DEL CASTILLO (2020) - Ingles

14/7/2021 Trends and challenges of 3D printing in food processing
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Trends and challenges of 3D printing

in food processing
SEVILLA UNIVERSITY
PHARMACY FACULTY
Lucia del Castillo Morgado
https://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_f 1/37
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SEVILLA UNIVERSITY
PHARMACY FACULTY
End of Degree Project
Degree in Pharmacy
TRENDS AND CHALLENGES OF 3D PRINTING IN FOOD PROCESSING
Author: Lucía del Castillo Morgado
Area: Nutrition and Bromatology
Tutor: Dr. Belén Gordillo Arrobas
Place of presentation: Faculty of Pharmacy
Presentation date: February, 2020
Type of work: Bibliographic review
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Resume
Resume
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, stands out as a technology in
development for food manufacturing that offers the opportunity to design new
personalized food products with complex geometries, texture and nutritional value
adapted. According to this technology, the combination of nutritionally balanced ingredients
and novel structures can be schematized in a multi-material 3D digital model
that meets special individual needs, such as difficulties in chewing and swallowing.
There are four 3D food printing techniques, where printing stands out by
extrusion as a promising technique for producing healthy and structured foods. The
Most of the studies carried out have focused on developing food inks for the
extrusion-based printing, offering a much wider range of materials
printables and edibles.
Currently, the 3D printing process presents some limitations in its application in the
food industry, since the structural and nutritional quality of the final product produced
It depends on the type of material used and the printing technique selected. To overcome these
limitations, it is necessary to control different parameters such as those of the
printing (extrusion speed, flow rate, nozzle size and height, and nozzle height
layer), those of food materials (rheological, mechanical, and thermodynamic properties) and
post-processing methods (freezing, cooking, frying, heating, etc.).
This bibliographic review describes the specific characteristics of the main
3D printing technologies developed particularly for applications in industry
food, comparing the advantages and limitations between them. In addition, some
examples of the printability of food materials, depending on whether they are rich in
macronutrients such as protein (powdered milk, turkey and scallop puree, and surimi gel from
fish), carbohydrates (pregelatinized starch and mashed potatoes) and fats (cheese and chocolate).
Keywords : 3D food printing, food technology, food design,
personalized nutrition, extrusion.
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Index
INDEX
1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..……………….……..…………..… …1
2. OBJECTIVES ………………………………… .. …………………………………………………. ……………… .. ………… …..…3
3. METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………………. ……………………………………… .. ………… ..… .. …4
3.1. Methodological design of the bibliographic review …………………………………………. …… .4
3.2. Information search criteria …………………………………………………………. …… .4
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ……………………………… .. ………………………………………………………….… 5
4.1. DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF 3D FOOD PRINTING ……… .. …… .5
4.1.1. Printer types ………………………………………………………………………… .. ………… 6
4.1.2. Food materials used in 3D printing …………………………………… 14
4.2. CONTROL OF THE PRINTING PROCESS …………………………………………………… ..….… 16
4.2.1. 3D printer control parameters ……………………………………… .. ……… 16
4.2.2. Food control parameters ………………………………………………… .. …… ..19
4.2.3. Post-processing methodology ……………………………………………… .. …… ..21
4.3. APPLICATIONS OF 3D PRINTING IN MACRONUTRIENTS… ........ ……… .. ……… 21
4.3.1. Application of materials rich in proteins ……………………………… .. …………… 21
4.3.2. Application of materials rich in lipids …………………………………… ..…. ……… ..25
4.3.3. Application of materials rich in carbohydrates ……………………………………… .27
5. CONCLUSIONS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ..29
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………… .30
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Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing in English,
AM), was first developed during the 1980s in different areas of
research such as medicine, gastronomy, engineering, manufacturing, art and education (Kodama,
nineteen eighty one; Hull, 1986).
3D printing is a robotic process that builds a product in a three-dimensional way
by superimposing layers of material through a digital design program (Ligon
et al., 2017). Once the 3D digital model is created, the design information is sent to a
3D printer, which manufactures objects to the size, characteristics and shape
designed, by deposition of material using a print head, nozzle or
other printer technology.
This food technology allows the production of personalized meals based on
the specific nutritional needs and calorie intake of an individual person, such as
the elderly or patients who have difficulty eating or swallowing. It also allows
possibility of creating novel structures and forms, as well as improving sustainability through
reducing food waste or using alternative sources of nutrients.
Currently, 3D printing techniques available in the food industry include the
extrusion-based printing, selective laser sintering printing,
binder jetting and ink jet printing. However, extrusion printing
has been the most used in the food industry because it is applicable to a wide variety
of food materials while maintaining adequate rheological properties.
The first attempts to use additive manufacturing technologies for the processing of
foods were in 2001 with the development of a patent for the manufacture of a cake
made in 3D (Yang et al., 2001). The first printer used in the food industry was
Fab @ home , based on extrusion printing, developed by University researchers
Cornell (Periard et al., 2007). This technology was used for the extrusion of chocolate by
hot melt and later to print turkey meat and scallops. In turn, Hao et al.
(2010) developed the first commercialized chocolate 3D printer called The Choc
Edge . Similarly, another extrusion-based printer is Foodini Printer created by Natural
Machines. In addition, there are other printers based on other methods such as continuous jet
or on demand.
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Introduction
According to their printability, food materials can be classified into:
traditional native printables, traditional non-native printables and alternative ingredients.
The first printed foods were mainly easily extrudable materials, such as
frosting, chocolate, cheese, edible hydrogels, and cookie dough. Between applications
performed in extrusion-based printing highlights the study by Lipton et al. (2010), which
evaluated the quality of 3D printed turkey meat with the addition of transglutaminase and fat from
bacon. Furthermore, Wang et al. (2018) evaluated the printability of fish surimi by
add NaCl.
In recent years, the general situation of the additive manufacturing market has been
characterized by significant growth rates. Income from sales of materials
exceeded the value of 900 million dollars in 2016, especially the sale of polymers. The
economic feasibility of additive manufacturing depends mainly on the quantity and the
speed of production of identical parts in bulk.
Despite the advantages of this technology, many products produced by 3D printing are
inferior in quality with respect to their mechanical properties, especially in the process of
layered production. There is also insufficient resolution in surface production
staggered, which often requires additional post-processing. In addition, 3D printing continues
being slow compared to other technologies. Therefore, 3D printing techniques
multimaterial have a rheological and thermal behavior that is difficult to control, which
currently represents a technological challenge for the application of this novel technique in the
food field.
two
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goals
2. OBJECTIVES
The objectives set out in this bibliographic review are:
• Describe the main types of 3D printing techniques in the food industry, and
Compare its benefits and limitations.
• Know the classification of the different food materials usable in the
3d print.
• Know the different parameters to control during 3D printing to achieve a
accurate and effective printing that is applicable and desired by the customer.
• Evaluate and compare the optimal conditions of the printing of food materials
by extrusion, depending on whether they are rich in proteins, carbohydrates and fats.
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Methodology
3. METHODOLOGY
3.1. Methodological design
A bibliographic review of scientific documents (books, chapters of
books, review and experimental articles) on the study of 3D printing in food. On
In particular, those documents related to the study of the different
3D printing methods and processes, as well as their application in food materials more
used in the food industry.
Subsequently, an index of the presented report was elaborated, highlighting as epigraphs
the most important aspects related to 3D printing in food. Once the
compilation of the material, the necessary information has been extracted to
prepare the introduction and the results and discussion section. For the development of the
introduction, the main antecedents found so far on
the beginning of the development of 3D printing techniques in the food sector, as well as its
economic impact and current challenges. In the case of results and discussion, the information has been
focused on describing and comparing the different methods of 3D printing on macronutrients, the
process control parameters, the characteristics of the food materials to be used, and in
compare some relevant applications in the food industry.
3.2. Search strategy
An exhaustive search has been carried out using different scientific databases such as
Sciencedirect, Scopus, Medline , among others. To search for information, they have been selected
the following keywords: 3D food printing, meat products, food design, protein, rheology,
post-processing, personalized nutrition, extrusion. In addition, as search criteria,
taken into account time filters , taking into account current review articles and articles
originals from the last 10 years for recent and current information, as well as articles or
original invention patents related to the early development of 3D technology and its
application in the food industry. In addition, special attention has been paid to articles
written by relevant authors on the subject of protein 3D printing such as Lipton or in
properties of food materials like Yang, Wang. As for scientific journals
consulted, those cited in the Journal Citation Report (JCR) stand out , that is, of high
impact, such as Food Chemistry, Chemical Reviews, Trends in Food Science & Technology, Journal
of Food Engineering, Food Bioscience, Food Science and Technology , among others.
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Results and
discussion
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF 3D FOOD PRINTING

