be acquired. SIWES makes the theoretical knowledge previously gained more

realistic and applicable.

1.5 JUSTIFICATION FOR MY CHOICE OF INDUSTRY

What will be the use of constructing without knowing how the structural elements are designed

and how they behave? What is the use of learning structural analysis when you do not have an

idea of how it is applied in practice?, therefore I decided to work in SCOPE PROJECTS ( a

consultancy firm) to learn from first principle how these theories are applied in practice, how

to design and detail, not only how to design but produce a workable and economic structure.

2
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 WORKING STRESS METHOD VS LIMIT STATE.

There are two main methods of designs:

(1) The working stress method

(2) The limit state method

THE WORKING STRESS METHOD.

The Working, Allowable or Permissible stress method is an elastic design method. In this

design method, members are designed to never go beyond their elastic range. The primary

benefit of this benefit is that the same loads used for checking flexural, shear, torsional and

axial design can also be used for serviceability checks, ie. The loads are not amplified. This

reduces book keeping efforts and removes one potential source of error introduction. In

practice, this means it is simpler.

THE LIMIT STATE METHOD.

In structural design, design constraints are frequently referred to as LIMIT STATES. Limit

States are conditions of potential failure Limit State (LS) or Load Resistance Factor (LRFD)

design uses the ultimate strength of a member, beyond initial yielding, to determine the

allowable strength. The primary benefit of the limit state design method is that it is generally

produces more economical designs than Working Stress Methods, and it provides a more

consistent safety factor across all elements. LRFD allows for more control and understanding

of the structural behavior by explicitly considering each load type independently.

Structural limit states tend to fail in two major categories viz:

(a) strength limit state or ultimate limit state

(b) serviceability limit state

3
STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

Strength based limit state are potential modes of failure. For steel members, the failure may be

either yielding (permanent deformation) or rupture (actual fracture). The required strength is

the internal force that you derive from your analysis of the structure being designed

SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

A limit state beyond which the structure becomes unsafe for use.

2.2 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN.

Concrete is a composite inert material comprising of a binder course (e.g cement), mineral filler

(body) or aggregates and water. Aggregates on the other hand are two categories of fine (sand)

and coarse (gravel or crushed stones) aggregates. The aggregates are usually graded from fine

sand to stones of say 20mm in diameter depending on the job to be executed. There are two

types of concrete viz. (i) dense concrete and (ii) light weight concrete

Light weight concrete can be defined as those weighing less than 1920kg/m3 while dense

concrete is the most common form of concrete for reinforced work having an average density

of 2400kg/m3.

Reinforced concrete is a combination of two dissimilar but complimentary materials namely

concrete and steel (or tendons in pre-stressed concrete) it has been observed from time past that

concrete is good in compression having a considerable crushing strength and good fire

resistance on the other hand steel is good in tension, shear and also compression. This

reinforced concrete can be used in the construction of structural members like beams, columns,

slabs, retaining walls, piles, etc. when a beam is idealized and constructed as simply supported

and then loaded it bends (hence it’s a flexural member) and the bottom is subjected to tension

and the top compression but this is not so for a cantilever beam, here the tension is at the top

and compression is at the bottom, this is why in a cantilever, the main reinforcement is provided

4
at the top to take care of the tension there. In engineering we design for safety, economy and

aesthetics.

Basically there are two types of buildings namely;

1. Buildings supported on load bearing walls

2. Buildings supported on frames i.e framed buildings

A building supported on load bearing walls is limited to two suspended floors in addition to

this condition the soil bearing capacity should be greater than 100kN/m 2 else the building

should be framed, the implication of load bearing walls is that a building can stand without

columns except when the end bearing can’t be guaranteed .

On the other hand a framed building is a building that consists of slab carried by a beam (a

structural element that primarily resist bending and it runs horizontally in a structure) which in

turn is supported by a column. This is where structural engineering comes into play, how the

various component elements of a building act together to form a supportive structure and

transmit forces down to the foundation, the main concern of a structural engineer is the

determination of the actual size of the members or elements.

A major question young university engineers ask is how can I identify these structural

elements in a given architectural plan and carry out the design? For the purpose of description

these matters may be divided into stages and defined as follows.

1. Prepare a G.A drawing (general arrangement drawing)- in this stage the architectural

drawing is gridded and a positioning of the structural elements by inspection is carried out.

2. Structural planning stage: a structural scheme is devised to suit both the purpose of the

building and site conditions which exist.

3. Structural analysis stage: when the loads are determined and their dispersal through the

structure is analyzed by applying the principles of structural mechanics.

5
4. Structural elements design stage: when the size needed for each member is calculated in

relation to the material and its particular structural capacity.

5. Structural detailing stage: when detail drawings are produced to illustrate how the structure

is to be constructed on site so as to comply with the engineer’s design concept.

6. Structural specification stage: when the specification clauses are compiled to ensure that

the standard of materials and workmanship to be employed in the works comply with the

assumptions embodied in the structural engineer’s design.

In determining the size of the individual elements it is necessary to carry out calculations, but

these, once understood, follow a logical sequence. To assist us in arriving at a logical sequence

we first need a set of guidelines. These may be found in relevant British Standards or codes of

practice which advise on how the materials we use, that is timber, concrete, masonry and steel,

behave in the form of building elements such as beams, columns, slabs and walls. These

standards play an important role in the provision of structural designs which are both safe and

economic and which comply with the building regulations and other statutory requirements. In

relation to their application in structural design the various standards and codes may be broadly

divided into three groups:

a.) Specification of materials and components

b.) Those relating to structural loading

c.) Those relating to the actual design of structural elements in a specific material.

Table 2.0 standards and codes relating to structural loading

BSI reference Title

BS 6399 part 1 1984 loading for buildings-code of practical for dead and imposed loads

BS 6399 part 3 1988 code of practice for imposed roof loads.

CP 3 chapter V part 2 1972 loadings – wind loads.

6
Table 2.1 standards relating to the design of structural elements

BSI reference Title

BS 5950 part 1 2000 structural use of steelwork in building- code of practice for

design in simple and continuous construction: hot rolled sections

BS 8110 part 1 1985 structural use of concrete- code of practice for design and

construction

It should be noted that there are two main theories used in analyzing structural members,

1.) Calculation of forces

2.) Bending moments.

2.2.1 LOADINGS.

There are three conditions of loading for which a structural member may have to be designed:

dead loading, imposed loading and when so exposed, wind loading in some cases seismic

loading. It is also necessary to consider the effect of combined loads.

Design calculations:

The engineer needs to determine the following before embarking on the design calculations.

a. The concrete grade to be employed. For domestic buildings in the country it is advisable

that the concrete grade should not be lower than 25N/mm2

b. The type of steel to be used. For domestic buildings, mild steel round bars may be

sufficient with steel stresses, not exceeding 250N/mm2. Whereas, however, such domestic

clients can guarantee the supply of high yield high tensile bars, such can be used with

stresses (in this country) limited to 410 N/mm2. Where massive reinforcements are expected

it may be more economical to use high tensile bars. Tensile strength above 410 N/mm2

should be used if only it can be justified by testing each various sizes of reinforcements

supplied to the site.

7
A design carried out for a client Mr. Jacob Ogbodu will be used to throw more light to

reinforced concrete design.

Note: the column, beam and foundation GA would be carried out using the ground floor

plan this is because the total load from the roof and the first floor is transferred to the ground

floor plan, hence the ground floor structural elements carries all loads.

2.2.2 DESIGN DATA.

Standard design codes used;

(1) BS 8110: Structural use of concrete. BS 8110 is divided into the following three parts:

Part 1: Code of practice for design and construction. Part 2: Code of practice for special

circumstances. Part 3: Design charts for singly reinforced beams, doubly reinforced beams

and rectangular columns.

