POSTGRADUATE PROGRAMME IN STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

CE 626 Bridge Engineering

Actions (Loading) on
Bridges
(Eurocode Specifications)

By Dammika Abeykoon
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Structural Eurocodes
Structural Eurocodes - referred to as 'Eurocodes' - are applicable for buildings &
civil engineering structures
So far, 58 Structural Eurocodes parts (Eurocodes published standards) have been
produced, providing rules for basis of design, actions on structures as well as
structural design rules for the use of all major construction materials such as
concrete, steel, timber, masonry & aluminium
EN 1990 Eurocode : Basis of Structural Design
EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures
EN 1992 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures
EN 1993 Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures
EN 1994 Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
EN 1995 Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures
EN 1996 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures
EN 1997 Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design
EN 1998 Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance
EN 1999 Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Basis of Design (EN 1990)
Six key concepts can be identified that bridge designers should
understand:
i. Design situations;
ii. Reversible and irreversible serviceability limit states;
iii. Representative values of variable actions;
iv. Six ultimate limit states;
v. Single source principle; and,
vi. Combinations of actions.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Key concept summary 1: Design situations
◦ Design situations are categorized as persistent, transient, accidental
or seismic
◦ These categorizations draw together families of circumstances or
conditions that the structure might experience during its life
◦ Persistent design situations refer to conditions of normal use. As
such, for a highway bridge, they will include the passage of heavy
vehicles since the ability to carry heavy vehicles is a key functional
requirement
◦ Transient design situations refer to circumstances when the
structure is itself in some temporary configuration, such as during
execution or maintenance
◦ Accidental design situations refer to exceptional circumstances
when a structure is experiencing an extreme accidental event
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
Key concept summary 2:
Reversible & irreversible serviceability limit states
Irreversible Serviceability Limit States
SLS where some consequences of actions exceeding the specified
service requirements will remain when the actions are removed
Reversible Serviceability Limit States
SLS where no consequences of actions exceeding the specified
service requirements will remain when the actions are removed
◦ Irreversible SLS are of greater concern than Reversible SLS
◦ The acceptable probability of an irreversible SLS being exceeded
is lower than that for a reversible SLS
◦ A more onerous combination of actions is used for irreversible
SLS than reversible SLS
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Key concept summary 3:
Representative values of a variable action
◦ There are four different representative values of a Variable Action
◦ The characteristic value is a statistically extreme value. It is the
main representative value, & the value generally defined in EN1991
◦ The other representative values are called the combination value,
frequent value & quasi permanent value
◦ They are determined by multiplying the characteristic value by Ψ 0 ,
Ψ 1 & Ψ2 respectively
◦ The combination, frequent & quasi-permanent values are less
statistically extreme than the characteristic value, so Ψ0, Ψ 1 & Ψ2
are always less than 1
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
Illustration of four representative values of a variable action

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Key concept summary 4: Ultimate limit states
◦ The Eurocodes explicitly establish six different ultimate limit states
◦ Two of these, UPL & HYD, are specific to EN1997
◦ Two are concerned with resistances: STR when verifying structural
resistance & GEO when verifying the resistance of the ground
◦ FAT is concerned with fatigue
◦ EQU is principally concerned with ultimate limit states involving a
loss of overall equilibrium
◦ However, it has an important relationship with the single source
principle
◦ Different partial factors on actions & geotechnical material
properties are used for different ultimate limit states
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Key concept summary 5:
Single source principle
◦ Application of the single source principle allows a single partial
factor to be applied to the whole of an action arising from a
single source
◦ The value of the partial factor used depends on whether the
resulting action effect is favourable or unfavourable
◦ EN1990 allows the single source principle to be used for STR &
GEO verifications
◦ EQU addresses cases when minor variations in the magnitude
or spatial distribution of a permanent action from a single
source are significant

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Key concept summary 6: Combinations of actions
◦ EN1990 establishes six different combinations of actions relevant
to bridge design
◦ Different combinations of actions are used for verifying different
limit states
◦ They have different statistical likelihoods of occurring
◦ The differences between the combinations of actions concern:
whether partial factors are applied; which representative values of
variable actions are used; &, whether there is an accidental or
seismic action included
◦ The different combinations of actions are used in conjunction with
the Eurocode ‘material parts’
◦ The Eurocode part generally states explicitly which combination is
to be used in each SLS verification
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Loads on Bridges
According to EN 1991 the following should be considered:
◦ Self weight
◦ Traffic loads
◦ Wind
◦ Thermal actions
◦ Actions during execution
◦ Accidental actions (impact loads)
There are some other actions also described in EN 1991, such as fire
& snow loads, which are usually irrelevant