Three-dimensional printing, also known as additive manufacturing, is a process that
generates free-form structures by inserting a prototype into a software-assisted design
computer. Once the 3D model is created, the design information is sent to the
printer that reproduces the three-dimensional model by superimposing layers of
material.
3D printing is characterized by its unique potential to create geometric structures
three-dimensional complexes, mass-produce them, while providing benefits
economic and environmental factors for the industry (Kim et al., 2017). Among them stands out a minor
demand for raw materials, labor, energy and transportation (Peng, 2016; Sher & Tutó,
2015). This technology allows the customization of individual consumer needs,
the automation of the food production process, the possibility of elaborating structures
and novel ways and reduce food waste or use alternative sources of
nutrients (Yang et al., 2017; Dankar et al., 2018).
However, the 3D industry still has to solve some challenges, such as optimizing consumption
time and initial investment of the process, increase the printable materials that
are currently limited, and improve the precision and finish of the produced surface
(Noorani, 2017).
Currently, 3D printing techniques available in the food industry generally
include four types: extrusion-based printing, selective sintering printing by
laser (SLS, selective sintering printing), binder injection and ink jet printing.
The specific characteristics of each type of control technology are described in detail below.
3D printing, developed particularly for applications in the food industry.
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Results
and discussion
4.1.1 . Printer types
• Extrusion based printing
Extrusion-based printing, also known as fused deposition modeling,
is based on precisely depositing the molten material by an extruder, layer by layer, in a
support structure or printing plate / bed.
This technology was first introduced to make plastic products (Ahn et al.,
2002), and is currently applied for printing chocolate and soft materials, such as
dough, mashed potatoes, cheese and meat paste (Lipton et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2015).
One of the benefits of using extrusion-based printing is that you can extrude
simultaneously a wide range of food materials to create a complete meal
(Lanaro et al., 2017). However, the method requires a material with the ability to extrude
easily from the tip of the nozzle and at the same time being able to support the weight of the following
printed layers without deformation (Liu et al., 2017). To manufacture delicate and complex shapes
During the soft material extrusion process, it is necessary to print the objects
additional structural elements to support the geometry of the product. Support constructions
they must be removed manually at the final stage. Therefore, as a disadvantage of this process,
time consuming, printing speed is reduced and printing costs are increased.
material to print (Von Hasseln, 2013; Von Hasseln KW et al., 2014; Von, Von Hasseln et al.,
2015).
Three extrusion mechanisms have been applied in 3D food printing: extrusion
screw-based, air-pressure-based extrusion, and syringe-based extrusion.
In screw-based extrusion process , food materials are placed into the
sample feeder and are transported to the tip of the nozzle by a screw in
movement (Figure 1). During the extrusion process, food materials can be
deposit in the hopper continuously and thus carry out continuous printing (Liu et al., 2017). Without
However, to be suitable for highly viscous materials, the screw blades
must work in conjunction with the conveyor unit and hopper to aid in the movement of the
material and prevent it from sticking to the hopper walls. Also, a large quantity is needed
and continuous feeding material to facilitate its movement (Sun et al., 2018).
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Figure 1 . Diagram of a screw-based extruder.
In extrusion based on air pressure , food materials are pushed into the
nozzle by air pressure. This technique is very useful for printing liquid or
low viscosity (Sun et al., 2018).
Finally, syringe-based extrusion consists of a cartridge containing the
material to be printed, which ends in a nozzle or syringe (noddle) with temperature control
throughout the feeding system, as shown in Figure 2. The printing system
is controlled by a motor and the material to be printed is deposited on a platform, which
They allow you to control the rheology of the material during the printing process. Systems by
extrusion can be single or double nozzle or syringe depending on the structural complexity of the
food to be made.
A graphical representation of a syringe-based extrusion 3D printer is shown
in Figure 2, with single and double nozzle models.
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Figure. 2 . Extruder type: 3D printing stage with Cartesian configuration: (a) type of
single nozzle, (b) double nozzle type (Source: Dick, 2019).
This nozzle-based extrusion technology is suitable for printing materials
food products with high viscosity and high mechanical resistance, making it useful for manufacturing
complex 3D structures with high resolution. However, it should be noted that this
technology and extrusion based on air pressure do not allow continuous feeding of
food materials during printing.
The Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at Cornell University developed
the first multi-material 3D printer. The printer was first based on a system of
single-head extrusion that was then extended to eight heads, allowing for the
printing of different materials simultaneously (Causer, 2009).
Another example of an extrusion printer was developed by the British company of
Cadbury Power, in collaboration with the University of Exeter, named The Choc Edge
(Causer, 2009). In this case it was developed for the 3D manufacture of chocolates. Likewise, in the
University of Exeter designed the first commercial chocolate printer called
ChocCreator (Davide & Xavier, 2015). Among the different extruder printers created stands out
the Fab @ Home printer that was used to print turkey and scallop meat (Lipton et. al., 2010).
This printer was also used for hot melt chocolate extrusion (Hao et al.,
2010). In turn, Natural Machines has created another extrusion-based printer called Foodini
Printer used for filling surfaces and graphic decoration. This printer offers a
range of printing dishes such as hamburgers or pasta.
• Selective laser sintering (SLS) printer
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is a technology that applies a power laser to
merge dust particles of a material, layer by layer compacting it, until reproducing a
three-dimensional structure. The laser scans cross sections on the surface of each layer and
selectively fuses material powder at a temperature close to melting. Later
After scanning each cross section, a new layer of powder is covered on top. East
process is repeated until the desired structure is finished. Finally, the unfused powder is
removed and retrieved for the next impression (Noort et al., 2016).
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and discussion
Selective laser sintering has been widely applied in the industrial manufacture of
metal and ceramic. The disadvantage of the application of this technique in the food industry is
it is limited to powdered materials, such as sugar, fat or starch granules. Therefore, it is
it is necessary to improve the available range of food ingredients to increase their application
in traditional foods .
In the application of SLS, material properties and processing conditions
(laser type and power, laser spot diameter, etc.) are critical factors for accuracy
of the impression and the accuracy of the manufactured parts (Shirazi et al., 2015).
This type of printer has been used to fabricate complex structures using sugar or
powders rich in sugar. In that sense, the CandyFab Project has successfully created several
complex and attractive structures using powdered sugars that could not be produced from
conventional way. The selective printing printer developed in this project was
called CandyFab (CandyFab, 2009) , which is based on the use of hot air to melt
powdered sugar due to its low melting temperature (Figure 3).
Figure 3 . Printing process with CandyFab printer (Source: www.candyfab.org).
Another study developed by researchers from the Netherlands Organization for the
Applied Scientific Research (TNO, Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research),
applied selective laser sintering to Nesquik brand cocoa powder. In this case
made chain links and company logos by mixing them with sugar and fat
(Gray 2010). Likewise, Diaz et al. (2014) invented a method for the production of products
edibles with a high degree of resolution and precision using the SLS. In this invention,
multi-material structures were created using a powder composition formed by a
structural element and a binder component.
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• Binder jetting printer
Binder injection technology, also known as “Binder Jetting”, is based on
in the use of a binder (material capable of binding fragments of one or more substances
by effects of an exclusively physical type), which is sprayed on a bed of dust of material to
print, which is then compacted in cross section (Sachs et al., 1990). An example of this
The technology is shown in Figure 4. This technology allows you to print in color, since the
The binder used can have one color or another.
Figure 4. Scheme of the binder injection process (Source: Adapted from Gibson et al.
2009).
Binder injection was developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology) in 1993, with the aim of injecting ink on powder
ceramic during casting processes, which was originally called printing
three-dimensional (3DP). A few years later, the Z Corporation company launched its first printer
3D binder based on the foundation developed by MIT technology (Wohlers &
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Gornet, 2014). This type of additive manufacturing technology is usually lower cost, faster
and easier incorporation of multiple material components, compared to
other techniques (Gibson et al., 2009).
In terms of food applications where a liquid binder is introduced into a
powder phase, agglomeration of materials during spray drying is a point
Critical of the process that determines the quality of the finished product. Agglomeration implies the
accumulation of solid particles gradually over time or as a result of
processing, resulting in an increase in the size of the products (Bhandari et al.,
2013; Cuq et al., 2013).
Binder injection technology can be used to fabricate structures