3. BS 6399: Design loadings for buildings, Part 1:Code of practice for dead and imposed

loads; Part2: Code of practice for wind loads; Part 3: Code of practice for imposed roof

loads

The following data and equations are derived empirically, from the BS code(8110) they are

as follow:

1. fcu = 25N/mm2

2. fy = 410N/mm2

3. unit weight of concrete= 24kN/m2 , concrete cover = 25mm, fire resistance ( 1hr)

4. loading @ ULS W= 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk, where Gk= dead load, Qk= live load

5. M= wl2/8.(moment due to W)

6. K= M/fcu bd2 (b= breadth, d= depth)

𝑘
7. La = 0.5+√0.25 − 0.9 , where la is the lever arm

8. Z= la d

9. As = M/ 0.95fyz where As is the area of steel required, As min= 0.13%bh

8
 Checks carried out include: a) deflection (b) shear (c) local bond

2.2.2.1 SYMBOLS.

These have largely been taken from BS 8110. Note that in one or two cases the same symbol

is differently defined. Where this occurs the reader should use the definition most appropriate

to the element being designed.

Geometric properties:

b width of section

d effective depth of the tension reinforcement

h overall depth of section

x depth to neutral axis

z lever arm

d′ depth to the compression reinforcement

b effective span

c nominal cover to reinforcement

Bending:

Fk characteristic load

gk, Gk characteristic dead load, qk, Qk characteristic imposed load, wk, Wk characteristic wind

load

fk characteristic strength, fcu characteristic compressive cube strength of concrete

fy characteristic tensile strength of reinforcement, γf partial safety factor for load

γm partial safety factor for material strengths

K coefficient given by M/fcubd 2

K′ coefficient given by Mu/fcubd 2 = 0.156 when redistribution does not exceed 10 per cent

M design ultimate moment

9
Mu design ultimate moment of resistance

As area of tension reinforcement, As′ area of compression reinforcement

Φ diameter of main steel, Φ′ diameter of links

Shear:

fyv characteristic strength of links

sv spacing of links along the member

V design shear force due to ultimate

loads

v design shear stress

vc design concrete shear stress

Asv total cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement

Compression:

b width of column

h depth of column

lo clear height between end restraints

le effective height

lex effective height in respect of x-x axis

ley effective height in respect of y-y axis

N design ultimate axial load

Ac net cross-sectional area of concrete in a column

Asc area of longitudinal reinforcement

2.3 SLAB DESIGN

There are various types of slabs namely; (a)solid slabs (b) flat slabs (c)waffle slabs, etc. a

slab also may be classified based on the shape, such as, circular, rectangular, hexagonal,

etc. a slab can be analyzed as either simple supported or continuous, BS 8110-1:1997 gave

10
the step involved in this design, a slab is simply supported when there is no continuity at

all corners, hence no hogging moment at the corners, the opposite is the case for continuous

slabs, a slab can be simply supported on one edge and continuous on the other sides

whichever is the case. If two way see table 3.14 of BS 8110-1:1997. If slab is a cantilever

reinforcements are provided at the top not bottom, because tension in a cantilever is

developed at the top not bottom. A slab can either be supported on a wall (load bearing), a

beam or column (a flat slab), these are some facts we need to know about the slab.

2.3.1 SOLID SLAB DESIGN

For the sake of this design a duplex previously designed for Mr Jacob would be used,

GA DRAWING (general arrangement drawing)

figure 2.0 slab lay out

11
 Note: only panel 1(two way slab) and panel two (one way slab) would be designed.

Slab loading.

Dead load; concrete self-weight = 0.175 × 24 = 4.2kN/m2

Finishes = 1.2kN/m2

Partition allowance = 0.5 kN/m2

Therefore Gk = 6.0kN/m2

Live load (for residential) Qk =1.5 kN/m2

Design load at ultimate limit state = 1.4 Gk + 1.6Qk = 11 kN/m2.

All calculations will be done in a calculation sheet.

Table 2.2 Slab design calculation sheet

REF CALCULATIONS OUTPUT

BS 8110- Ly/lx = 1

1:1997 Short span coefficients βsx

Table 3.14 βsx, -ve=0.047, +ve =0.036

βsy, -ve=0.045 +ve 0.034

short span

3.5.3.4 mid span moment(sagging)

equation Msx= βsxwlx2 = 0.036×11×72 =19.404kNm

14, 15 K = 0.035 Ok.

La=0.959 Provide

As = 351.944mm2/m < Asmin= H12@300mmc/c

0.13%bh=227.5mm2. As = 377mm2

12
 Continuous edge (hogging moment). Provide

M = βsxn w lx2 = 0.047×10×72= 23.03kNm H12@200c/c

k= 0.046 , la = 0.95, As =417.7 mm2/m As= 452mm2/m

long span

effective depth = 175 – 12 – 6 – 25 = 137mm

Provide H12@
mid span( span moment)
300mmc/c,
M = βsypwlx2 =0.034× 10×72 = 16.66kNm

2
377mm2
K=0.03, la= 0.95, As = 302.17mm /m

Continuous edge( hogging moment).

Provide H12
M = βsynwlx2 =0.045 × 10 ×72= 22kNm
@250c/c, 452mm2
K= 0.047, la = 0.94, As=439mm2/m run

SHEAR
Table 3.15
Continuous edge discontinuous
Equation
Βvx = 0.4 0.26
19, 20.
Βvy= 0.4 0.26

Design load on slabs, continuous

Vsy= βvywlx = 0.4×10×7 =28kN/m = Vsx

Discontinuous, Vsy=Vsx =0.26×10×7=18.2kN/m

Shear stress, v = Vsx/bd = 0.188N/mm2

13
Table 3.11 100𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
𝑏𝑑 = 100×377/(1000×149)= 0.253

Vc= 0.51
Table 3.8
Vc > V, therefore no shear reinforcement

required.
No shear rf. Needed

DEFLECTION CHECK.
Table 3.10

3.4.6.5 fs = 58 𝑓𝑦 𝐴𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣
𝑟𝑒𝑞

= 205.27Nmm-2

𝑀
=0.75N/mm2
𝑏𝑑2

Mf = 1.922

Actual span to eff. Depth ratio must < the

𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
permissible, where permissible =basic
𝑒𝑓𝑓.𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ Deflection is

ratio× mf. satisfactory. Ok.

7000
< 26 × 1.922
149

2.4 BEAM DESIGN.

Slabs in general transfers load to the beam, a load bearing wall can also be used to receive load

from the slab. Beams carry lateral loads in roofs, floors etc. and resist the loading in bending,

shear and bond. Concrete is strong in compression but weak and unreliable in tension.

Reinforcement is required to resist tension due to moment. Initially the concrete in the

14
 uncracked section will resist tension, but it soon cracks. The behaviour of the cracked section

is elastic at low loads and changes to plastic at higher loads.

2.4.1 Steps in beam design.

(1) Preliminary sizing -The size of beam required depends on the moment and shear

that the beam carries. The reinforcement provided must be within the limits set out in BS8110:

Part 1, clause 3.12.6.1.

(2) Estimation of loads – both the load due to self-weight and the life loads (BS 6399) are

determined.

(3) Analysis

(4) Design of moment reinforcement - BS8110: Part 1, section 3.4.4

(5) Curtailment and end anchorage – General and simplified rules for curtailment of bars

in beams are set out in BS8110: Part 1, section 3.12.9

(6) Design for shear and torsion when necessary

(7) Check deflection- Deflection is checked using the rules from BS8110: Part 1, section

3.4.6.9 as well as cracking.