◦ Concrete creep & shrinkage (EN 1992)

◦ Settlements & earth pressures (EN 1997) From other Eurocodes
◦ Seismic actions (EN 1998)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Self -Weight
Structural parts:

The density of structural steel is taken equal to 77 kN/m3 [EN 1991-1-1, Table A.4]
The density of reinforced concrete is taken equal to 25 kN/m3
[EN 1991-1-1, Table A.1]

The self-weight is determined based on the dimensions of the structural

elements

Non-structural parts:

The density of the waterproofing material & of the asphalt is taken as

equal to 24-25 kN/m3 [EN 1991-1-1, Table A.6]

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Traffic Loads on Bridges (Vertical)

Extreme traffic scenarios

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Traffic Loads on Bridges (Horizontal)
Braking & Accelerations

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Wind Action

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Actions during Execution

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Accidental Action (Impact Load)

Impact on Pier

Impact
on Deck

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Eurocode 1: Actions on Structures- Part 2

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

EN 1991-2: Traffic Loads on Bridges

Section 1 – General
Section 2 – Classification of actions
Section 3 – Design situations
Section 4 – Road traffic actions & other actions
specifically for road bridges
Section 5 – Actions on footways, cycle tracks & footbridges

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Traffic Loads : General Organization
for Road Bridges
Traffic load models
Vertical forces : LM1, LM2, LM3, LM4
Horizontal forces : braking & acceleration, centrifugal, transverse

Groups of loads
gr1a, gr1b, gr2, gr3, gr4, gr5
characteristic, frequent & quasi-permanent values

Combination with actions other than traffic actions

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 Carriageway Width
The carriageway width, w, should be measured between kerbs or between the
inner limits of vehicle restraint systems, & should not include the distance
between fixed vehicle restraint systems or kerbs of a central reservation nor the
widths of these vehicle restraint systems

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Cl.4.2.3: Division of Carriageway Width into
Notional Lanes
The width w1 of notional lanes on a carriageway & the greatest possible whole
(integer) number n of such lanes on this carriageway are defined as;

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Division of Carriageway width into Notional Lanes

Footway

Where the carriageway on a bridge deck is physically divided into two parts separated by a
central reservation,
then each part, including all hard shoulders or strips, should be separately divided into
notional lanes if the parts are separated by a permanent road restraint system

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Division of Carriageway width into Notional Lanes

the whole carriageway, central reservation included, should be divided into notional lanes
if the parts are separated by a temporary road restraint system

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Location & numbering of the lanes for design
◦ The locations of notional lanes should not be necessarily related to
their numbering
◦ For each individual verification, the number of lanes to be taken into
account as loaded, their location on the carriageway & their
numbering should be so chosen that the effects from the load
models are the most adverse
◦ For fatigue representative values & models, the location & the
numbering of the lanes should be selected depending on the traffic
to be expected in normal conditions
◦ The lane giving the most unfavourable effect is numbered Lane No. 1,
the lane giving the second most unfavourable effect is numbered
Lane No. 2, etc.
◦ For each individual verification, the load models, on each notional
lane, should be applied on such a length & so longitudinally located
that the most adverse effect is obtained
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Traffic load models:
Cl.4.3: Vertical Loads (Characteristic Values)
◦ Load Model 1 (LM1) : Concentrated & uniformly distributed loads,
which cover most of the effects of the traffic of lorries and cars.
This model should be used for general & local verifications
◦ Load Model 2 (LM2) : A single axle load applied on specific tyre
contact areas which covers the dynamic effects of the normal traffic
on short structural members
◦ Load Model 3 (LM3) : A set of assemblies of axle loads
representing special vehicles (e.g. for industrial transport) which
can travel on routes permitted for abnormal loads. It is intended for
general & local verifications
◦ Load Model 4 (LM4) : A crowd loading, intended only for general
verifications (This crowd loading is particularly relevant for bridges located in or
near towns if its effects are not covered by LM1)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Cl. 4.3.2: Load Model 1 (LM1)
The main load model
Concentrated &
uniformly distributed
loads, which cover
most of the effects of
traffic of lorries & cars

Consists of two partial systems

(a) Double-axle concentrated loads (tandem system : TS), each axle having αQQk
(b) Uniformly distributed loads (UDL system), having αqqk per m2 /notional lane