complex and delicate three-dimensional, and has the potential to produce edible 3D objects
colorful, varying the composition of the binder. However, this technology is limited to
powdered materials, and edible binder may affect its application in the industry
food, especially in the field of traditional foods consumed in life
daily.
• Inkjet printer
Inkjet printing technology is based on depositing drops of the material
food to be printed using printing nozzles or piezoelectric heads for the
filling of surfaces or decoration of food, such as cookies, cakes and pizzas (Kruth, 2007),
as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 . Schematic diagram of inkjet printing technology.
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and discussion
Inkjet printing methods can be of two types: continuous or by
demand. In continuous jet printers, the material to be printed is continuously ejected
through a piezoelectric head (there is a potential difference and electric charges in its
surface) that vibrates at a constant frequency. In on-demand printers, the media to be
print is ejected by heads under pressure exerted by a valve.
In general, the print speeds of on-demand systems are slower than those of
continuous jet, but the resolution and precision of the images produced are higher
(Willcocks et al., 2011).
With this technology the FoodJet printer was commercialized , which uses a series of injectors
pneumatic membrane that place small drops on a moving object. The drops
together they form a digital image that can be applied to graphic decoration, filling of
surfaces or cavity deposition (Pallottino et al., 2016), as shown in Figure 6. The
Inkjet printers generally apply to low viscosity materials such as
chocolate, runny dough, icing sugar, meat paste, cheese, jams, or gels.
Figure 6. Examples of 3D printing techniques based on jet injection technology.
ink: (a) graphic decoration, (b) surface filling, and (c) cavity deposition (Source:
http://foodjet.com . )
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and discussion
Table 1 summarizes the main differences between 3D printing technologies
described above, regarding the characteristics of the materials in which they can be
apply, the factors to take into account during its application, as well as its advantages and limitations.
Table 1 . Comparison of the different 3D printing technologies in the food industry.
(Source: Adapted from Liu et al., 2017).
Extrusion Sintering Injection Jet