*Note.

With respect to the ultimate moment of resistance of the section a beam can either be singly

reinforced or doubly reinforced, with respect to spanning, it can be analysed as simply

supported or continous.

*Due to page limit constraint, the detailed and in depth design of beams wont be considered

in this text.*

2.5 COLUMN DESIGN

Columns are structural members in buildings carrying roof and floor loads to the foundations.

Columns are primarily compression members although they may also have to resist bending

15
moments transmitted by beams. An essential step in the design of a column is to determine

whether the proposed dimensions and frame arrangement will make it a short or a slender

column. If the column is slender additional moments due to deflection must be added to the

moments from the primary analysis. In general columns in buildings are ‘short’.

Clause 3.8.1.3 of the code defines short and slender columns as follows:

1. For a braced structure, the column is considered as short if both the slenderness ratios lex/h

and ley/b are less than 15. If either ratio is greater than 15 the column is considered as slender.

2. For an unbraced structure, the column is considered as short if both the slenderness ratios

lex/h and ley/b are less than 10. If either ratio is greater than 10 the column is considered as

slender.

2.6 FOUNDATION DESIGN

Foundations are required primarily to carry the dead and imposed loads due to the structure’s

floors, beams, walls, columns, etc. and transmit and distribute the loads safely to the ground.

The purpose of distributing the load is to avoid the safe bearing capacity of the soil being

exceeded otherwise excessive settlement of the structure may occur.

Foundation failure can produce catastrophic effects on the overall stability of a structure so that

it may slide or even overturn. Such failures are likely to have tremendous financial and safety

implications. It is essential, therefore, that much attention is paid to the design of this element

of a structure.

2.6.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATION

There are many types of foundations which are commonly used, namely strip, pad and raft. All

other types of foundations are variations of these as mentioned above. The foundation may bear

directly on the ground or be supported on piles.

The type of foundation to be used depends on a number of factors such as

16
1. The soil properties and conditions

2. The type of structure and loading

3. The permissible amount of differential settlement

The choice is usually made from experience but comparative designs are often necessary to

determine the most economical type to be used. The size of a foundation bearing directly on

the ground depends on the safe bearing pressure of the soil, which is taken to mean the bearing

pressure that can be imposed without causing excessive settlement. Values for various soil

types and conditions are given in BS8004: Code of practice for foundations. In general, site

load tests and laboratory tests on soil samples should be carried out to determine soil properties

for foundation design.

In the design of foundations, the areas of the bases in contact with the ground should be such

that the bearing pressures will not be exceeded. Settlement takes place during the working life

of the structure, “therefore the design loading to be considered when calculating the base

areas should be those that apply to the serviceability limit state and the bearing pressure for

providing reinforcement will be derived at the ultimate limit state”.

Plate 2.0 (a) placement of ground beam reinforcement (b) ground beam already casted

17
2.7 WIND LOADING

Wind load on buildings is estimated in accordance with CP3: Chapter V: Part 2. The following

factors are taken into consideration:

1. The basic wind speed V depends on the location in the country.

2. The design wind speed Vs is VS1S2S3 where S1 is a topography factor normally taken as 1,

S2 depends on ground roughness, building size and height above the ground and S3 is a

statistical factor, normally taken as 1.

The ground roughness is in four categories in which category 3 is a location in the

Suburbs of a city. The building size is in three classes, these classes are explained in the code

The height may refer to the total height of the building or the height of the part under

consideration. In a multi-storey building the wind load increases with height and the factor S2

should be increased at every floor or every three or four floors

3. The dynamic pressure q=0.613 Vs

2 N/m2 is the pressure on a surface normal to the wind and is modified by the dimensions of

the building and by openings in the building.

4. Pressure coefficients are given for individual surfaces. External pressure coefficients Cpe

that depend on dimensions and roof angles are estimated for external surfaces. Depending on

whether openings occur on the windward or leeward sides, internal pressure or suction exists

inside the building. Tables and guidance are given in the code for evaluating external and

internal pressure coefficients Cpe and Cpi.

5. The wind force F on a surface is

F=(Cpe−Cpi)qA where A is the area of the surface and Cpe and Cpi are added algebraically.

The force acts normal to the surface.

6. Force coefficients Cf are given to find the wind load on the building as a whole.

The wind load is given by F=CfqAe

18
Cf is the force coefficient and Ae is the effective frontal area of the building. The use of force

coefficients is an alternative to determining wind loads on individual surfaces. This method is

used for multi-storey buildings. Wind loads should be calculated for lateral and longitudinal

directions to obtain loads on frames or shear walls to provide stability in each direction. In

asymmetrical buildings it may be necessary to investigate wind from all directions.

The basic wind speed can be derived from an ISOPLETH for basic wind speed for wind loading

calculations in Nigeria in other words, a map of Nigeria showing the basic wind speed. A

structure above 2m can be loaded for wind as BS 6399-2:1997 specifies, but for heights of 5m

below most at times have insignificant wind force hence they are ignored, as wind pressure

increases with height.

What if I have no isopleth to determine my basic wind speed?

The notional system of wind loading can be used in this case, where a certain percentage of the

dead and imposed load acting on the structure is used to load the structure laterally for wind.

Note: appendix for an isopleth of Nigeria.

2.7.1 Factors affecting wind loading

They include:

(1) Shape factor (2) topography (3) exposure (4) ground roughness, etc.

Wind loading can be obtained by two methods as given in BS 6399 -2: 1997 namely; (1) the

standard method (2) directional method.

2.7.1.1 Structural members to resist wind load

(1) Shear wall

(2) Lift shaft

(3) Claddings/ diaphragm and (4) Braced frame (frame action)

19
2.8 DETAILING AND BAR BENDING SCHEDULE

Detailing is nothing but a means of communication, an instruction manual. It conveys relevant

information from the design engineer to the detailer and then the site or construction engineer.

Detailing and scheduling goes hand in hand and can both be done by the design engineer or the

detailer. Detailing can only really begin in earnest once the final design is available. The design

requirements are normally given to the detailer in the form of design calculations, marked up

GA drawings, beam schedules or completed pro forma or similar. It is important that detailing

is carried out with responsibilities and adequate timescales clearly defined. Issues such as site

constraints, relevant standards, laps, covers, concrete grades, holes, detailing preferences, etc

must all be covered.

There are two types of detailing namely; (a) the designers detailing and (b) the contractors

detailing. The following includes the typical information required for detailing

• General Arrangement (GA) drawings: they must be fully dimensioned, with sufficient

sections and details, and should show or reference all necessary service holes, provisions for

ducts and cast fittings.

• Project specification: Unless noted otherwise,

• Design requirements in one of the following forms:

– the structural design calculations

– marked-up GAs: This is common practice for small uncomplicated projects

– element schedules: Sketches of the required reinforcement by element

– Pre-printed drawings (completed proformas)

– Sketches and tables incorporated with Computer Aided Design (CAD).

The efficient communication of information from Designer to Detailer is important.

See appendix for detailed drawings

20
2.8.1 BAR REFERENCING

Example: 20 T 2501,

This means the number of bars are 20 in number, the bar type is “T”, the bar diameter is 25mm,

bar mark number is 01, in some cases you can have “20T25 01 @ 300c/c, here 300c/c represents

the pitch of the bar. Other abbreviations include:

B – bars in bottom of slab

BB – (in two way slabs) bottom layer of bottom reinforcement

BT – bottom top

TB – in two way slabs, top bottom

EF – bars in each face

NF – bars in near face

FF – bars in far face of wall or column

AP – bars alternately placed

AR – bars alternately reversed, etc.

