IA - 2

module - 1

Dhanush S
1ic17me007
1 a Write a note on (a) Solenoids (b) Diodes

ans Solenoids
The principle of the solenoid is based on electromagnetism. A solenoid coil
consists of a metal core with copper wire windings, which acts as an
electrical element.

Such winding provides a path for the current to flow. The magnetic field
is generated when an electric current flows through the coil.

The core of the solenoid can be air but would have small induction. Whenever
we use the metal core, the magnetic flux lines focus on the core. It
further increases the induction of the coil. Such a concept is also known as
electromagnetic induction.

The uniform magnetic field generated by the solenoid is similar to the bar
magnets magnetic field.

Most of the flux is concentrated on the core of the coil. Some of the
flux can be seen at the end of the coil, while some appear outside the coil.
 g
..sS1>1A:tc..
c.l1
�
Po
Pacie

Advantages of Solenoid

The magnetic property of solenoid can be controlled by allowing or blocking

the electric current passing through it.
It has an extensive use in automated applications.
Light in weight.
Low price.
Simple construction.
Engines made with the help of solenoids can be used as an alternative to
fossil fuels.
No pollution
Diode
A diode vacuum tube or thermionic diode is a vacuum tube with two
electrodes, a heated cathode and a plate, in which electrons can flow in
only one direction, from cathode to plate. A semiconductor diode, the most
commonly used type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material
with a pn junction connected to two electrical terminals. Semiconductor
diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of
asymmetric electrical conduction across the contact between a crystalline
mineral and a metal was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874.
Today, most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconducting materials
such as gallium arsenide and germanium are also used. A semiconductor
diodes current voltage characteristic can be tailored by selecting the
semiconductor materials and the doping impurities introduced into the
materials during manufacture. These techniques are used to create
special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions
There are a number of common, standard and manufacturer-driven numbering
and coding schemes for diodes; the two most common being the EIA/JEDEC
standard and the European Pro Electron standard.
1 b . Write a note on (a) Piezo electric actuators (b) Shape memory alloys
ans Piezo electric actuators -

In order to build a mechatronic system that can achieve numerous functions

and certain performance levels, designers must think outside the box when
searching for solutions to be implemented, in almost every aspect, when
building an intelligent machine. This also applies to the actuator system,
where classical solutions may or may not meet certain requirements,
established as being necessary. A relatively unconventional approach is the
employment of piezoelectric or simply piezo actuators.
Piezoelectric actuators - usually employed for controlling fuel injection in
internal combustion engines;
Electrochemical actuators - found in airbag expansion systems; Artificial
muscles - employed for mobility and manipulation features in
humanoid robots;
Shape memory actuators - found in robotic hands, actuating the artificial
fingers.

Shape memory alloys -

A shape-memory alloy is an alloy that can be deformed when cold but

returns to its pre-deformed ("remembered") shape when heated. It may
also be called memory metal, memory alloy, smart metal, smart alloy, or
muscle wire

Parts made of shape-memory alloys can be lightweight, solid-state

alternatives to conventional actuators such as hydraulic, pneumatic, and
motor-based systems. They can also be used to make hermetic joints in
metal tubing.
 NiTi alloys change from austenite to martensite upon cooling; Mf is the
temperature at which the transition to martensite completes upon cooling.
Accordingly, during heating As and Af are the temperatures at which the
transformation from martensite to austenite starts and finishes. Repeated
use of the shape-memory effect may lead to a shift of the
characteristic transformation temperatures
The transition from the martensite phase to the austenite phase is only
dependent on temperature and stress, not time, as most phase changes are,
as there is no diffusion involved. Similarly, the austenite structure receives
its name from steel alloys of a similar structure. It is the reversible
diffusionless transition between these two phases that results in special
properties. While martensite can be formed from austenite by rapidly
cooling carbon-steel, this process is not reversible, so steel does not have
shape-memory properties.
1 c Write a note on Relay

ans An electrical relay is an electromagnetically operated electrical switch -

an electromechanical switch. A relatively small current is used to create a
magnetic field in a coil within a magnetic core and this is used to operate
a switch that can control a much larger current.

In this way an electromechanical relay or electrical relay can use a small

current to switch a much larger current and enable both circuits to be
electrically isolated from each other.

Electrical relays come in a variety of different sizes and they can be

of a variety of different types using slightly different technologies,
although they all use the same basic concept.
Although electromechanical relays may be considered in some respects to
use old technology, and solid state relays / solid state switches might be
thought to be a more effective means of switching electrical current.
Nevertheless electromechanical relays have some unique properties that
make them ideal for many applications, where other types may not be as
effective. That said, solid state switches, solid state relays or
electronic switches are widely used and have taken over in many areas
where electromechanical relays were previously used as electrical switches.

Typical electromechanical relay or electrical relay

Relay circuit symbol
The circuit symbols for electromechanical relays can vary somewhat - like
most circuit symbols. The most widely used format shows the relay coil
as a box, and the contacts are placed close by as shown below.

Electrical / electromechanical relay switch circuit symbol

Circuit symbol of a relay
Note that on this symbol, both normally open and normally closed contacts
are shown. Where one or more sets of contacts is not used, it is often
not shown.
Other circuits, especially new that may be a bit older may show the relay
coil as an actual coil. Although this does not conform to the latest relay
circuit symbol standards, it may nevertheless be seen in some instances and
it describes the inside of the relay well.

