Journal of Building Engineering 17 (2018) 13–22

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Journal of Building Engineering

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Influence of various plastics-waste aggregates on properties of normal T

concrete
⁎
M.A.A. Aldahdooha, , A. Jamrahd, Ali Alnuaimic, M.I. Martinib, M.S.R. Ahmedb, A.S.R. Ahmedb
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Western Virginia University (WVU) - Bahrain Campus, Royal University for Women (RUW), Bahrain
b
College of Engineering, University of Buraimi (UoB), Al Buraimi, Sultanate of Oman
c
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University, Sultanate of Oman
d
Dean Office, International College of Engineering and Management, Sultanate of Oman

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents an ideal experimental design based on the response surface methodology (RSM) and the
Plastics absolute volume method (AVM) to investigate the potential of plastic waste aggregates (PWAs) as a partial
Compressive strength aggregate replacement on properties of normal concrete (NC), in which 30% of the total aggregate volume
Response surface methodology contains PWAs. Results confirmed that RSM prediction showed satisfactory results in optimizing the amount of
Workability
PWAs in NC production. Moreover, PWAs can be used as aggregates for the production of NC with acceptable
Sustainability of concrete
engineering properties. This approach could lead to the significant utilization of PWAs in concrete, which could,
thus, help in protecting the environment by minimizing the volume of waste disposal.

1. Introduction
As the world's population grows, plastic consumption increases due
to rapid urbanization and economic development [1,2]. Generally, the
main sources of plastic waste can be categorized into household wastes,
health and Medicare wastes, as well as hotel and catering wastes [2].
Siddique, et al. [3] asserted that the increase in plastic use is due to
its beneficial properties, which include low cost, low density, strength,
user-friendly designs, safety, durability and longevity, excellent thermal
and electrical insulation properties, as well as fabrication capabilities.
Nonetheless, plastics are nondegradable and generally take a long
time to break down, possibly up to hundreds of years. Moreover, in-
creasing their production also increases the required landfill space for
plastic waste, which significantly contributes to their environmental
impact [3].
The Sultanate of Oman is an arid country located in the Arabian
Peninsula. This country has an area of 309,500 km2, with a total po-
pulation of 2400,000. Oman's annual production of solid waste is about
900,000 t, and over 350 waste disposal sites are constructed around the
country. Most of these sites are improperly designed as engineered
landfills. The major sources of non-hazardous solid wastes include food
and organic products (53%), glass (6.5%), plastic (12.5%), metal (6%),
paper as well as cardboard (13%), and construction (9%) [4].
Based on the aforementioned data, the reduction of plastic wastes to
protect the environment is crucial. The most sensible solution is to re-
place significant portions of the aggregates in concrete with recycled
plastic wastes as an alternative aggregate while maintaining its me-
chanical properties in general [3,5–7].
Several studies on the effects of recycled plastic wastes on fresh and
hardened concrete properties have been conducted. Increasing the
plastic content in concrete decreases the latter's density [6,8] and
compressive strength [6,8–10]. Bayasi and Zeng [10] verified that air
content increased with the inclusion of plastic fiber. Soroushian, et al.
[9] confirmed reduction in slump with the use of recycled plastic in
concrete due to the shape of plastic particles, i.e., plastic particles have
sharper edges compared with fine aggregates. In addition, the me-
chanical strengths of concrete decrease as the plastic content increases
in concrete, i.e., splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, impact
resistance, and compressive strength. [6,9–11]. Furthermore, studies on
the use of waste plastics and waste rubber tyres in aggregate as well as
bitumen for road materials have been conducted [12–14].
Recently, fibers from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles have
been used in fiber-reinfroced concrete to increase the ductility of con-
crete [15,16] and to improve the impact behavior of concrete [17].
Carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP) strips and PET bars have been
utilized as reinforcement in substitution of steel in concrete elements
subject to bending forces [18].
Marzouk, et al. [11] utilized the consumed plastic bottle waste