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 LM1: Diagrammatic representation
αQiQik αQiQik αqiqik

Recommended values of αQi

2.5 & αqi are = 1
2.5
2.5 & values can vary with
2.5
traffic class
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Cl. 4.3.3: Load Model 2 (LM2)
Load Model 2 (LM2) : Load Model 2 consists of a single axle load
βQQak with Qak = 400 kN, dynamic amplification included, which
should be applied at any location on the carriageway

It is recommended that βQ = αQ1 ≥ 0.8 (1)

However, when relevant, only one wheel of 200 (kN) may be taken into account
In the vicinity of expansion joints, an additional dynamic amplification factor should be applied
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Cl. 4.3.4: Load Model 3 (LM3)

Load Model 3 (LM3) :

A set of assemblies of axle loads representing special vehicles

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Table A1 - Classes of special vehicles (EN 1991-2: Annex A)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Table A2 - Description of special vehicles (EN 1991-2: Annex A)

NOTE
n - number of axles
multiplied by the
weight (kN) of each
axle in each group

e - axle spacing (m)

within & between
each group

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Figure A.1 - Arrangement of axle-lines & definition of wheel
contact areas (EN 1991-2: Annex A)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Figure A.2 - Application of the special vehicles on notional lanes
Bridge axis direction

Lane 1 Lane 2
Lane 1 Lane 2

Axle-lines of 150 or 200 kN (b = 2,70 m) Axle-lines of 240 kN (b = 4,20 m)

on one notional lane with models composed of 150 or 200 kN axle-lines, or

on two adjacent notional lanes with models composed of 240 kN axle-lines

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Application of special vehicle load models on the carriageway
◦ The notional lanes should be located as unfavourably as possible in the
carriageway (For this case, the carriageway width may be defined as
excluding hard shoulders, hard strips & marker strips)
◦ These models may be assumed to move at low speed (< 5 km/h) or at
normal speed (70 km/h)

move at low speed,

◦ only vertical loads without dynamic amplification should be taken into account
◦ each notional lane & the remaining area of the bridge deck should be loaded by
LM 1 with its frequent values (Figure A.3 )

move at normal speed

◦ a dynamic amplification should be taken into account
◦ a pair of special vehicles should be used in the lane(s) occupied by these vehicles
◦ On the other lanes & the remaining area the bridge deck should be loaded by
LM 1 with its frequent values

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Figure A.3 - Simultaneity of LM 1 & special vehicles

X : Bridge axis direction (1): Lane 1 (2): Lane 2

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Cl. 4.3.5: Load Model 4 (LM4)
Load Model 4 (LM4) : A crowd loading, intended only for general
verifications
if relevant, should be
represented by a Load Model
consisting of a uniformly
distributed load (which includes
dynamic amplification) equal to
5 kN/m2

associated only with a transient

design situation

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Dispersal of Concentrated Loads
The various concentrated loads to be considered for local verifications,
associated with LM1 &LM2, should be taken as uniformly distributed
on their whole contact area

1 - Wheel contact pressure

2 - Pavement
3 - Concrete slab
4 - Middle surface of concrete slab

Dispersal of concentrated loads through pavement and a concrete slab

Dispersal of concentrated loads through pavement & orthotropic decks

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Cl.4.4: Horizontal Forces
(Characteristic Values)
Cl 4.4.1 : Braking & acceleration forces
The characteristic value of Qlk, longitudinal force acting at the surfacing level of the
carriageway, limited to 900 kN for the total width of the bridge, should be
calculated as a fraction of the total maximum vertical loads corresponding to the
LM1 applied on Lane No. 1

Acceleration forces: same magnitude as braking forces, but in the opposite direction

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Cl.4.4: Horizontal Forces
Cl 4.4.2 : Centrifugal forces

The centrifugal force Qtk should be taken as a transverse force acting at the finished
carriageway level & radially to the axis of the carriageway

Where;

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Definition of Group of Loads

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Definition of Group of Loads
Characteristic Characteristic
value value

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Cl 4.5 Groups of Traffic Loads

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Partial factors & - EN 1990, A2,
Tables A2.4(A) to (C)

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Factors for road bridges (Table A2.1)

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Load Combination (Ultimate Limit State)

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Load Combination (Serviceability Limit State)

b)

b)
b)

b)

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Fundamental combination of actions

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Characteristic combination of actions (SLS)

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 Frequent combination of actions (SLS)

Quasi permanent-combination of actions (SLS)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