selective binder from ink
Binder
Chocolate, material liquid and
Powdered materials Low material
soft as dough, materials in
Materials like sugar, viscosity like
cheese, puree dust like
chocolate, fat pizza sauce
meat starch, sugar,
protein
Fluency, size
Properties Compatibility,
particle,
rheological, Temperature of properties
wettability and
Properties endurance fusion, fluency, rheological
viscosity of
material mechanics, particle size, ink,
binder and
Temperature of wettability, Tg properties of
tension
glass transition (Tg) the surface.
superficial.
Print height, Types of lasers, Types
diameter of the laser power, heads, Temperature,
speed of
Factors nozzle, speed energy density speed of
Indicted Print,
of impression, laser speed Print,
diameter of
speed of scan, diameter diameter of
nozzle, height
movement of the laser point, nozzle, thickness
of impression
nozzle laser thickness cape
Heating,
baked,
Post-processed Additives, Elimination of covering
Not
recipe control excess parts. superficial,
elimination of
excess parts.
Manufacturing More options from
complex of materials,
More options from Complex manufacturing
Advantage 3D food, better quality of
material, food in 3D,
color potential, Print,
simple device variable textures
flavors and textures manufacturing
variables quick
Unable to manufacture Design of
complex designs food
food, Limited materials, Limited material, simple, just for
Limitations 3D structures less products less products filler
hard to hold nutritious. nutritious. surfaces or
in processing decoration of
later images.
Applications*
* The applications are taken from the websites: a) Natural Machines Co. (www. Naturalmachines.com; b) TNO ( Lin,
2015 ) (c) 3D Systems Co. ( https://www.3dsystems.com/culinary/gallery) (d) FoodJet Printing Systems
( http://www.foodjet.com/ )
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and discussion
4.1.2. Food materials used in 3D printing
Based on their printability, food ingredients are classified into three
Categories: Native Printable Traditional Food Materials, Food Materials
traditional non-native printables, and alternative ingredients (Sun, Zhou, Huang, Fuh, Hong,
2015), as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 . Printable Food Categories (Source: Adapted from Sun et al., 2015, Van der
Linden, 2015).
Food materials Examples
Native printables Cheese, pizza dough,

pasta (vegemita, marmita), chocolate
Non-native printables Meat, fish, seafood, fruits and vegetables
Derived from insects, algae, bacteria, fungi