⁎
Correspondence to: Department of Civil Engineering, Western Virginia University (WVU) - Bahrain Campus, Royal University for Women (RUW), P.O. BOX 37400, West Riffa,
Kingdom of Bahrain.
E-mail address: maged.1987@live.com (M.A.A. Aldahdooh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.01.014
Received 26 July 2016; Received in revised form 29 January 2018; Accepted 29 January 2018
Available online 02 February 2018
2352-7102/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M.A.A. Aldahdooh et al.
(PET) as sand-substitution aggregate within composite materials for
building application. They concluded that, the volumetric percentage of
substituted sand is critical in reducing the weight of new composites
and considerably affects both the mechanical properties and material
structure obtained.
Taha, et al. [4] concluded that the economics of recycling may not
work in all parts of Oman given that the latter is rich in mineral and
aggregate resources. In addition, no laws or regulations encourage the
reuse of such materials. Furthermore, no standard specifications are
established regarding the use of non-traditional materials, such as
copper slag, plastic, and cement bypass dust in construction. Moreover,
no experiences or studies are available regarding the use of such ma-
terials as potential substitutes for virgin aggregates, cement, or sand.
Several ways to engineer concrete to find a reasonable solution to
these problems are available. One way is by optimizing the mix pro-
portions using mathematical or statistical methods. De Larrard and
Sedran [19] optimized the ultra high strength concrete proportions
using a statistical method with a packing model, [20] and studied the
effect of paper mill residue content in the properties of normal concrete
using the response surface methodology (RSM). Aldahdooh, et al. [21]
evaluated the ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete binder
content using the RSM. Moreover, the RSM has been used in developing
green ultra-high-performance-fiber reinforced concrete containing ul-
trafine palm oil fuel ash [22,23], which is applied as a new retrofitting
material for improving the flexural behavior of damaged concrete
beams [24].
The literature elucidates that the utilization of plastic waste in
concrete products remains limited and requires further investigation.
Moreover, the effect of a combination of two or more different plastic
waste types in concrete properties has not been investigated yet. The
traditional design method is normally used for optimizing the plastic
content in concrete.
Successful recycling of solid and industrial wastes in Oman would
require additional economic, environmental, and field-based studies.
Therefore, in this study, a practical design method has been proposed
for utilizing plastic waste aggregates (PWAs) as a partial substitute of
aggregates in the production of green normal concrete (GNC).
Specifically, this study aims to investigate the influence of a combina-
tion of two different PWAs inclusion in the properties of GNC and to
optimize PWA content in concrete mixture to yield acceptable strength
using the RSM and the absolute volume method (AVM).
1.1. Significance of the research
The findings of this research will indicate ways to use PWA more
efficiently by using an optimizing method (RSM); showing that PW can
be used as a concrete ingredient. These findings will have an impact on
the concrete industry because using of PW in concrete will not only
reduce costs but also may lead to more sustainable methods of concrete
construction.
2. Implementation of RSM & AVM in concrete industry
2.1. RSM
As outlined earlier, an ideal strategy is needed for improving the
normal concrete (NC) mechanical properties relative to ingredient
contents. Majority of mix design processes of concrete are multi-vari-
ables; moreover, concrete mixture proportions optimization through
the classical method is inflexible, unreliable, and time consuming. Thus,
RSM is an efficient and widely used in various fields, such as in che-
mical industry and environmental engineering for optimization and
processing purposes (Table 1).
The aim of using RSM is to optimize the responses. Moreover, RSM
is an efficient statistical technique for the modeling and optimization of
various variables to predict the best performance conditions with a
14
Journal of Building Engineering 17 (2018) 13–22
minimum number of experiments [25].
RSM is a promising analytical tool to predict the response which
suits the range of parameters studies compared with the others
methods. RSM is more promising due to its giving very low average
error towards modeling and experimental validation. The desirability
criterion available in RSM will easily help users to determine the op-
timum condition. Significance of interactions and square terms of
parameters are more clearly predicted in RSM. The RSM shows sig-
nificance of all possible combinations of interactions and square terms.
3D surfaces generated by RSM can help in visualizing the effect of
parameters on response in the entire range specified [26].
The recommended procedures for using RSM as an optimization tool
are summarized as follows [27]:
i) The most important independent variables and their level on the
system through screening studies should be selected first,
ii) The choice of the experimental design and experimental procedure
are according to the selected experimental matrix,
iii) The mathematical-statistical treatment of the obtained experi-
mental data through the fit of polynomial function,
iv) The evaluation of the modes and fitness,
v) The verification of the necessity and possibility of performing a
displacement in a direction toward the optimal region, and
vi) Obtaining optimum values for each variable.
RSM has been widely used in various fields, such as chemical in-
dustry for optimization and processing purposes. The most commonly
used design method in finding the functional relationship between the
response and the factors using RSM is central composite design (CCD)
[25]. Details of RSM and CCD application are available on the software
[Design-Expert® 6.0.7 software (Sat-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, USA)] and
the key book on experimental design authored by Montgomery [25].
Table 1 summarizes different RSM applications in concrete industry.
All researchers (Table 1) concluded that RSM technique is a powerful
technique for the improvement process of concrete mix design, and this
technique can be used in the concrete industry.
2.2. AVM
According to ACI-211.1 [34], the absolute volume of a granular
material defined as the volume of the solid matter in the particles; it
does not include the volume of the voids between the particles, as given
in Eq. (1). The absolute volume of a concrete mix can be determined if
the weight and bulk specific gravity of the components are known.
Table 2; gives an example on AVM, determining of total volume for the
given concrete mix design in Table 3.
MassofMaterial (kg )
AbsoluteVolume (m3) = kg
Specificgravityofmaterial × Densityofwater ( )
m3
(1)
3. Materials and methods
In this study, the materials used for NC and GNC mixture production
were cement, natural sand, crushed coarse aggregate, and water. Two
types of PWA were used of producing of GNC. The important properties
of these materials are briefly described in the following subsections.
3.1. Materials
The constituent materials include ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
[Type 1, 42.5 R], crushed coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, two types
of PWAs, and water. Crushed coarse aggregates with a maximum size of
20 mm and a specific gravity of 2.66 were used, whereas natural sand
was used with 2.7 specific gravity and 3.32 finesse modulus. Two types
M.A.A. Aldahdooh et al. Journal of Building Engineering 17 (2018) 13–22