For example, in a cantilever the mains bars should be placed at the top since tension is

developed at the top of a cantilever, fixity at a column beam junction can be provided by U-

bars or by L bars.

NOTE: *relevant codes of practice should be consulted to see the requirement for anchorages,

lap length and curtailment generally.

*detailing should not be toiled with as poor detailing might lead to the failure of the structure.

21
2.8.2 SCHEDULING

It is a list of reinforcement types, dimensions, quantities and bar mark numbers, cross-referring

to the detailed drawing, the preparation of this list is known as scheduling.

No detailing no scheduling, they go together, reference codes for scheduling are as follows;

BS 8666, BS 4466:1989, BS 4066:1999, etc. The system for scheduling bars comprises;

- The method for indicating dimensions.

- A coding system for bar shapes.

- A list of preferred shapes.

- The bar schedule.

2.9 FAILURES IN CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Factors affecting failure

Failures in concrete structures can be due to any of the following factors:

1. Incorrect selection of materials

2. Errors in design calculations and detailing

3. Poor construction methods and inadequate quality control and supervision

4. Chemical attack

5. External physical and/or mechanical factors including alterations made to the structure

2.10 RETAINING WALL DESIGN

Sometimes it is necessary to maintain a difference in ground levels between adjacent areas of

land. Typical examples of this include road and railway embankments, reservoirs and ramps.

A common solution to this problem is to build a natural slope between the two levels. However,

this is not always possible because slopes are very demanding of space. An alternative solution

which allows an immediate change in ground levels to be effected is to build a vertical wall

which is capable of resisting the pressure of the retained material. These structures are

22
commonly referred to as retaining walls. Retaining walls are important elements in many

building and civil engineering projects and the purpose of the following sections is to briefly

describe the various types of retaining walls available and outline the design procedure

associated with one common type, namely cantilever retaining walls.

2.10.1 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

Whatever the type of retaining wall, all retaining walls have to withstand lateral pressures either

from earth or any other material on their faces. The pressures acting on the walls try to move

the walls from their position. The walls should be designed so as to keep them stable in their

position. Generally, retaining walls can be divided into two major categories; which are:

Conventional retaining walls and mechanically stabilized earth walls.

Conventional retaining walls can be classified as:

1. Gravity retaining walls: they resist movement because of their heavy sections. They are

built of mass concrete or stone or brick masonry. No reinforcement is required in these walls.

2. Semi gravity retaining walls: they are not as heavy as gravity walls. A small amount of

reinforcement is used for reducing the amount of concrete.

3. Cantilever retaining walls: the stems of cantilever walls are thinner in section. The base

slab is the cantilever portion. These walls are made of reinforced concrete.

4. Counterfort retaining walls: they are similar to cantilever walls except that the stem of the

walls span horizontally between vertical brackets known as counterforts. The counterforts

are provided on the backfill side.

5. Buttressed retaining walls: they are similar to counterfort walls except the brackets or

buttress walls are provided on the opposite side of the backfill.

In all these cases, the backfill tries to move the wall from its position. The movement of the

wall is partly resisted by the wall itself and partly by the soil in front of the wall.

23
Mechanically stabilized retaining walls have their backfills stabilized by inclusion of

reinforcing elements such as metal strips, bars, welded wire mats, geotextiles, and geogrids.

These walls are relatively flexible and can sustain large horizontal and vertical displacement

without much damage. A cantilever wall was design for a building at Osubi part of Warri Delta

state to curb the problem of fence collapse.

2.10.1.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER WALLS

Generally, the design process involves ensuring that the wall will not fail either due to

foundation failure or structural failure of the stem or base. Specifically, the design procedure

involves the following steps:

1. Calculate the soil pressures on the wall.

2. Check the stability of the wall.

3. Design the bending reinforcement.

As in the case of slabs, the design of retaining walls is usually based on a 1 m width of section.

2.10.2 STABILITY OF RETAINING WALLS

When designing a retaining wall, there are two major factors that are designed against in

retaining walls. They are overturning and sliding. Another factor to watch out for is the bearing

capacity of the soil at the base of the retaining wall. Fountain failure of the wall may arise due

to (a) sliding or (b) rotation. Sliding failure will occur if the active pressure force (FA) exceeds

the passive pressure force (FP) plus the friction force (FF) arising at the base/ground interface

(a)) where

FA = 0.5pah1

FP = 0.5pph2

FF = μWt

The factor of safety against this type of failure occurring is normally taken to be at least 1.5:

Ff +Fp/ Fa ≥ 1.5

24
2.10.3 DESIGN EXAMPLE

This retaining wall was designed to hold a masonry wall (fence) which has collapsed thrice due

to accumulation of storm water behind it.

Pa = kaƔh = 0.35 ×19×1.2 =8kN/m2

Weight of stem =24 ×0.2×1 + wall load = 8.323kN

Weight of base = 24 ×0.2×1 =4.8kN.

Weight of soil = 19 ×1×0.5 =9.5kN

Total fv = 9.5 + 4.8 + 8.232 =22.532kN

SLIDING

Friction force ;Ff × wt = 22.532 ×0.4 = 9.01kN

The passive earth pressure as well as the friction force between soil and retaining wall base

will be considered.
1
Kp =0.35 =2.86 = coefficient of passive pressure

Passive pressure = KphƔ = 2.86×0.4×(19-9.81) = 10.5kN

Note ; Ɣ= Ɣdry –Ɣwater, this is the submerged unit weight since the soil is covered with water.

Total resisting force = passive pressure + friction force. =10.5 + 7.448 = 17.96kN

Sliding force = Fa = 0.5Pah = 0.5×8×1.2 = 4.8kN.

hence factor of safety against sliding, FOS = (Ff + Fp)/Fa ≥ 1.5

17.96/4.8 = 3.74 > 1.5 , hence there is no sliding

OVERTURNING

Taking moment about point A.

𝐹𝑎×1.2
= (4.8×1.2)/3 = 1.92kNm.
3

Sum of restoring moment (Mres) = Ww×0.3 + Wb×0.45 +Ws×0.65

25
= 8.232×0.4 + 4.8×0.5 +9.5×0.75 =12.82kNm.

12.82
Factor of safety against overturning = =6.7 >2, there will be no overturning, ok!
1.92

GROUND BEARING PRESSURE

𝐹𝑎×1.2
Moment about centre line of base (M) = + Ww×0.1 - Ws×0.25
3

4.8×1.2
= + 8.232 (0.1) – 9.5 (0.25) = 0.37kNm.
3

N = 18.62kN

𝑀 0.37
= = 0.016 < D/6 , therefore maximum ground pressure occurs at the toe
𝑁 22.532

𝑁 6𝑀 22.532 6×0.37
Ptoe= + = + = 24.752kN/m2 < allowable
𝐷 𝐷2 1 12

Also the minimum pressure will occur at the heel,

22.532 6×0.37
Pheel = ̶ =20.311kN/m2
1 12

BENDING REINFORCEMENT

Wall; height of stem = 1m, therefore horizontal force due to backfill,

Fs = 0.5 ×ka ×Ɣ × ℎ2

= 0.5 ×0.35×19×12 = 3.325kN/m

Design moment at base of wall,

1.4×3.325×1
M= = 1.55kNm.
3

Effective depth, d = h – cover – half bar diameter, = 200 – 30 -6 = 164mm

Mu = 0.156fcub𝑑2 = 104.89 > M, no compression reinforcement is required

K = 0.0023, la = 0.95, As =27.558mm2/m run , As min =0.13% = 260mm2 provide T12 @300c/c

377mm2

Base

26
Figure 2.1 retaining wall

36.638−21.294
P3 = 21.294 + [ ] ×0.5
0.9

= 29.818kN/m2

Design moment @ point C, Mc is

13.3 ×0.5 0.5×4.32×1.4×0.25 21.294 ×0.52 8.524 ×0.52

= + - - =1.148kNm
2 0.9 2 2×3

D=164mm, k =0.0017. La = 0.95, As = 20.411mm2/m, provide Y12 @ 300 c/c (377mm2) top

face.