Alternative Ingredients
and other similar
• Traditional Native Printable Materials
A food material with native printability is one that has enough
ability to be easily extruded without additional flow enhancers (Sun et al., 2015).
Materials such as hydrogels, cake frosting, soft cheese, hummus, and chocolate can
easily extruded without additional flow enhancers (Sun et al., 2015). Some materials
natively printable, such as cream cheese, cheddar cheese (Kim et al., 2017),
spreads made from yeast extracts such as Vegemite and Marmite (Hamilton et al.,
2018) have sufficient stiffness to maintain their structure after deposition and not
require further processing after printing.
Food products made from native printable materials can be
fully customize based on flavor, nutritional value, and texture. Other formulations,
like protein pastes, may require further processing to improve taste
and nutritional absorption, and this will make it difficult for the structures of food products
retain their shape (Cohen et al., 2009; Izdebska & Zolek-Tryznowska, 2016; Lipton et al., 2010;
Sun et al., 2015a).
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• Traditional Non-Native Printable Materials
Non-native printable food materials are those that require enhancers
additional flow rates to facilitate extrusion and / or post-cooking processes (Sun et al.,
2015).
Foods like rice, meat, fruits, and vegetables that people eat heavily
measured daily cannot be printed by their nature. To facilitate its extrusion, it is
need to add additives (hydrocolloids) that have been approved and used in the industry
food. Some foods of this type, both solid or semi-solid liquid, should be
modify so that they can be printed. Therefore, it is difficult to expand food materials
traditional for use in 3D printing technologies (Cohen et al., 2009; Lipton et al., 2010;
Sun et al., 2015a; Izdebska & Zolek-Tryznowska, 2016).
• Alternative Ingredients
Other sources of printable materials are alternative ingredients such as different
components of by-products of agricultural processes, which have properties
biological (biologically active metabolites, enzymes, etc.) or sensory (providing color,
flavor or aromas) of interest for 3D printing technology in the food industry (Yang et
al., 2001; Yang et al., 2015; Sun et al., 2015a, b, c; Izdebska & Zolek Tryznowska, 2016). These
Materials also have the advantage of being a sustainable and ecological alternative to their use.
In addition to these, other alternative ingredients currently used in 3D technology are
make up insects. In the project "Insects Au Gratin", Soares (2011) mixed powders of
insects with extrudable ice and soft cheese to produce 3D food products, such as a
alternative source of protein intake to traditional meat products (Sun et al.,
2015a, b, c).
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4.2. CONTROL OF THE PRINTING PROCESS
The 3D printing process presents some limitations or challenges that must be taken into account
account, since each type of food material to be printed may behave differently depending on the
printing process applied.
The parameters to be controlled during the printing process can be divided into two types: 1)
Printer related parameters (extrusion speed, flow rate, size and height
nozzle, and layer height) and 2) Parameters related to food (properties
rheological, mechanical, and thermodynamic).
4.2.1. 3D printing control parameters
• Extrusion speed
Controlling the speed of the 3D printer involves controlling the speed of its X coordinates,
Y, Z. The speed of the X axis (movement of the extruder motor with the syringe horizontally), the
Y-axis speed (movement of the print bed) and Z-axis speed (displacement
of the extruder motor with the syringe pointing up or vertically).
Yang et al. (2018) showed that the speed of extrusion and the movement of the nozzle
it affected the amount of extruded material per unit length and time. These authors
found that a high extrusion speed (28 mm 3 / s) led to a lower precision of
printing with a larger diameter of the printed structure. On the other hand, a speed of
lower extrusion (20mm 3 / s) resulted in poor printed structure.
In turn, Wang et al. (2018) obtained an increase in the diameter of the printed layers
using high extrusion speed and nozzle movement speed of 28
mm / s. On the contrary, a lower nozzle and a lower speed (20 mm 3 / s) caused
instability in flow, as shown in Figure 7.
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Figure 7. Surimi gel printed with four nozzles at different speeds of movement
(A = 20, B = 24, C = 28 D = 32 mm 3 / s). (Source: Wang et al., 2018).
• Flow level
Derossi et al. (2018) concluded that the printed samples improved their uniformity and
structural integrity applying high flow levels (130%), while printed samples
at low flow levels gave rise to unwanted effects: irregular shapes with lines of
interrupted material and large pores.
In addition, these authors examined the relationship between print speed and the level of
flow in the quality of printed materials and discovered that a linear relationship is necessary
between both variables to ensure precise final shapes with smaller pore size.
• Nozzle size
The effect of the optimal nozzle size has been studied by several authors such as
Southerland et al. (2011), Wang et al. (2018) and Hao et al. (2010).
In their case, Wang et al. (2018) concluded that the nozzle diameter affected
considerably to the precision of printing and the surface of the printed material. The
3D printing of fish surimi showed that the application of a small nozzle diameter
(0.8 mm and 1.5 mm) led to surimi filaments with varying diameter along their length.
In contrast, the use of a larger nozzle diameter allowed for more lines to be extruded.
consistent, but the resolution and precision of the objects were poor.
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Finally, it was concluded that the size of the nozzle depended on the material
nutritional, since, for example, in cream cheese the optimal thing was to use a 0.84 mm tip
while in fish surimi gels it was 2 mm.
• Nozzle height
Nozzle height is the distance between the deposited top layer and the tip of the nozzle.
nozzle. It is another process parameter that determines the quality of the printed product.
resulting. There is an optimal distance for each material that is printed. You can estimate a
critical nozzle height (h c ) using the following equation (Wang & Shaw, 2005):
Where:
V d : volume of material extrusion speed (cm 3 / s)