Table 1
Various RSM applications in concrete industry.

Concrete type Independent variables Responses References

Eco-efficient self-compacting concrete – Marble powder-to-cement- – Slump Flow [28]

ratio – Flow time
– Water to-cement-ratio – V-funnel
– Compressive strength
Green ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete – Cement content – Compressive strength [22,23,29]
containing ultrafine palm oil fuel ash – Silica Fume – Flexural strength
– Waste materials (Palm Oil – Tensile Strength
Fuel Ash) – Flow
Ultra-high-performance-fiber reinforced concrete – Cement content – Compressive strength [21,29]
– Silica Fume – Flow
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) – Cement content – Fresh properties: (J ring, segregation resistance, and V- [30]
– Fly-ash content funnel)
– SP dosage – hardened properties: (compressive strength at 28 days and
– W/B ratio modulus of elasticity)
Normal concrete containing paper-mill residue – Paper-mill residue content – Slump [20]
– W/C ratio – Compressive strength
– Fly ash/B ratio
High performance self-compacting concrete (HPSCC) – Cement content – Compacting factor, compressive strength, split tensile [31]
– Fly-ash content strength, and flexural strength at 28 days
– SP dosage
– W/B ratio
Steel fiber reinforced concretes – Steel fiber aspect ratio (l/d) – Compressive strength [32]
– Steel fiber volume fraction – Splitting tensile strength
(Vf) – Elastic modulus
– Flexural strength
High performance concrete – Cement content – Slump [33]
– Water content – Compressive strength
– Silica fume content – Cost of concrete
– HRWRA
– Coarse aggregate
– Fine aggregate

[SP] refer to superplasticizer; [W] refer to water; [C] refer to cement; [HRWRA] refer to high-range water-reducing admixture, [l] refer to length of fiber, [d] refer to diameter of fiber.