Toe
36.638×0.22 0.22 ×4.32
Design moment at point B, MB = - = 1kNm
2 2×0.9

As min = 260mm2, btm face, provide T12 @ 300c/c

27
2.11 BEARING CAPACITY DETERMINATION USING THE TRIAXIAL

COMPRESSION TEST (un-drained unconsolidated)

The tri-axial test is the most common method used in soil mechanic laboratories for finding the

shear strength of a soil. The soil specimen is extruded from a 38mm diameter cutting tube,

capped top and bottom, and covered with a rubber membrane to prevent loss of moisture. The

prepared sample is placed in position and the transparent cylinder filled with water. A measured

pressure head is applied to the water, and the soil sample is then in similar conditions to the

site conditions, where this lateral pressure would be due to the surrounding soil. This lateral

pressure or cell pressure will be the minimum principal stress.

A vertical load is now applied to the sample at a constant rate of strain until the sample fails.

This vertical applied pressure at failure, the deviator stress, may be measured on a proving ring,

and when added to the cell pressure gives the maximum principal stress. The tri-axial test may

be carried out under different conditions of drainage, and the type of test will depend upon the

site conditions and type of test will depend upon the site conditions and type of engineering

works being undertaken. An undrained test does not allow for drainage of the sample during

the test. Since drainage is not required, not only need there be no provision for the water in the

sample to drain but it is also unnecessary to allow time for drainage to occur. This test may

therefore be carried out very speedily and is sometimes referred to as the “quick test”. The

undrained test is a total stress analysis and is used where short term values of shear strength

are required such as for temporary excavations. It is also the standard test for bearing capacity

of foundations which is a “short term” case, since after initial loading the soil will consolidate

and gain in shear strength ( settlement is normally the main problem with foundations no the

bearing capacity).

28
Plate 2.1 (a) triaxial test equipment (b) soil in failure mode after test.

2.11.1 RESULT AND CALCULATION

1) Measurements and calculations shall contain three significant digits.

2) Calculate the axial strain, e (expressed as a decimal), for a given applied axial load, as

follows: e =DH/Ho

Where: D H = change in height of specimen as read from deformation indicator, and Ho =

initial height of test specimen minus any change in length prior to loading.

3) Calculate the average cross-sectional area, A, for a given applied axial load as follows:

A = Ao/1-e

Where: Ao = initial average cross-sectional area of the specimen, and

e = axial strain for the given axial load (expressed as a decimal).

4) Calculate the principal stress difference (deviator stress),

29
 δ1 – δ3, for a given applied axial load as follows:

δ1 – δ3= P/A

Where:

P = measured applied axial load (corrected for uplift and piston friction, if required

see 7.4), and A = corresponding average cross-sectional area.

5) Stress-Strain Curve—Prepare a graph showing the relationship between principal stress

difference (deviator stress) and axial strain, plotting deviator stress as ordinate and axial

strain (in percent) as abscissa. Select the compressive strength and axial strain at failure

in accordance with the definitions above.

6) Correction for Rubber Membrane—Assuming units are consistent, the following

equation shall be used to correct the principal stress difference or deviator stress for the

effect of the rubber membrane if the error in principal stress difference due to the

stiffness of the membrane exceeds 5 %:

∆ (δ1 – δ3) = 4 Em tm e1/D

Where:

∆ (δ1 – δ3) = correction to be subtracted from the measured principal stress difference,

D = = √4A/π = diameter of specimen,

Em = Young’s modulus for the membrane material,

tm = thickness of the membrane, and

e1 = axial strain.

The Young’s modulus of the membrane material may be determined by hanging a 10.0-mm

wide strip of membrane over a thin rod, placing another rod along the bottom of the hanging

membrane, and measuring the force per unit strain obtained by stretching the membrane. The

modulus value may be computed using the following equation assuming units are consistent:

Em= FL/Am∆L

30
 Where:

Em = Young’s modulus of the membrane material,

F = force applied to stretch the membrane,

Am = twice the initial thickness of the membrane multiplied by the width of the membrane strip,

L = unstretched length of the membrane, and

∆L = change in length of the membrane due to application of F. A typical value of Em for latex

membrane is 1400 kN/m2.

7) Calculate the major and minor principal total stresses at failure as follows:

δ3= minor principal total stress chamber pressure, and

δ1 = major principal total stress deviator stress at failure plus chamber pressure.

8) Calculate the initial degree of saturation of the test specimen using the initial mass and

dimensions.

KEYWORDS

Cohesive soil; lateral confinement; strain-controlled loading; stress-strain relationships; total

stresses; unconsolidated undrained strength

Table 2.3 Triaxial test result

Specimen Cell Load @ Corrected Corrected Additional Total vertical

No. Pressure, failure load area vertical pressure

σ3 [kgf} kN 𝑨𝒐
(𝟏−𝑬) pressure [kPa]

[kPa] [kPa] σ1

σd

1 30 89 0.122 1.417×10-3 86 116

2 60 115 0.158 1.417×10-3 111 171

3 120 145 0.199 1.417×10-3 140 260

31
2.11.2 MOHR ENVELOP OF TEST CARRIED OUT.

Figure 2.2 mohr envelop

C = 26.4 kN/m2

Ø = 14o where c = cohesion( equivalent to the intercept of the graph) and Ø =angle of internal friction.

CONCLUSION:

These test results help us to know the shear strength of a cohesive soil which is useful in

designing any type of foundation.

2.11.3 SOIL BEARING CAPACITY CALCULATIONS

Using Terzaghi’s modified bearing capacity factors Nc’, Nq’ and N Ɣ’

Nc’= 9.31, Nq’= 2.55, NƔ’= 0.48, for a foundation depth of 1.5m and width, B=1m.

For a square footing qu = 0.867c’Nc’ + qNq’+0.4ƔBNƔ’

=0.867(2.64)(9.3) + (17.45)(1.5)(2.55) +0.4( 17.45)*1*0.48

=282.97 kN/m2

Allowable bearing capacity using a factor of safety of 3 qall= qu/3 = 94.32 kN/m2

Net ultimate bearing capacity

qnet = qu – q =282.97 kN/m2 -17.459(1.5)

= 256.795kN/m2

32
 𝑞𝑢−𝑞 256.795
qall(net) = = = 85.598 kN/m2.
𝐹𝑆 3

Note: there is a difference in the bearing capacity of the soil if the simplified Terzaghi’s

equation is used, the modified gives a more critical value of soil capacity.

2.12 DETAILING OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

Accurate detailing has an important role in the procurement and durability of reinforced

concrete structures. Design can be done by the best designers of professionals, without a good

detailing the whole design is useless. Detailing is a key man in the structural engineering

communication process, it conveys useful information from the design engineers to the site

engineers. Thus, very often it becomes a critical process in the construction programme.

Detailing can only really begin in earnest once the final design is available. The design

requirements are normally given to the detailer in the form of design calculations, marked up

GA drawings, beam schedules or completed pro forma or similar.

2.13 STRUCTURAL DESIGN SOFTWARES

Software’s used include; (a) Orion (b) AutoCAD (c) Autodesk robot (d) Scale

Other software’s include; EPASWMM (Environmental protection agency storm water

management model) for urban drainage design.