υ n : nozzle movement speed (mm / s),
D n : nozzle diameter (mm).
If the height of the nozzle is less than its critical height, the extruded lines are thicker,
while if it is larger, the parts of the material to be printed are incorrectly deposited. Without
However, Hao et al. (2010) showed that this formula cannot be applied when printing chocolate
using the CHocALM 3D printer . On the other hand, Yang et al. (2018), suggested that the height of the
nozzle was not a key factor affecting the quality of the final product.
• Layer height
Layer height is the thickness of each line of extruded material that makes up each layer
of the printed object. Severini et al. (2016) investigated the printing variables in wheat dough
and found an optimal layer height of 0.4mm when using a print speed
30mm / s, 50mm / s travel speed, and 0.6mm nozzle size.
Therefore, this height depends on the mentioned parameters.
18
Page 23
Results
and discussion
4.2.2. Feed control parameters
• Rheological properties
Knowledge of the rheological properties of food products is important
to predict analysis of process design and flow conditions in 3D printing.
The viscosity of the soft material must be low enough to easily extrude through
through a fine nozzle high enough to hold the deposited layers
later (Godoi et al., 2016). In general, edible inks need to have
a low viscosity so that they can be easily expelled through the small holes in the
print head (Shastry et al., 2006). It has been reported that the optimal viscosity of inks in
a continuous jet printer should be between 2.8 and 6 mPas (Shastry et al., 2004).
Likewise, Dankar et al. (2018) evaluated the effect of four food additives (agar,
alginate, glycerol and lecithin) on the rheological properties of a commercial potato puree to
be printed. Among these, agar and alginate showed a viscosity modulating effect
of the most efficient puree according to the concentration used (0.5-1%).
On the other hand, Wang et al. (2018) obtained that the rheological behavior of the
Fish surimi with 1.5 g / 100 g NaCl is suitable for printing. The addition of NaCl
the viscosity of the surimi gel decreased, which facilitated its extrusion through the die.
The printing temperature must also be controlled, as the viscosity of the material
nutritional is directly related to it. Hamilton et al. (2018) found that
viscosity of edible pastes (Vegemite and Marmite) decreased with increasing temperature. I know
used 172 kPa of pressure to extrude both materials at 25 ° C, but it had to be reduced to 103
kPa with increasing temperature to 45 ° C. Likewise, the application of a pressure of 172 kPa and
temperature of 45 ° C led to too high a print flow rate.
The elastic limit is related to the ability of the material to maintain its shape under
the effect of gravity and the layers of material deposited on it. Liu et al. (2017) evaluated
the rheological properties of mashed potatoes combined with potato starch to evaluate its
behavior during 3D printing. The best printability was obtained
combining 2% potato starch with mashed potatoes resulting in an elastic limit equal to
312.16 Pa. The printed structure had a smooth shape with high precision that could keep its
19
Page 24
Results
and discussion
shape after printing. However, the samples without starch did not maintain the shape.
after printing (Liu et al., 2017).
• Mechanical properties
In 3D printing, it is necessary to study the mechanical properties of the material to be printed
to achieve the optimal design of the desired product (Jing et al., 2014).
As an example of these properties, the hardness (compressive strength) of
edible gels for the purpose of 3D printing soft foods for a population
old woman (Serizawa et al., 2014). The compression test was performed on different types of gels
edibles prepared with different percentages of agar and gelatin. The results showed
that the hardness increased with the increased amount of agar and gelatin, the values being
comparatively minor for gelatin. The range of hardness that the samples had was
between 8 and 45 KPa, which showed a good fit as a soft food for the elderly, since
that the maximum tongue pressure of the elderly person is estimated to be between 20 and 40
KPa.
• Thermodynamic properties
Thermodynamic properties such as melting temperature (Tm) and temperature of
glass transition (Tg) are important for successful extrusion-based printing. The
Melting temperature is the temperature at which a polymer changes from a solid state to a
liquid state, while the glass transition temperature is that at which the
mechanical properties of a material change radically due to internal movements
of the polymeric chains that compose it.
The glass transition temperature varies depending on the food material. For example,
high molecular weight carbohydrates like maltodextrin have a higher glass transition
than simple sugars like fructose.
twenty
Page 25
Results
and discussion
4.2.3. Post-processing methodology
Food products manufactured by all four printing techniques may require a
further processing, such as baking, heating, or removing excess
material to improve mechanical strength or precision (Von Hasseln et al., 2014; Von Hasseln
et al., 2015).
Lille et al. (2018) carried out a comparison between two processing techniques
subsequent oven drying and lyophilization as a means of maintaining shape stability
and increase the stiffness of 3D printed blends of protein and fiber-rich materials. The
Oven drying was carried out at 100 ° C for 20-30 min. For lyophilization, samples are
frozen at -18 ° C and lyophilized with a laboratory lyophilizer. It was concluded that the
lyophilization better preserved the 3D printed structure and provided samples with higher level
harder than oven drying. Kiln drying caused a decrease in the viscosity of the
printed material when heated.
4.3. APPLICATIONS OF 3D PRINTING IN MACRONUTRIENTS
In the last decade, additive 3D printing technology has been applied to a wide range of
food materials.
These applications differ according to the materials to be printed are rich in
macronutrients such as protein, carbohydrates, and fat. However, most studies
they focus on the study of carbohydrates and only a few on lipids and proteins. TO
Some applications of these materials in certain foods are detailed below.
Obtained by 3D technology based on extrusion, as well as its printing capacity.
4.3.1 . Application of protein-rich materials
• Skimmed and semi-skimmed milk powder printing
Lille et al. (2018) studied powdered milk as a potential source of protein in
3D printed structures. In this case, the effect of the powdered milk content was evaluated
applied on the quality of the printed product, comparing skimmed milk powder (skimmed
twenty-one
Page 26
Results
and discussion
milk podwer in English, SMP) with semi-skimmed milk podwer in
English, SSMP).
It was obtained that the application of 50% skimmed milk powder resulted in a paste of high
viscosity, which was difficult to print due to its tackiness, resulting in deposition
uneven material (Table 3, 50% SMP). In turn, increasing its concentration to 60%
increased the viscosity of the paste so much that it was impossible to print it even if the diameter of the paste
tip increased from 0.41 to 1.19 mm (Table 3, 60% SMP). An interesting finding was the
excellent printability of semi-skimmed milk powder at a concentration of
60% (Table 3, 60% SSMP). In this case, the material held its shape very well after
printing, which resulted in very good printing precision.
Table 3 . Printability of pasta prepared from starch and / or powdered milk with different
fat content and concentration (Source: Adapted from Lille et. al., 2018).
Pressure
During the After Quality of
Show atmospheric Observations
Print to print Print
(kPa)
50% SMP 145 3 Sticky
Very thick and