Table 2 3.2. Mix proportions and design

AVM example.
As mentioned earlier, this study deals with two types of concrete,
Materials Mass (kg) Specific Absolute volume (m3)
Gravity
which are NC and GNC. The mix proportions of NC were derived based
on the international standards as described in subsection 3.2.2. By
OPC (Type 1) 380 3.15 = (380/(3.15 × 1000) = 0.12 contrast, the mix proportions GNC mixtures were designed using RSM
Water 205 1.0 0.21 and AVM to achieve the optimum mix with acceptable compressive
Coarse aggregate 1000 2.70 0.37
Sand 805 2.66 0.30
strength and workability.
Total Volume 1.0
3.2.1. Normal concrete (NC)
OPC, natural sand, water, and crushed coarse aggregate of a nom-
inal maximum size of 20 mm were used to produce a concrete grade of
Table 3
30 MPa. The mix was assumed to achieve a 60–180 mm slump. Mix
NC mix proportions.
proportions of the NC were derived according to the DOE method of
Materials kg/m3 concrete mix design [35]. DOE is a British method of concrete mix
design, which used in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world
OPC (Type 1) 380
and has a long established record. The mixture proportions of the NC
Water 205
Coarse aggregate 1000 are presented in Table 3.
Sand 805
W/C 0.54
3.2.2. Green normal concrete (GNC)
Improving GNC mechanical properties in relation to aggregate
of PWAs (1.03 assumed specific gravity) were used as a partial sub- contents requires an ideal strategy. The most sensible solution is re-
stitute of aggregates in the production of GNC, which are PWAI (irre- placing greater portions of aggregate in NC (Table 3) with PWA while
gular particles) and PWAR (regular particles) (Fig. 1(a) and (b)). Plastic maintaining its properties Therefore, a practical method was developed
wastes were collected from the Al Kiyumi Plastic Factory, Al Buraimi, for optimizing GNC aggregates content using RSM [36] and AVM ac-
Sultanate of Oman. PWAR and PWAI have the same chemical natural cording to ACI-211.1 [34] guidelines.
source given that the former is a recycled plastic waste obtained from
the latter. The maximum particle size for both types was up to 5 mm 3.2.2.1. Design of experiments using statistical RSM. In the current study,
(passing from sieve size of 5 mm). Design-Expert® 6.0.7 software (Sat-Ease Inc., Minneapolis, USA) was
employed for the design, mathematical modeling, statistical analysis,
and optimization of process variables. The most commonly utilized
design method in RSM is central composite design (CCD) [25].
RSM and three-level full factorial experimental design were

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M.A.A. Aldahdooh et al. Journal of Building Engineering 17 (2018) 13–22

Fig. 1. Plastic waste aggregate: (a) PWAR (regular

particle) and (b) PWAI (irregular particle).

incorporated to achieve optimization by maximizing GNC strength at where, Y is the predicted response, Xi and Xj are the coded values of
maximum replacement levels of fine aggregate (FA) by PWAR and preparation variables, i is the linear coefficient, j is the quadratic
PWAI. Based on literature, reasonable ranges were selected as FA by coefficient, β is the regression coefficient, k is the number of factors
PWAR replacement levels ([FA-PWAR]%) from 0.0% to 30% and by studied and optimized in the experiment, and e is the random error. The
replacement levels ([FA-PWAI]%) from 0.0% to 30%. The other in- matrix notation of the model is given by Eq. (3)
gredients of the control GNC mix remained the same to ensure that any
Y=X β±ε
changes in the engineering properties of GNC resulted from partial re-
placement levels of the FA by PWAR and PWAI. CCD was employed in y 1 x11 x12 ⋯ x1k ⎞ ⎛ β1 ⎞ ε
⎛ 1⎞ ⎛ ⎛ 1⎞
y ⋯ x2k ⎟ ⎜ β2 ⎟ ε2
the present study to determine the functional relationship between the ⎜ 1⎟ = ⎜1 x21 x22 ±⎜ ⎟
responses (i.e., workability (Y1) and compressive strength (Y2)) and ⎜ ⋮ ⎟ ⎜⎜⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟⎜ ⋮ ⎟ ⎜ ⋮ ⎟
⎟
factors ([FA-PWAR]% (X1) and [FA-PWAI]%) (X1). ⎝ yn ⎠ ⎝1 x n1 x n2 ⋯ x nk ⎠ ⎜ β ⎟ ⎝ εn ⎠
⎝ n⎠ (3)
Thirteen runs of the CCD experimental design and responses based
on the experimental runs are shown in Table 4. Eight experiments were The least-square method (i.e., a multiple regression technique) is
enhanced with five replications to assess pure error. An optimal pre- utilized in solving the system equations mentioned above [39].
dictor quadratic model [Eq. (2)] was used in determining the optimal Table 4 shows the GNC mixes that were classified into three groups
condition for responses (compressive strength and workability) based on CCD. The first group [G (I)] includes mix no. 1 to no. 3. The
[36–39]. second [G (II)] and third groups [G (III)] include mix no. 4 to no. 10 and
mix no. 11 to no. 13, respectively.
k k k k
Y = βo + ∑ βi Xi + ∑ βii Xi2 + ∑ ∑ βij Xi Xj + ei 3.2.2.2. Mix proportions of GNC. The mixture compositions for GNC
i=1 i=1 ii ≤ j j (2) were determined from the preliminary study, research literature,
statistical RSM, and AVM as described in Section 3.2.2. Table 5
shows aggregate proportions (kg/m3) (FA, PWAI, and PWAI) that
Table 4 were determined using the AVM depending on the density of each
CCD and results for the study of two experimental variables.
material. The other ingredients of the control NC mix remained the
Experimental design same to ensure that any changes in the engineering properties of the
GNC is due to the partial replacement levels of FA by PWAI and PWAI
Factors Aggregate content (kg/m3) (Table 5).