2.13.1 WHY SOFTWARE?

Past Engineers have spent large amounts of resources calculating these loads and forces acting

on a structure, but today the process is simplified through computational analysis using

software’s. These software’s helps structural engineers by providing a comprehensive set of

tools to model and analyse buildings as well as other large and complex structures. With

software’s you can ensure that the design is structurally sound during the design stage before

the structure has been built. Throughout the design process you can predict the effect of applied

33
loads and adjust the design to correct any problems. With the analysis result you can verify and

adjust structural elements according to the local codes and regulations, this design process

allows you to guarantee the safety and cost-optimization of the structure. After multiple

iterations, you will have a series of highly documented reports that demonstrate the strength,

stiffness, stability and the overall quality of the structure upon completion you will have a

building that will withstand wind, seismic events and of course millions of footsteps daily.

Therefore, with structural design software’s, structural engineers can continue to pursue

grandiose structures with the confidence that their buildings will live up to heavy loads and

high expectations

2.14 STEEL DESIGN

2.14.1 Roof truss design.

The loads acting on the truss are as follows: roofing sheet (asbestos), purlin (zed), self-weight

of truss members (i.e tension and compression members), and wind load.

Difference between a plane truss and a plane frame.

The main difference between a plane truss and a plane frame is that, a plane truss is not

designed to carry moment but a plane frame is designed to carry moment, this means than the

stanchions connected to the trusses must not have a fixed joint to the truss for the plane truss,

for a plane frame the reverse is the case. Also a plane truss will have a smaller section than a

plane frame hence cheaper

2.14.1.1 INSTALLATION OF STEEL TRUSSES

The trusses can be installed using different instruments viz; the derrick or hoist, cranes (mobile

or non-mobile), to mention but a few. See figure () below

34
2.14.2 CONNECTIONS IN STEEL

There are two principal methods for connecting together steel elements of structure, and the

various cleats, end plates, etc. also required.

1. Bolting, using ordinary or high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts, is the principal method

of connecting together elements on site.

2. Welding, principally electric arc welding, is an alternative way of connecting elements on

site.

Bolts are of different grades depending on the magnitude of forces being transmitted, they

range from grade 4.6, 8.8 and 10.9, these figures has different meanings, for grade 4.6, 4

represents the ultimate strength of the material i.e 40 𝑘𝑔𝑓⁄𝑚𝑚2 0r 400N/mm2 while 6

represents 60 % of the ultimate stress which is the proof stress.

35
Plate 2.2 (a) Connection of steel truss to stanchion (b) cleat welded to steel truss for connection

to purlin.

(c)Grade 4.8 bolt (d) Hilti bolt ( for anchor)

36
Plate 2.3 (a) installation of roof trusses (b) installation of zed purlin and purlin acting as bracing

Using the derrick or hoist

2.14.3 `PURLIN DESIGN

When designing purlins, the loads acting on it include, roof load, in some cases snow, purlin

self-weight, then additional allowance for hanging. To design the purlin you need the

manufacturer’s catalogue. In practice, the designer will invariably design the purlins for the

uniform load case, thereby arriving at a specific section depth and gauge. In the areas subject

to drift, the designer will maintain that section and gauge by reducing the purlin spacing local

to the greater loading in the area of maximum drift. (In some instances, however, it may be

possible to maintain purlin depth but increase purlin gauge in the area of the drift. An increase

in purlin gauge implies a stronger purlin, which in turn implies that the spacing of the purlins

may be increased over that of a thinner gauge.

37
Plate 2.4 (a) zed purlins (b) bolt holes for connection of purlin to truss via the cleat

2.14.4 STANCHION DESIGN

Stanchion is a just another name for a steel column, it is a compression member and in rare

cases subjected to tension. It is designed to carry pure axial load (compression) as well as

moment. When the truss and column are analysed together we have a plane frame, but when

the truss is analysed separate from the column, that is called a plane truss, the difference is

stated above.

38
Plate 2.5 erection of stanchions.

The stanchions above were designed for a pig farm at ughoton area of warri, Delta state.

A circular hollow section was used.

2.14.4.1 Difference between a strut and column

The major difference is that a strut is designed to carry pure compression while a column is

designed to carry both compression and moment (bending). But under axial load, strut and

column differ depending on whether they are stocky or slender, a stocky strut will fail by

crushing or squashing of the material, where the squash load is given by Ps = PyAg, while

slender strut will fail by buckling.

The compression resistance of members is determined by three properties, (1) material

strength (2) section classification (3) member slenderness.

The compression resistance is by Pc = Agpc (for non-slender class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections)

Pc can be seen in table 24 BS 5950-1: 2000, for the steel to be adequate its compression

resistance must be equal or greater than the ultimate axial load, i.e. Pc ≥ F

Slenderness

39
The resistance of a member to overall buckling depends on the slenderness [ƛ]. The slenderness

is given by:

𝐿𝐸
(1) For non-slender cross sections [class 1, 2 or 3] ƛ=
𝑟

𝐿𝐸 𝐴𝑒𝑓𝑓 0.5
(2) For class 4 slender cross sections, ƛ= [ ]×[ ]
𝑟 𝐴𝑔

Maximum slenderness of steel columns carrying dead and imposed loads is limited to 180, if

greater, larger sections should be adopted

2.14.5 Summary of design procedure for compression members

(1) Select section and steel grade. (table 8)

(2) Determine the design strength Py (table 9)

(3) Determine the gross cross sectional area and radius of gyration( table 11 and 12)

(4) For class four slender sections calculate the effective area

(5) Determine the effective length LE( table 22)

(6) Calculate member slenderness

(7) Select appropriate strut curve according to section shape and axis of buckling(table 23)

(8) Obtain the compressive strength from the strut table using the design strength and

slenderness (table 24)

(9) Calculate the compressive resistance Pc, if Pc < F, adopt a new section

2.14.6 Summary of design procedure for tension members

(1) same above

(2) determine the gross area

(3) calculate the net area

(4) calculate the effective area

(5) calculate the tension capacity.

(6) For axially loaded members calculate the tension capacity using the effective area

40
2.15 DETERMINATION OF THE UNIT PRICE OF CONCRETE

In the preparation of BEME (Bill of Engineering measurement and evaluation) you might have

seen some outrageous rate for concrete works, you might have wondered how this price came

to be, and it’s just quiet easy. For you to determine this price you must carry out a market

survey to know the price of each constituent of concrete (i.e. cement, sand, granite, etc.), of

course cement in Benue state would not cost the same as cement in Delta state, hence the unit

price of concrete varies from place to place. Also, most importantly your concrete mix ratio

must be known, don’t forget we are dealing with unit price of concrete, which is the price for

1M3 of concrete.

A TYPICAL EXAMPLE.

Market survey;

Price of a tipper of sharp sand (5m3) – N25, 000

Price of a tipper of granite (5m3) – N70, 000

A bag of cement (50kg) – N1, 500

Mix ratio = 1:2:4, density of cement = 1600kg/m3

Therefore,

Sand- 5m3 = 25,000 hence, 1m3 = N5, 000

Granite 5m3 = N70, 000 hence, 1m3 = N14, 000

Density of cement = 1600kg/ m3, from density= mass/volume, we have, 1 m3 of cement to be

equal to 32 bags of cement.

Mix ratio: 1 cement = 32 bags @ 1500 each = N 48, 000

2 sand = 2 × 5000 = N10, 000

4 granite = 4 × 14,000 = N56, 000

Hence (1+2+4) m3 = (48,000+10,000+56,000)

7 m3 = N114, 000

41
1 m3 of concrete is therefore = 114, 000÷7 =N 16, 285.71≈ 16,300.