60% SMP 600 1 dry, no
print
Keeps very
well the way
60% SSMP 110 5
after
to print
* SMP (skimmed milk podwer); SSMP (semi-skimmed milk podwer)
It was found that the protein content of pasta made with skimmed milk and
semi-skimmed was comparable (21% vs 22%), while the fat content was
clearly different (0.4% vs. 9%). It was concluded that the higher fat content of milk
semi-skimmed powder could have acted as a plasticizer or lubricant 'of the paste
elaborated, favoring that it flow more easily (Fu et al., 1997). It was also confirmed
a difference in carbohydrate content between the two powdered milk pastes (32% in the
skimmed versus 23% in semi-skimmed), which may have influenced the behavior
22
Page 27
Results
and discussion
of the flow of materials. The majority carbohydrate in semi-skimmed milk powder was
lactose while in the semi-skimmed were products of hydrolysis of lactose (glucose and
galactose).
• Printing of mashed turkey and scallops with transglutaminase
Lipton et al. (2010) studied the printing capacity of purees made from meat
turkey and scallops, with the addition of transglutaminase, to assess their ability to undergo
to post-processing processes such as vacuum roasting or frying.
In the case of printing based on turkey meat with added transglutaminase as
binder, the product printed satisfactorily as a truncated hemisphere (Figure
8 a). Subsequently, it was subjected to a vacuum firing, which caused the structure to become
contracted inward, causing the object to be smaller and the center to lean toward the
above (Figure 8b). However, it was confirmed by tasting and sesnorial analysis that the taste and
Product texture were adequate.
Figure 8. a) 3D printing of turkey with transglutaminase in the shape of a truncated hemisphere and (b)
Truncated hemisphere printed after cooking the vacuum (Source: Lipton et al., 2010).
In the case of the 3D scallop-based structure, the quality of the product printed in
two geometries: truncated L-shaped and space transformer, before and after frying
(Figure 9 ad). These shapes demonstrated the ability of materials to retain curves,
edges and vertical surfaces during and after frying. Only sections extremely
2. 3
Page 28
Results
and discussion
The thin wings of the space shuttle were significantly deformed due to the
deep frying.
Figure 9. 3D printing of a truncated L-shaped turkey scallop puree and spatial transformer,
before (a and c) and after frying (byd) (Source: Lipton et al., 2010).
• Printing of fish surimi gel with sodium chloride (NaCl)
Wang et al. (2018) prepared gels made from fish surimi (minced carp fillet),
as a high protein source, and studied the possibility of its 3D printing with the addition of
different concentrations of sodium chloride (0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5%). The authors investigated the effect
of NaCl on rheological properties, gel strength, retention capacity of
water, water distribution and surimi gel microstructure. It was suggested that the addition of
1.5% NaCl was the optimal concentration to have the most adequate mechanical properties in
the 3D printing process (Figure 10).
24
Page 29
Results
and discussion
Figure 10 . 3D printed surimi gel with different concentrations of NaCl (A = 0%, B = 0.5%,
C = 1%, D = 1.5%) (Source: Wang et al., 2018).
4.3.2. Application of lipid-rich materials
• Cheese printing
Camille et al. (2017) studied the effect of 3D printing on the quality of processed cheese.
The results showed that the printed cheese was significantly less hard, up to a
49%, and exhibited higher degrees of melting (21%), compared to non-cheese samples.
3D printed (Camille et al., 2017).
Le Tohic et al. (2018) also studied processed cheese. It was shown that the levels of
Calcium and pH affect both the transition temperature and the critical shear rate (e.g.
above which flow instability and melt fracture are observed). In addition, it has
found that melting and shear in the printing process affect the texture of the
processed cheese, and the printed sample is significantly smoother than its original due to
the disruption of fat globules (Le Tohic et al. 2018).
25
Page 30
Results
and discussion
• Chocolate printing
Lipids are also macronutrients that can affect the printing ability of
food. Chocolate was one of the first materials used in 3D printing. Schaal what
first printed in 2007 (Periard et al., 2007).
Understanding the crystallization of fats is crucial in chocolate 3D printing, since
that cocoa butter is the main ingredient responsible for structural behavior
in chocolate (Godoi et al., 2016). Triglycerides in cocoa butter can crystallize into
six different main shapes with increasing melting points affecting characteristics
of the final product.
Hao et al. (2010) studied the relationship between the parameters of the manufacturing process of
Additive layers and the resulting chocolate using a ChocALM 3D printer (Figure 11).
They compared the physical structure of tempered chocolate in the laboratory (incorporation of pieces of
chocolate to a chocolate mass already melted, making the temperature of the chocolate
descend naturally creating a harmonious crystallization) with tempered chocolate
commercially using differential scanning calorimetry in
English, DSC). This technique measures the difference in heat between the sample and a reference, where
both have approximately the same temperature during the experiment.
Figure 11. 3D printing of the logo by the ChocALM system on a white chocolate base.
26
Page 31
Results
and discussion
The DSC thermograms of both types of chocolate showed melting peaks in the same
temperature range (26-36 ° C), and the same crystalline phase (V crystals) was formed, concluding
that the tempering of seeds is a desirable process to be applied on chocolate.
They also used a plate rheometer to test the viscosity of the chocolate before
print it out. The chocolate was found to have a relatively high viscosity.
constant between 32 and 40 ° C with a range of 3.5-7 Pa / s. It was determined that the ideal size of the
nozzle and the distance between the nozzle and the print bed were 1.25 and 2.9 mm,
respectively (Figure 12).
Figure 12. Chocolate square printed with good geometric precision.
4.3.3. Application of materials rich in carbohydrates
• Printing of pregelatinized starch
Starch has been evaluated as a source of carbohydrates in 3D printing tests, as well
as its functionality as a thickening / gelling agent (Lille et. al., 2018). In this study,
recommended the application of pregelatinized (cold-swollen) starch, as this type presents
good shear stability and a suitable yield strength that helps maintain the shape of the
printed product after deposition. Starch also shows a behavior
rheological that facilitates the extrusion of the material through the tip of the syringe.
The pregelatinized starch produced a paste suitable for 3D printing at a
15% concentration. Images of the material during and immediately after the
27
Page 32
Results
and discussion
3D prints are shown in Table 4 along with an assessment of print quality. The
15% starch paste was easy to print, but the material did not fully maintain its
shape after printing, which hampered the accuracy of the printed pattern.
Table 4 . 3D printing of pasta prepared from starch (Source: Adapted from Lille et. Al.,
2018).
Show Pressure During the After Quality of Observations