Electromechanical relay switch circuit symbol

Circuit symbol of a relay
An older style showing the relay coil.
It is possible for there to be further sets of electrical switch
contacts. In the same way that it is possible to have multiple poles on a
switch, the same can be done with relays. It is possible to have several
sets of switch contacts to change over multiple circuits.
 g
..sS1>1A:tc..
c.l1
�
Po
Pacie

Module - 3

4 a Define Sintering and explain Microwave sintering process with neat sketch
ans The initial surge in the development of microwave technology was driven by
the military needs of World War II. The tremendous effort that went
into the development of radar during World War II generated am enormous
body of knowledge on the properties of microwaves and related technologies
(Committee on Microwave Processing of Materials: An Emerging Industrial
Technology et al., 1994). In the post-war years, further development
resulted in microwaves used for heating, especially for domestic purposes
(Meredith, 1998). The first commercial microwave oven was a large floor-
standing model was developed by the Raytheon Company of North America in
1951. Microwave ovens for domestic use were launched on the market in the
early 1960s, initiating the mass market for this product. Soon there after,
industrial microwave applications began to emerge, beginning with rubber
extrusion, plastic manufacturing, and the treatment of foundry core
ceramics.
Microwave processing of materials is a technology that has proven useful
in a number of applications, presenting some important advantages over
conventional heating methods. The main benefits of exploiting microwave
energy in thermally activated processes stem from the specificity of
microwave energy absorption. In contrast to all the other methods
commonly used, microwaves allow for volumetric heating of materials.
Microwave energy transforms into heat inside the material, which generally
result in significant energy savings and shorter processing times. This
factor plays a decisive role in most applications that have
gained industrial acceptance to date
4 b Explain clearly how powders compacted in Isostatic pressing?
ans Isostatic pressing is enabled to produce various types of materials
from powder compacts by reducing the porosity of powder mixture. The
powder mixture is compacted and encapsulated using isostatic pressure, by
using pressure equally applied from all directions. Isostatic pressing
confines the metal powder within a flexible membrane or hermetic container
which acts as a pressure barrier between the powder and the pressurizing
mediums, liquid or gas that surrounds it.

Advantages of Isostatic Press

Powder is compacted with the same pressure in all directions, and, since no
lubricant is needed, high and uniform density can be achieved.
The process removes many of the constraints that limit the geometry of
parts compacted unidirectionally in rigid dies.
It is applicable to difficult-to-compact and expensive materials such as
superalloys, titanium, tool steels, stainless steel, and beryllium, with
material utilization that is highly efficient.

Application of Isostatic Press

Pharmaceuticals
Explosives
Chemicals
Food
Nuclear fuel Ferrites

4 c Write the stages of liquid phase sintering? Explain any one stage.
ans liquid phase sintering
liquid phase sintering is a sintering technique that uses a liquid phase to
accelerate the interparticle bonding of the solid phase. In addition to rapid
initial particle rearrangement due to capillary forces, mass transport
through liquid is generally orders of magnitude faster than through solid,
enhancing the diffusional mechanisms that drive densification.[1] The liquid
phase can be obtained either through mixing different powders—melting one
component or forming a eutectic—or by sintering at a temperature between
the liquidus and solidus. Additionally, since the softer phase is generally
the first to melt, the resulting microstructure typically consists of hard
particles in a ductile matrix, increasing the toughness of an otherwise
brittle component.[2] However, liquid phase sintering is inherently less
predictable than solid phase sintering due to the complexity added by the
presence of additional phases and rapid solidification rates. Activated
sintering is the solid-state analog to the process of liquid phase sintering.
Historically, liquid phase sintering was used to process ceramic materials
like clay bricks, earthenware, and porcelain. Modern liquid phase sintering
was first applied in the 1930’s to materials like cemented carbides (e.g.
WC-Co) for cutting tools, porous brass (Cu-Sn) for oil-less bearings, and
tungsten-heavy alloys (W-Ni-Cu), but now finds applications ranging from
superalloys to dental ceramics to capacitors.

Liquid phase sintering occurs in three overlapping stages.

Rearrangement
Solution-Reprecipitation
Final Densification
Solution-Reprecipitation

As porosity is eliminated and rearrangement slows, diffusive mechanisms,

analogous to those present in diffusional creep, become dominant and change
the sizes and shapes of powder particles. These mechanisms proceed via
the dissolution of solid into the liquid phase, diffusion through the liquid,
and reprecipitation; hence, the solubility and diffusivity of the solid in the
liquid controls the rates of these processes. The process of grain
growth or particle coarsening is called Ostwald ripening and occurs because
smaller grains are more soluble in the liquid than larger grains. The
resulting concentration gradient causes material to diffuse through the
liquid, causing larger grains to grow at the expense of smaller grains.
Shape change proceeds similarly; in a process termed “contact
flattening”, solid preferentially dissolves in areas with high capillary
pressure (i.e. where particles are close together) and reprecipitates
elsewhere. Thus, two curved surfaces in close proximity will flatten over
time. Shape change can also be driven by anisotropy in the surface energy
of the solid and/or differences in the magnitudes of the solid-solid and
solid-liquid interfacial energies. These shape changes allow the grains to
pack more tightly, further eliminating porosity and densifying the compact.
Early models of solution-reprecipitation demonstrate that the rate of
densification can be increased by increasing temperature, decreasing the
grain size, and increasing the solid solubility in the liquid .