X1 X2 FA PWAR PWAI
3.2.2.3. Analysis process. ANOVA was used to obtain the interaction
G (I) 0% (−1) 0% (−1) 805.6 0.0 0.0 and relationship between the process factors ([FA-PWAR]% and [FA-
15% (0) 0% (−1) 709.3 47.0 0.0 PWAI]%) and the responses (workability and compressive strength). In
30% (1) 0% (−1) 588.4 93.9 0.0 order to check the terms statistical significance; the coefficient of
G (II) 0% (−1) 15% (0) 709.3 0.0 47.0
15% (0) 15% (0) 588.4 47.0 47.0
determination R2, probability (P-value), and t-test have been
15% (0) 15% (0) 588.4 47.0 47.0 determined.
15% (0) 15% (0) 588.4 47.0 47.0 In this study, the actual values were used for generating the model.
15% (0) 15% (0) 588.4 47.0 47.0 The diagnostic plots, such as the normal residual and predicted plot
15% (0) 15% (0) 588.4 47.0 47.0
versus actual value plot for slump and compressive strength were ob-
30% (1) 15% (0) 467.6 93.9 47.0
G (III) 0% (−1) 30% (1) 588.4 0.0 93.9 tained to determine model satisfactoriness. Diagnostic plots aid in
15% (0) 30% (1) 467.6 47.0 93.9 judging the model's adequacy and satisfactoriness. Moreover, pertur-
30% (1) 30% (1) 346.8 93.9 93.9 bation and 3D response surface plots were obtained.

[X1] refers to [FA -PWAR]%.

[X2] refers to [FA -PWAI]%.
[FA-PWAR]% refers to replacement levels of FA by PWAR.
[FA-PWAI]% refers to replacement levels of FA by PWAI.
[G (I), G (II) and G (III)] refers to the first, second, and third group numbers.
3.2.2.4. Optimization of operational conditions. Results were evaluated
using the Design-Expert® software. In numerical optimization, factors
([FA-PWAR]% and [FA-PWAI]%) were set within the range. The
responses (slump and compressive strength) were set within the

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M.A.A. Aldahdooh et al. Journal of Building Engineering 17 (2018) 13–22

Table 5
GNC mix proportions based on RSM and absolute volume method.

G (I) G (II) G (III)

[FA-PWAR]% 0.0% 15% 30% 0.0% 15% 30% 0.0% 15% 30%
[FA-PWAI]% 0.0% 0.0% 0.0% 15% 15% 15% 30% 30% 30%
Components (k) (kg/m3) Mix1 Mix2 Mix3 Mix4 Mix (5–9) Mix10 Mix11 Mix12 Mix13
Ordinary Portland Cement 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380 380
Fine Aggregate 806 709 588 709 588 468 588 468 347
Coarse Aggregate 1000 975 975 975 975 975 975 975 975
Water 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205 205
Plastics Waste PWAR 0 47 94 0 47 94 0 47 94
PWAI 0 0 0 47 47 47 94 94 94
Total Plastics Waste Content 0 47 94 47 94 141 94 141 188
W/C 1 1 1 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54 0.54
Total Content of Mix/Density 2391 2316 2242 2316 2242 2169 2242 2169 2095
∑ Vk 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

[Mix no. 1] is the controlled mix (NC).

[∑ Vk = 1] refers to the summation volume fraction for each component k of each mix; [G (I), G (II) and G (III)] refer to the first, second and third group number of mixes.