This definitely cannot be the exact price due to the fact that there would be losses, and also

labour force, hence provision has to be made for that and others.

Allow for 30 – 40 % void ratio = (30 × 16, 300)/100 = N4, 890

Allow for labour = N 7,000

Allow for losses / waste 5% = N1, 060, note; the 5% is of (4,890 + 16,300).

Allow for mixer 2% = N430

TOTAL = N29, 680

WH tax 5% = N1, 490

Profit and overhead cost (20% to 30 %) = N8, 910

Therefore 1 m3 of concrete cost 29,680 + 1,490 + 8,910 = N40, 080

2.15.1 TAKEOFF SHEET AND BEME (Bill of Engineering Measurement and

Evaluation)

2.15.1.1 TAKING OFF

The quantification process involves recording dimensions and is referred to as taking

Off because it involves reading or scaling (taking off) dimensions from a drawing and entering

this information in a standard manner on purpose ruled paper called dimension paper or take

off paper.

Table 2.4

A B C D A B C D

42
Columns A – are the timesing columns; these columns are used to enter multipliers when there

is more than one of the particular item being measured.

Columns B – are the dimension columns; where the dimensions of the item being measured

are recorded.

Columns C – are the squaring columns; these columns are used to calculate the quantities

which are produced by multiplying the timesing factor in column A by the dimensions in

column B. The results are then totalled to derive the final quantity of work.

Columns D – are the description columns; these wider columns are used for descriptive content

such as location references and explanatory notes called annotations. Preliminary calculations,

called waste calculations may also be carried out in these columns. In the UK these columns

contain the written description, often abbreviated, of the item being measured.

The double lined column on the extreme left of the sheet is a binding margin and it is not used

in the taking off process. The division of the dimension paper into two halves permits a number

of items to be measured on a single sheet

Note; 1) deductions are necessary where there are voids or openings, letters Ddt in the squaring

column signifies this.

Also, all quantities are transferred to the bill of quantity (BEME), hence without taking off no

BOQ except a software application is used.

When carrying out take off for a building, the quantities are generated from the drawings

(engineering drawings), the building is divided into two parts;

(1) Substructure ( parts below the ground)

(2) Superstructure (parts above the ground).

For a bridge it is divided into three parts namely;

(1) Foundation (pile)

43
(2) Substructure (consist of the pile cap and the pier)

(3) Superstructure (consist of the cross beam/bent, the bridge deck, etc.)

Quantity take-off: Why?

(1) Preliminary estimates of the project costs at the different stages of the project.

(2) Preparing the BOQ as a requirement of the contract documents.

(3) Estimating the work done for issuing the contractor payments.

(4) Pricing different work items

(5) Identifying the needed resources (labour, equipment, etc.)

(6) Preparing invoices for work done.

(7) Subcontractor’s payment.

2.15.1.2 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT AND

EVALUATION

The Bill of Quantities (BOQ) is defined as a list of brief descriptions and estimated quantities.

The quantities are defined as estimated because they are subject to admeasurement and are not

expected to be totally accurate due to the unknown factor which occur in civil engineering

work. The objective of preparing the Bill of Quantities is to assist estimators to produce an

accurate tender efficiently and to assist the post contract administration to be carried out in an

efficient and cost-effective manner. It should be noted that the quality of the drawings plays a

major part in achieving theses aims by enabling the taker-off to produce an accurate bill and

also by allowing the estimator to make sound engineering judgments on methods of working.

2.16 SEPTIC TANK DESIGN

Septic tanks are small, rectangular chambers (cylindrical in some cases), usually sited just

below the ground level, in which sewage is retained for 1- 3d. During this period the solids

44
settle to the bottom of the tank where they are digested anaerobically. A thick crust of scum is

formed at the surface and this helps to maintain anaerobic conditions. Although digestion of

the settled solids is reasonably good some sludge accumulates and the septic tank must be

desludged at regular intervals, usually once every 1-5 years. In the old days, sullage is

discharged directly to soakaway or open seepage channels; this is no longer recommended

practice.

A two compartment septic tank is now generally preferred to one with only a single

compartment as the suspended solids concentration in its effluent is considerably lower. The

first compartment is usually twice that of the second. Two third of the tank volume is normally

reserved for the storage of accumulated sludge and scum, so that the size of the septic tank

should be based on 3d retention at start up; this ensures that there is at least 1d retention period

prior to each desludging operation.

Expected desludging frequency.

The tank should be emptied when it is approximately one third full of sludge. The desludging

interval (years) is therefore given by:

1
3
(𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒,𝑚3 )
𝑚3
(𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑦𝑟)×(𝑝𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
ℎ𝑑

Since the tank volume is given by:

(waste flow,m3/hd d ) ×(population) × (3days retention)

m3
𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ( d)
hd
The desludging interval can be estimated from the ratio: 𝑚3
𝑠𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛( 𝑦𝑟)
ℎ𝑑

The rate of sludge accumulation is temperature dependent, a value of 0.04 m3/hd yr is a

reasonable value for design.

45
2.16.1 Drainage trench and soakaway design (DIGEST 365)

Both are a function of the discharge and the rate of infiltration, a soakaway can be designed to

dispose of storm water and also domestic water, which of storm water would not be discussed

here due to page limit constraint, but for the other the infiltration area is given by

𝐿
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 ( )
𝑑
L
𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ( d)
m2

Remembering that the trench has two sides, the total trench length is given by

(𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)/2
𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

MODERN URBAN DRAINAGE DESIGN USING THE EPASWMM SOFTWARE.

46
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 COMPANY PROFILE

3.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF COMPANY

Scope projects/Matoy Limited are associate companies and have been in existence for more

than 15 years. Scope projects/Matoy Limited are located in the same building. The companies

established their office building in the year 1992. The companies have a staff strength of up to

25 individuals. Scope projects deals majorly with architectural practice while Matoy Limited

deals with civil and structural practice. The companies have chains of engineers and architects.

The companies have been involved in services such as the design and supervision of roads,

jettys, landscape and beautification, high rise buildings, medium rise buildings, drainages,

structural designs/drawings and residential buildings. Other services include land reclamation

and river channelization (dredging of rivers), subsoil investigation, water treatment plant, etc.

Major clients of the companies are

 The Delta State Government

 The Edo State Government

 The NDDC (Niger Delta Development Commission)

 DESOPADEC (Delta State Oil Producing Areas Development Commission)

 Ministry of Niger Delta Affairs

 Universities

 College of Education

 Private Organizations

47
3.2 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

The company is divided into two main arms viz; ARCHITECTURE AND ENGINEERING.

The architectural arm is headed by the managing director of SCOPE PROJECTS while the

engineering arm is headed by the managing director of MATOY ltd.

Departments under SCOPE PROJECTS and MATOY include:

1. OPERATIONS: it comprises of the drivers transporting staffs within and outside the

work premises and the laboratory technicians.

2. MAINTENANCE: this section deals with the general maintenance of machines and

equipment’s used on site and in the laboratory.

3. Security: ensures effective safeguard of workers lives and properties.

4. Accounts: this section deals with financial issues of the company, disbursement of

salaries, etc.

5. Human resource: handles employment issues

6. Quality control and quality assurance unit: The Company operates procedures to ensure

that all Quality control tests are carried out on the various items of works carried out

during every product while quality assurance provides adequate confidence that a

product or service will satisfy given requirement for quality (note: in these units the

health, safety and environments are taken care of).

7. Design; this section deals with all design works, it is divided into the architectural and

structural parts. The engineering part is further divided into the design engineers and

the site engineers.