EN 1991-1-4: Wind Actions (on bridge deck & piers)
The following cases should typically be handled:
◦ Bridge during its service life, without traffic
◦ Bridge during its service life, with traffic
◦ Bridge under construction(finished & most critical case)
(This design situation might be critical in case of varying structural system)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

EN 1991-1-4: Wind Actions (on bridge deck & piers)
The general expression of a wind force Fw, acting on a structure
or structural member is given by the following formula[Eq. 5.3]:

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

EN 1991-1-4: Wind Actions (on bridge deck & piers)
The peak velocity pressure qp(z) at height z, includes the mean
& the short-term (turbulent) fluctuations & is expressed by the
formula[4.8]:

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

EN 1991-1-4: Wind Actions (on bridge deck & piers)
Depth d to be used for Aref,x

◦ Additional heights for the calculation of Aref, x d*=2m) for bridges during
their service life with traffic

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Wind actions on piers

[Fig. 7.4]— Reference height, ze, depending on h & b, &

corresponding velocity pressure profile(for rectangular piers)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 EN 1991-1-4: Wind Actions
(on bridge deck & piers)

To determine the wind actions on bridge decks & piers, it seems

convenient to follow successively the following steps:
◦ Determine Vb (by choosing vb,0, Cdir, cseason & cprob, if relevant);
qb may also be determined at this stage
◦ Determine vm(z) (by choosing terrain category and reference
height z to evaluate cr(z) & co(z))
◦ Determine qp(z) (either by choosing directly ce(z), where
possible, either by evaluating Iv(z),after choosing co(z))
◦ Determine Fw (after evaluating Aref & by choosing cf & cs.cd, if
relevant)
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 Thermal Actions
EN 1991-1-5: 2003 Section 4 Representation of actions

◦ Daily & seasonal changes in shade air temperature, solar

radiation, radiation, etc., will result in variations of the
temperature distribution within individual elements of a
structure
◦ The magnitude of the thermal effects will be dependent on local
climatic conditions, together with the orientation of the
structure, its overall mass, finishes, & in the case of building
structures, heating & ventilation regimes & thermal insulation
◦ The temperature distribution within an individual structural
element may be split into 4 essential constituent components

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Figure 4.1: Diagrammatic representation of constituent
components of a temperature profile - EN 1991-1-5: 2003

a) A uniform temperature component, ∆Tu;

b) A linearly varying temperature difference component about the z-zaxis, ∆TMY;
c) A linearly varying temperature difference component about the y-yaxis, ∆TMZ;
d) A non-linear temperature difference component, ∆TE. This results in a system
of self-equilibrated stresses which produce no net load effect on the element

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 Representation of actions Cont’…

◦ The strains & therefore any resulting stresses, are dependent

on the geometry & boundary conditions of the element being
considered & on the physical properties of the material used
◦ When materials with different coefficients of linear
expansion are used compositely the thermal effect should be
taken into account
◦ For the purpose of deriving thermal effects, the coefficient of
linear expansion for a material should be used

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Temperature changes in bridges - Bridge decks
For this purposes, bridge decks are grouped as follows

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 Consideration of thermal actions

◦ Representative values of thermal actions should be assessed

by the uniform temperature component & the temperature
difference components
◦ The vertical temperature difference component should
generally include the non-linear component
◦ The selection of the approach to be used in a Country may be
found in its National Annex
◦ Where a horizontal temperature difference needs to be
considered, a linear temperature difference component may
be assumed in the absence of other information

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Shade air temperature
Characteristic values of minimum &
maximum shade air temperatures for the
site location shall be obtained, Ex. from
national maps of isotherms
Uniform temperature component
The uniform temperature component
depends on the minimum & maximum
temperature which a bridge will achieve.
This results in a range of uniform
temperature changes which, in an
unrestrained structure would result in a
change in element length
National Annexes may specify
Te.min & Te.max Figure 6.1: Correlation between
minimum/maximum shade air temperature
(Tmin/Tmax) & minimum/maximum uniform
Figure 6.1 gives recommended values bridge temperature component (Te.min/Te.max)

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Range of uniform bridge temperature component
◦ The values of minimum and maximum uniform bridge temperature components
for restraining forces shall be derived from the minimum (Tmin) & maximum
(Tmax) shade air temperatures
◦ The initial bridge temperature To at the time that the structure is restrained may
be taken for calculating contraction down to the minimum uniform bridge
temperature component & expansion up to the maximum uniform bridge
temperature component
◦ Thus the characteristic value of the maximum contraction range of the uniform
bridge temperature component, ∆TN,con should be taken as
∆TN,con = T0- Te.min
◦ & the characteristic value of the maximum expansion range of the uniform
bridge temperature component, ∆TN,exp should be taken as
∆TN,exp= Te .max- To
◦ The overall range of the uniform bridge temperature component is
∆TN= Te.max- Te.min