range. Moreover, the ramp function graph was used to identify the
optimum region for compressive strength and workability of the GNC
mixtures to achieve optimum condition.
3.3. Sample preparation
Concrete sample preparations should refer to BS 1881: Part 131:
1998. The materials were manually mixed in the following order:
coarse aggregate, OPC, FA and PW. The materials were mixed for a few
minutes in dry condition to produce a homogeneous mixture of dry
material. Afterward, water was added to the mixed materials, and the
mixing process was continued for a few minutes until the constituents
were thoroughly mixed and wetted.
The cubical moulds were filled in three equal layers [40]. On the
following day after casting, the samples were removed from the moulds
and were subsequently cleaned and then cured in water at 27 ± 2 °C
until the testing date [41].
3.4. Test procedures
In order to achieve the main objectives of this study, the following
tests were performed for each mix of NC and GNC as given in Table 5.
3.4.1. Compressive test
To determine the compressive strength, 150 mm concrete cubes
were tested at 0.30 MPa/s loading rate using a 2000 kN concrete
compression machine according to BS EN 12390–3 [42]. At least three
samples of each age (7, 14, and 28 days) for each mix were tested.
slump test. Fig. 4 presents the results for the slump measurements for
each mix. Evidently, the inclusion of PWA notably reduced the work-
ability of GNC. Moreover, the slump is prone to sharply decreasing with
increasing the waste–plastic ratio. Where the improvement in work-
ability increases at a low PWA content, low workability is invariably
associated with high PWAR (Fig. 2). The effect of PWAI is less sig-
nificant on the reduction of mix workability than that of PWAR. This
scenario could be attributed to the lubrication among aggregate parti-
cles. When PWAI aggregates are characterized by better particle
grading compared with PWAR aggregates (Fig. 1), low void and high
cement paste contents occur. Therefore, the lubrication provided by
PWAI is better than that by PWAR.
Obla, et al. [44] concluded that the cementitious paste should
completely fill the voids among the aggregate particles and that a
certain amount of excess must be left to provide the lubrication re-
quired for a given workability.
Based on the above discussions, low workability is invariably as-
sociated with the third group because the replacement levels of [FA-
PWAR]% and [FA-PWAI]% were up to 30% and 30%, respectively.
Moderate workability and high workability were associated with the
first and second groups, respectively, because of the significant re-
placement levels of FA with PWAR and PWAI. Fig. 4 depicts that mix
no. 1 had the highest slump (> 60 mm) because of the replacement
levels of FA with PWAR and PWAI, at 0.0% and 0.0%, respectively. The
lowest flow value (mix nos. 3 and 10) is 10 mm at a 30% replacement
level by PWAR of FA.

3.4.2. Slump test

The slump test was directly performed after completing the mixing
process to ensure that adequate workability was achieved according to
ASTM: C143/C143M [43].

4. Experimental results and discussions

According to Tables 4 and 5, the GNC mixtures can be classified into

three groups based on the CCD, which are classified by the number of
runs. The first group (G (I)) can be identified from mix no. 1 to mix no.
3. The second (G (II)) and third groups (G (III)) can identified from [mix
no. (4–10)] and [mix no. (11–13)] respectively. For more clarification,
mix no. 1 in G (I) refers to the controlled mix that is NC. Where, the
replacement level of PW with sand is 0.0%

4.1. Workability

Fig. 2. Effect of PWA on the workability of mixtures.

The workability of GNC mixtures (Table 4) was assessed through a

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M.A.A. Aldahdooh et al. Journal of Building Engineering 17 (2018) 13–22

vacillated between 0.0% and 30% replacement levels. For mix nos. 4
and 10, the [FA-PWAR]% was reached 0.0% and 30% respectively. The
highest compressive strength in G (II) was associated with mix no. 4,
which was reached 20 MPa. This due the PWAR content was up to
0.0 kg/m3 and the replacement level (15%) of PWAI was not very high.
The final phase is associated with the G (III) as shown in Fig. 3. The
[FA-PWAR]% was the highest that up to 30%. The average compressive
strength was 18.4, 6.8, and 7.3 MPa for mix numbers 11, 12, and 13
respectively.
Overall, the first group of GNC mixes had the highest compressive
strength values at all ages.