48
3.3 COMPANY’S ORGANOGRAM

Figure 2.3 organogram

49
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 SERVICES RENDERED, EXPERIENCE GAINED AND

CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED

4.1 SERVICES RENDERED AND EXPERIENCE GAINED

The details of all activities in which I was involved in at Scope Projects/Matoy Limited during

my twenty one weeks of training is highlighted below.

 Structural design both manual and software (Orion, AutoCAD and Autodesk ROBOT) as

well as detailing.

 Modern urban drainage design using the EPASWMM Software ( attended a two day

intensive training organised by the Nigerian society of engineers the warri chapter)

 Septic tank and soak away design.

 Setting out of a building

 Building failures and causes

 Use of Autodesk Robot Structural Analysis

 Analysis of irregular shaped slabs

 Use of hardy cross moment distribution in analysis

 Retaining walls, water retaining structures

 Site visitation

 High way design( vertical and horizontal alignment)

 Unit price of concrete determination and BEME(bill of engineering measurement and

evaluation)

 Steel design ( trusses, purlins, stanchions, beams, baseplate design, stiffner design, splice,

connections)

 Steel tank design

50
 Determination of soil bearing capacity using the TRIAXIAL test (unconsolidated

undrained).

I was privileged to work in the design office and I was involved in various design projects and

detailing works, 2 duplexes were designed and detailed, I was also involved in the design of

a pig farm at ughoton warri, Delta state (both the steel works and concrete), the word of life

bible church hostel where I designed the combined footings for the building. Also I attended

a two day intensive seminar (training) organised by NSE (the Nigeria society of Engineers)

on the use of the EPASWMM (Environmental Protection Agency Storm Water Management

model) software for modern urban drainage design.

4.2 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED AND SOLUTIONS

As long as engineering stands there will always be problems and challenges which must be

solved, this is what makes an engineer granded, engineering without problems is no

engineering, hence during my industrial attachment at SCOPE PROJECTS I encountered

several problems, as detailed below;

(1) In the detailing of structural members, I experienced difficulty in the placing of the

reinforcement especially in the detailing of reinforced concrete slabs, but after being

thought and with the help of some literature, my understanding was broadened.

(2) The first structure I designed using the ORION modelling suite, about 40% of the members

failed (both column and beam) sparse error was also experienced. The 40% failure was

due to large deflections arising from inadequate sections, so I was able to correct this by

increasing the sections where necessary or either reducing or increasing the reinforcements

required for that structural element.

(3) On site there was a breach in communication between the design engineer and the

fabricators of the steel trusses, the span of the trusses was measured “out to out” instead

51
 of centre to centre of the circular hollow sections, so therefore the trusses did not lap at

the ridge, see figure(. To solve this the tee section cut form a universal beam section which

was used to join the truss to the circular hollow section stanchion, had to be protruded out,

to ensure that the two trusses lap and are bolted together see. figure (

(4) I was asked to design a solid slab of 7m by 7.1m, after designing as continuous, for a

depth of 175mm, the slab failed in deflection, in order not to increase the depth further, I

had to design as simply supported, and then provided the reinforcement gotten from the

simply support analysis as the main bars both top and bottom, then to take care of the

torsion at the edges, I provided the reinforcement derived from the continuous analysis as

stated in BS 8110-1:1997.

*NOTE*. It might not be economical to do this, but to play safe this has to be done as site

engineers might not follow specifications to cast a slab thicker than 175mm).

52
Plate 2.9 (a) error 1 (c) corrected

SOLUTION

Figure 2.9.(b) how the error was corrected.

53
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

The student industrial work experience program ended on the 8th of August, 2016. In

retrospection of the past six months of the industrial training, it was a very essential era of life

both as an undergraduate student and as an aspiring structural engineer. This program has

without a shadow of doubt helped in the aspects of knowledge and experience. The worth of

practical knowledge against theoretical knowledge has now been realized. It must be stated

though, that as it is not worthwhile to have theoretical knowledge without practical

experiences; it is also not worthwhile to have practical experiences without theoretical

knowledge. There must be a good combination of both of those aspects for one to be an

excellent civil engineer.

Being exposed to the supervision of works done at site, doing setting outs etc., and many

important things regarding the technical area of civil engineering practice have been grasped.

Also, a good practice on using software such as Orion and Robot Structural Analysis was also

gained. Seeing the high level of professionalism and excellent work ethics exhibited by the

staff at Scope projects/Matoy Limited laid a good example of some of the attributes expected

of a good engineer. These features that have been exhibited by the staff will most definitely

help the future career of a young engineer.

Scope projects/Matoy Limited was a pleasant place to work at since all the staff members

treated the SWEP students in a friendly manner. The engineers and architects gave valuable

advice, helped to widen the knowledge and horizons of the SWEP students and also helped to

gather experience in technical aspects. All trainees’ were given freedom to learn at the company

and it was a trainee’s responsibility to make maximum use of the training period.

54
The real picture of civil engineering has really been captured during this period. As a civil

engineering undergraduate, an idea concerning WHAT one should practice and WHY one

should do that is now clear. In conclusion, the industrial training period was worthwhile as it

has given me confidence to fulfill my future ambitions – to be an excellent civil engineer and

also a salutary person to Nigeria as a whole.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

 Scope projects/Matoy Limited (associate companies) is recommended as a good training

establishment for future trainees, as they take the trainee through the rudiments of civil

works from first principle.

 A training session should be arranged at the end of the 200 level so that prior to

undergraduates in Landmark University getting into their departments in 300 level, it would

be easier for them to grasp the scope of the courses they will be taught in 300 level. It will

also be a good motivation for their further studies in masters and doctorate degree courses.

 Design classes in schools should be more practical oriented. Students should be able to

identify these structural members and their properties not just doing only the theoretical

aspect of the job.

 In all aspects of engineering softwares are being used in analysis and design, the student

having taken through the design should be introduced to softwares and also real life projects

and problems.

55
REFERENCE

(1) BS 8110: Structural use of concrete; Part 1: Code of practice for design and

construction, 1997; Part 2: Code of practice for special circumstances, 1985; Part 3:

1985, Design charts for singly reinforced beams, doubly reinforced beams and

rectangular columns

(2) BS 6399: Design loading for buildings; Part 1: Code of practice for dead and imposed

loads, 1996; Part 2: (1997) Code of practice for wind loads,; Part 3: (1988) Code of

practice for imposed roof loads.

(3) CP3: 1972: Code of basic design data for the design of buildings; Chapter V: Part 2:

Wind loads.

(4) Chanakya Arya et al., (2009) Design of structural Elements: Concrete, Steelwork,

Masonry and Timber designs to British standards and Euro codes, Third Edition, Taylor

and Francis. Pages ( 31 – 270)

(5) Higgins, J.B. and Rogers, B.R.,(1998) Designed and detailed (BS 8110: 1997),

Crowthorne, British Cement Association. Pages (4 – 27)

(6) Reynolds et al., (2008) Reynolds’s reinforced concrete designer’s handbook, 11th

edition, London, Taylor & Francis, pages (49 – 68)

(7) Mosley, W.H. and Bungey, J.H. (1987) Reinforced Concrete Design, 3rd edn,

Macmillan, London, pages( 192-209)

(8) Concrete Society and Institution of Structural Engineers (1983) Standard Method of

Detailing Reinforced Concrete, London. Pages (23-26).

(9) TJ Mac Ginley and TC Ang (1987) Structural steelwork: design to limit state theory,

Butter worth Heinemann Ltd, London, pages (2-7, 24-35, 120, 171-289)

56
APPENDIX A

57