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Temperature difference components
◦ Over a prescribed time period heating and cooling of a bridge deck's
upper surface will result in a maximum heating (top surface warmer) &
a maximum cooling (bottom surface warmer) temperature variation
◦ The vertical temperature difference may produce effects within a
structure due to:
– Restraint of free curvature due to the form of the structure
(ex. portal frame, continuous beams etc.);
– Friction at rotational bearings;
– Non-linear geometric effects
◦ In the case of cantilever construction an initial temperature difference
may need to be taken into account at the closure of the cantilever

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Temperature differences for bridge decks – Type 1 : Steel Decks
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Temperature differences for bridge decks – Type 2 : Composite Decks
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Temperature differences for bridge decks – Type 3 : Concrete Decks
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Horizontal components of temperature difference
◦ In general, the temperature difference component need only be considered
in the vertical direction
◦ In particular cases however (Ex. when the orientation or configuration of
the bridge results in one side being more highly exposed to sunlight than
the other side), a horizontal temperature difference component should be
considered
Temperature difference components within walls of concrete box girders
◦ Care should be exercised in the design of large concrete box girder bridges
where significant temperature differences can occur between the inner &
outer web walls of such structures
Differences in the uniform temperature component between different
structural elements
◦ In structures where differences in the uniform temperature component
between different element types may cause adverse load effects, these
effects should be taken into account
Recommended values: 15oC between main structural elements (Ex. tie & arch)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
EN 1991-1-6: Actions During Execution
Construction Loads (Qc) :Six different sources
◦ Qca Personnel & hand tools
◦ Qcb Storage of movable items
◦ Qcc Non-permanent equipment in position for use
◦ Qcd Movable heavy machinery & equipment
◦ Qce Accumulation of waste materials
◦ Qcf Loads from part of structure in a temporary state

Construction loads Qc may be represented in the appropriate design situations

either, as one single variable action, or where appropriate different types of
construction loads may be grouped & applied as a single variable action

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4.7 Actions for accidental design situations

DEPARTMENT
DEPARTMENT OF OF CIVIL
CIVIL ENGINEERING,
ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
OF PERADENIYA
4.7.2.1 Collision forces on piers and other
supporting members

See also EN 1991-1-7: General actions -Accidental actions

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4.9 Load models for abutments and walls
adjacent to bridges
4.9.1 Vertical loads
(1) The carriageway located behind abutments, wing walls, side walls
and other parts of the bridge in contact with earth, should be loaded
with appropriate models.
NOTE 1
These appropriate load models may be defined in the National
Annex. The use of Load Model 1, defined in 4.3.2, is recommended,
but, for simplicity, the tandem system loads may be replace by an
equivalent uniformly distributed load, noted qeq, spread over an
appropriate relevant rectangular surface depending on the dispersal
of the loads through the backfill or earth.

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 4.9.1 Vertical loads

NOTE 2
For the dispersal of the loads through the backfill or earth, see EN
1997. In the absence of any other rule, if the backfill is properly
consolidated, the recommended value of the dispersal angle from
to the vertical is equal to 30°. With such a value, the surface on
which qeq is applied may be taken as a rectangular surface 3 m
wide and 2.20 m long .

(2) Representative values of the load model other than the

characteristic values should not be considered.

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4.9.2 Horizontal force

(1) No horizontal force should be taken into account at the

surfacing level of the carriageway over the backfill.

(2) For the design of abutment upstand walls (see Figure 4.11),
a longitudinal braking force should be taken into account with a
characteristic value equal to 0.6αQ1Q1k, acting simultaneously
with the αQ1Q1k axle loading of LM1 and with the earth
pressure from the backfill. The backfill should be assumed not
to be loaded simultaneously.