4.3. Mathematical modeling and statistical analysis results

The relationship between the process factors ([FA-PWAR]% and

Fig. 3. Average compressive strength development at 7, 14, and 28 days.
4.2. Compressive strength
78 (150 mm) cubes were tested to investigate the compressive
strength of the GNC mixtures (Table 5).
Fig. 3 shows the compressive strength at 7, 14, and 28 days. Higher
compressive strength is always associated with the first group [G(I)] at
0.0% [FA-PWAR], which is in the range of 11.5–29 MPa at 28 days.
Moderate and lower compressive strength are associated with the
second group [G(II)] at 15%[ FA-PWAR] and the third group [G(III)] at
30% [FA-PWAR], which are in the ranges of 11–20 MPa and 7–18 MPa,
respectively.
In the present study, the discussion is presented based on the three
phases for each group of mixes. The first phase is associated to G (I) as
shown in Fig. 3. The lowest compressive strength of 11.5 MPa was re-
corded at 0.0% [FA-PWAR] and 50% [FA-PWAI] (mix no. 3) at 28 days,
whereas the highest compressive strength of 29 MPa was achieved by
0.0% [FA-PWAI] and 0.0% [FA-PWAR] at 28 days, (mix no. 1/ control
mix). In addition, the compressive strength of mix no. 2 at 15% [FA-
PWAI] reached 15 MPa at 28 days.
Based on the above discussion, the suitable ranges of [FA-PWAI]%
for enhancing the compressive strength should be in the range of
0.0–20%, while for [FA-PWAR]% should be less than 5%. This trend
can be attributed to the decrease in adhesive strength (Bond strength)
between the surface of the waste plastic and the cement paste, as well as
the grading of particles.
The second phase is associated with the G (II) as shown in Fig. 3.
The [FA-PWAI]% reached 15% for all mixes, whereas the [FA-PWAR]%
[FA-PWAI]%) and the two responses (slump and compressive strength)
of mixes were analyzed using RSM. The results obtained from the
quadratic prediction model were subsequently analyzed with ANOVA,
as described in Section 3.2.2.3. The model was generated according to
the actual values.
The mathematical prediction equations were developed based on
Eq. (2). The predicted results (Y) were evaluated as a function of ([FA-
PWAR]% ( x1) and [FA-PWAI]%, ( x2 )). These results were calculated as
the sum of a constant, two first-order effects ( x1 and x2 ), an interaction
effect ( x1 x2 ), and two second-order effects ( x12 and x 22 ). The insignificant
terms were eliminated to enhance the performance of the prediction
equations. To establish the prediction model of the slump and com-
pressive strength only at the 28th day average values of these responses
were used. The empirical relationships between the responses (slump
and compressive strength) and factors are expressed by second-order
polynomial [Eqs. (4) and (5)].
Slump (mm ) = 57.06410 − 1.65556x1−1.30000x2 +0.055556x 22 (4)
Compressive strength (MPa ) = 28.38445 − 1.31234x1−0.61525x2
− 0.026121x 12 +0.00887x 22 +0.00727x1 x2 (5)
Table 6 demonstrates the ANOVA results for the response (flow and
compressive strength) parameters. The data illustrate that all models
were significant at the 95% confidence level because the P-values were
less than 0.05. Furthermore, the large P-values for lack of fit (> 0.05)
for all responses demonstrate that the F-value was not significant, im-
plying significant model correlation between the variables and process
responses.
Table 7 shows the model validation parameters of all responses. The

Table 6
ANOVA results for response surface quadratic model parameters.

Responses Source SOS DOF MS F P>F R

Slump (mm) Model 1831.67 3 610.56 13.65 0.0011 Sign.

x1 912.67 1 912.67 20.40 0.0015 Sign.
x2 294.00 1 294.00 6.57 0.0305 Sign.
x1 x2 625.00 1 625.00 13.97 0.0046 Sign.
Residual 402.64 9 44.74
Lack of Fit 402.64 5 80.53 Not-Sign.
Pure Error 0.000 4 0.000
Cor. Total 2234.31 12
Compressive Strength (MPa) at 28 days Model 479.37 5 95.87 54.70 < 0.0001 Sign.
x1 237.64 1 237.64 135.57 < 0.0001 Sign.
x2 77.63 1 77.63 44.29 0.0003 Sign.
x12 95.40 1 95.40 54.43 0.0002 Sign.
x 22 11.02 1 11.02 6.29 0.0406 Sign.
x1 x2 10.72 1 10.72 6.12 0.0426 Sign.
Residual 12.27 7 1.75
Lack of Fit 12.27 3 4.09 Not-Sign.
Pure Error 0.000 4 0.000
Cor. Total 491.64 12

[SOS]: sum of squares; [DOF]: degree of freedom; [MS]: mean square; [P]: probability of error; [R]: remark; [F]: F-value; and [Sign.]: significant.

18
M.A.A. Aldahdooh et al. Journal of Building Engineering 17 (2018) 13–22

Table 7 quadratic model to the experimental data.