atmospheric Print to print Print
(kPa)
Extends
fifteen% after
37 3
starch to print
• Printing of mashed potatoes with additives
The use of hydrocolloids and other additives is common during the processing of foods rich in
carbohydrates to achieve the desired properties in the final food products.
Dankar et al. (2018) studied the effect of four different additives (agar, alginate, glycerol and
lecithin) on the rheological properties of the potato puree and the results were interpreted in
terms of microstructural changes of starch. Each of the additives was studied in two
different concentrations (0.5% and 1%). The rheological behavior of starch in
Combination with the different additives was analyzed using viscosity data.
The flow curves of the potato puree without additive and with it at different concentrations (0.5% and
1%) showed an exponential decrease in the viscosity of the mashed potatoes with the
increase in the concentration of glycerol and lecithin, indicating a strong non-
Newtonian. On the other hand, an increase in alginate concentration led to an increase in
the viscosity of the mashed potato. It was concluded that the lower molecular weight of lecithin and the
glycerol compared to alginate allows the former to easily penetrate into the
starch granules and break hydrogen bonds forming weaker complexes
(Hasenhuettl & Hartel, 2008).
28
Page 33
Conclusions
5. CONCLUSIONS
• 3D printing is a promising new technology for the design and processing of

food that opens up new opportunities for personalized nutrition with great
benefits such as rapid prototyping to plan, design and test new
ingredients and / or food structures.
• Among the different printing techniques, the one with the greatest application and current study is
3D extrusion printing. Of the three extrusion mechanisms developed, the most
used is syringe-based technology as it allows printing a wide range of
food materials with high viscosity and high mechanical resistance.
• Selective laser sintering and binder injection printing are designed to
advantages that allow the 3D fabrication of more complex structures and variable textures.
While the former is more suitable for powdered food materials, the latter is based on
the use of a binder with color so it is specially designed to print
colored 3D food.
• Inkjet printing has the advantages of faster manufacturing but

its application is limited to simple designs so it is only suitable for filling surfaces or
product decoration.
• Material properties, process parameters, and post-treatment
processing are three main aspects that affect the precision and accuracy of the
impression, which must be taken into account to produce delicate edible structures and
complex.
• Protein-rich materials such as powdered milk, turkey and scallop meat, or gel
surimi have been shown to be effective in obtaining food products using technology
3D of a sensory and structural quality appropriate to consumer demand.
• From a future perspective, more research should be done to optimize the
printing technology in the food industry with strong emphasis on improving the
nutritional quality of processed products.
29
Page 34
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14/7/2021 Trends and challenges of 3D printing in food processing

Trends and challenges of 3D printing

Lucia del Castillo Morgado

End of Degree Project

TRENDS AND CHALLENGES OF 3D PRINTING IN FOOD PROCESSING

Author: Lucía del Castillo Morgado

Area: Nutrition and Bromatology

Tutor: Dr. Belén Gordillo Arrobas

Place of presentation: Faculty of Pharmacy

Presentation date: February, 2020

Type of work: Bibliographic review

3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing, stands out as a technology in

adapted. According to this technology, the combination of nutritionally balanced ingredients

and novel structures can be schematized in a multi-material 3D digital model

extrusion-based printing, offering a much wider range of materials

printables and edibles.

limitations, it is necessary to control different parameters such as those of the

post-processing methods (freezing, cooking, frying, heating, etc.).

This bibliographic review describes the specific characteristics of the main

3D printing technologies developed particularly for applications in industry

Keywords : 3D food printing, food technology, food design,

personalized nutrition, extrusion.

2. OBJECTIVES ………………………………… .. …………………………………………………. ……………… .. ………… …..…3

3. METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………………. ……………………………………… .. ………… ..… .. …4

3.1. Methodological design of the bibliographic review …………………………………………. …… .4

3.2. Information search criteria …………………………………………………………. …… .4

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ……………………………… .. ………………………………………………………….… 5

4.1. DEFINITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF 3D FOOD PRINTING ……… .. …… .5

4.1.1. Printer types ………………………………………………………………………… .. ………… 6

4.1.2. Food materials used in 3D printing …………………………………… 14

4.2. CONTROL OF THE PRINTING PROCESS …………………………………………………… ..….… 16

4.2.1. 3D printer control parameters ……………………………………… .. ……… 16

4.2.2. Food control parameters ………………………………………………… .. …… ..19

4.2.3. Post-processing methodology ……………………………………………… .. …… ..21

4.3. APPLICATIONS OF 3D PRINTING IN MACRONUTRIENTS… ........ ……… .. ……… 21

4.3.1. Application of materials rich in proteins ……………………………… .. …………… 21

4.3.2. Application of materials rich in lipids …………………………………… ..…. ……… ..25

4.3.3. Application of materials rich in carbohydrates ……………………………………… .27

5. CONCLUSIONS …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ..29

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ……………………………………………………………………………………………. …………………… .30

3D printing, also known as additive manufacturing in English,

AM), was first developed during the 1980s in different areas of

nineteen eighty one; Hull, 1986).

3D printing is a robotic process that builds a product in a three-dimensional way

by superimposing layers of material through a digital design program (Ligon

3D printer, which manufactures objects to the size, characteristics and shape

designed, by deposition of material using a print head, nozzle or

other printer technology.

This food technology allows the production of personalized meals based on

reducing food waste or using alternative sources of nutrients.

Currently, 3D printing techniques available in the food industry include the

extrusion-based printing, selective laser sintering printing,

binder jetting and ink jet printing. However, extrusion printing

of food materials while maintaining adequate rheological properties.

Fab @ home , based on extrusion printing, developed by University researchers

Edge . Similarly, another extrusion-based printer is Foodini Printer created by Natural

According to their printability, food materials can be classified into:

traditional native printables, traditional non-native printables and alternative ingredients.

characterized by significant growth rates. Income from sales of materials

speed of production of identical parts in bulk.

layered production. There is also insufficient resolution in surface production

staggered, which often requires additional post-processing. In addition, 3D printing continues