Model validation for all responses. Generally, the models can be considered as a reproducible model if
its coefficient of variance is less than 10% [38]. According to Table 7,
Slump Compressive strength
all models were successful in terms of reproducibility.
Standard deviation 6.69 1.32 Diagnostic plots, such as the normal plot of residual and the pre-
Mean 25.23 12.62 dicted versus actual values plot, are presented in Fig. 4. The diagnostic
R2 0.8198 0.9750
plots aid in judging the model's adequacy and satisfactoriness [38].
Predicted R2 0.6018 0.7621
Adjusted R2 0.7597 0.9572

4.4. Process analysis

ANOVA analysis shows a reliable confidence in the estimation of the
responses efficiencies, R2. Ghafari, et al. [38] reported that a high R2
value, close to 1, is desirable, and a reasonable agreement with the
adjusted R2 is necessary, indicating a satisfactory adjustment of the
The perturbation and the response surface plots for slump and
compressive strength are shown in Fig. 5I and II, respectively.
The comparative effect of ([FA-PWAR]%, A) and ([FA-PWAI]%, B)
on enhancing the slump and compressive strength are clarified by the

Fig. 4. (I) Normal plot of the studentized residual for (a) Slump (mm) and (b) compressive strength; (II) Diagnostics plots, predicted vs. actual values plot for (a) Slump (mm) and (b)
compressive strength.

19
M.A.A. Aldahdooh et al.
Fig. 5. (I) Perturbation plot for (a) Slump (mm) and (b) compressive strength (MPa); (II) Response surface plots for (a) Slump (mm) and (b) compressive strength.
perturbation plots as shown in Fig. 5(I) (a) and I (b), respectively. A
curvature in [FA-PWAR]% seemed to be much sharper than the ([FA-
PWAI]% curve in all tests (slump and compressive strength tests), in-
dicating that slump and compressive strength were more sensitive to
[FA-PWAR]% in this mixing procedure.
Moreover, the effects of the experimental conditions of ([FA-
PWAR]%, A) and ([FA-PWAI]%, B) on slump and compressive strength
are demonstrated in the 3D surface response plots as shown in Fig. 5II
(a) and II (b), respectively.
Fig. 5I (a) shows that the highest slump (60 mm) were observed at
0.0% of [FA-PWAR] and 0.0% of [FA-PWAI]. As such, the utilization of
PWA for enhancing the workability of the GNC mixes was negatively
significant. The lowest slump reading of 10 mm was observed in the
stiff mix at 30% replacement level by PWAR of FA.
Fig. 5II (b) shows that as the replacement levels of FA by PWAR and
PWAI increased, the compressive strength decreased. Conversely,
Fig. 5II (b) shows that the suitable ranges of [FA-PWAI]% for enhancing
the compressive strength should be in the range of 0.0–20%. These
could be attributed to the finer particle size of PWAI compared with
PWAR.
20
Journal of Building Engineering 17 (2018) 13–22
4.5. Multiple response optimization
In the numerical optimization, the factors [FA-PWAR]% and [FA-
PWAI]% were set in the range; the responses (slump and compressive
strength) were set in the range at age of 28th day. It has been taken into
consideration that the compressive strength is > 20 MPa and the flow is
in the range.
The equations of the model were simultaneously solved to find the
process variables. At the optimum condition, the [FA-PWAR]% was
0.0% and [FA-PWAI]% was 24% with 26 mm slump and 20 MPa com-
pressive strength were predicted based on desirability function of 1 as
described in Fig. 6, the ramp function graph of [FA-PWAR]% and [FA-
PWAI]% for optimum responses. Accordingly, [FA-PWAR]% after op-
timization is 0.0%.
5. Conclusions
The findings in this present study can contribute immensely toward
the field of concrete technology and construction, where:
i) The inclusion of the PWA tends to increase the water demand of
GNC, which leads to a lower workability at a constant water con-
tent. The decrease in workability by replacing the FA with PWAR is
M.A.A. Aldahdooh et al.
more significant than replacing with PWAI.
ii) The highest compressive strength of GNC was found at 0.0% of [FA-
PWAR] and at 0.0% of [FA-PWAR]. The lowest compressive
strength was at 30% [FA-PWAR] and 30% [FA-PWAI].
iii) At the optimum condition, the RSM predicted that [FA-PWAR]%
was 0.0%, and the [FA-PWAI]% was 24%.
iv) The optimum mix properties of GNC as following: OPC content of
380 kg/m3; FA content of 670 kg/m3; PWAR content of 0.0 kg/m3;
PWAI content of 63 kg/m3; slump of 26 mm and compressive
strength of 20 MPa at 28 days.
As summary, the results indicate that the RSM prediction was sa-
tisfactory in optimizing the amount of PWAR and PWAI in the pro-
duction of GNC materials. The results show that PWA can be used as
aggregate for the production of GNC with acceptable engineering
properties. This could lead to better utilization of PW in concrete, which
subsequently also protects the environment by minimizing the volume
of disposed wastes, thereby supporting the sustainability of the concrete
industry.
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