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 Key
1) Upstand wall
2) Bridge deck
3) Abutment

Figure 4.44 – Definition of loads on upstand walls

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Actions (Loading) on
Bridges
(British Standard)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 BS 5400 (1978)
Codes of practice to cover the design & construction of steel,
concrete and composite bridges & specifications for the
loads, materials and workmanship
•Part 1: General statement
•Part 2: Specification for loads
•Part 3: Code of practice for design of steel bridges
•Part 4: Code of practice for design of concrete bridges
•Part 5: Code of practice for design of composite bridges
•Part 6: Specification for materials and workmanship, steel
•Part 7: Specification for materials and workmanship, concrete,
reinforcement & pre-stressing tendons
•Part 8: Recommendations for materials and workmanship, concrete,
reinforcement and pre-stressing tendons
•Part 9: Bridge bearings
•Part 10: Code of practice for fatigue
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 3.2.9 highway carriageway and lanes
3.2.9.1 carriageway
that part of the running surface which includes all traffic lanes, hard
shoulders, hard strips and marker strips.
The carriageway width is the width between raised kerbs./ the width
between safety fences, less the amount of set-back required for these
fences, being not less than 0.6 m or more than 1.0 m from the traffic
face of each fence

3.2.9.2 traffic lanes

the lanes that are marked on the running surface of the bridge and are
normally used by traffic
3.2.9.3 notional lanes
the notional parts of the carriageway used solely for the purpose of
applying the specified live loads.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

3.2.9.3.1 carriageway widths of 4.6 m or more
Notional lanes shall be taken to be not less than 2.3 m nor more than
3.8 m wide.
The carriageway shall be divided into the least possible integral
number of notional lanes having equal widths

carriageway width (m) number of

notional lanes
4.6 up to and including 7.6 2
above 7.6 up to & including 11.4 3
above 11.4 up to and including 15.2 4
above 15.2 up to and including 19.0 5
above 19.0 up to and including 22.8 6

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Dual carriageway

Motorway

All-purpose road
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Single carriageway

Single 3-lane
carriageway

Single 2-lane
carriageway

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Design loads
The design loads, Q*, are determined from the nominal loads,
Qk, according to the relation

Q* = γfL Qk

where γfL is a factor given in Part 2 for each load

γfL = function (γf1 γf2)

γf1 - takes account of the possibility of unfavorable deviation of the

loads from their nominal values

γf2 - takes account of the reduced probability that various loadings

acting together will all attain their nominal values simultaneously

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Design load effects
The design effects, S*, are obtained from the design loads by
the relation

S* = γf3 (effects of Q*) = γf3 (effects of γfL Qk)

γf3 - a factor that takes account of inaccurate

assessment of the effects of loading, unforeseen
stress distribution in the structure, and variations in
dimensional accuracy achieved in construction

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Loads on a Bridge
According to BS 5400 (1978) following should be considered:
• Dead load & Superimposed dead load
• Live loads
• Wind
• Temperature
• Effect of shrinkage & creep, residual stresses, etc.
• Differential settlement
• Exceptional loads (earthquakes, snow etc.)
• Earth pressure on retaining structures
• Erection loads
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
 Highway bridge live loads
Standard highway loading consists of HA & HB loadings
Structure shall be designed to resist the more severe effect of either
◦ Design HA loading
◦ Design HA loading combined with design HB loading

Type HA Loading
Consists of a uniformly distributed load & a knife edge load combined, or of a
single wheel load
Nominal uniformly distributed load (UDL)
The UDL shall be taken as 30 kN/m of notional lane for loaded lengths up to 30
m, & for loaded lengths in excess of 30 m it shall be derived from the equation

W = 151(1/L)0.475 but not less than 9

L - loaded length (in m), W - load per metre of lane (in kN)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
Nominal knife edge load (KEL)
The KEL per notional lane shall be taken as 120kN
Distribution - The UDL and KEL shall be taken to occupy one notional
lane, uniformly distributed over the full width of the lane and applied as
specified in 6.4.1

Single nominal wheel load alternative to UDL & KEL

One 100 kN wheel, placed on the carriageway & uniformly distributed
over a circular contact area assuming an effective pressure of 1.1 N/mm2
(i.e. 340 mm diameter), shall be considered
Alternatively, a square contact area may be assumed, using the same
effective pressure (i.e. 300 mm side)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 Type HB Loading

One unit shall be taken as equal to 10 kN per axle (i.e. 2.5 kN per wheel)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
Type HB Loading
Nominal HB wheel loads shall be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over a circular contact area, assuming an
effective pressure of 1.1 N/mm2

Alternatively, a square contact area may be assumed,

using the same effective pressure

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

Application of types of HA & HB loadings

(1) HB vehicle within one notional lane

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

(2) HB vehicle straddling two notional lane

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

(2) HB vehicle straddling two notional lane

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

 4.4 Combinations of loads

Three principal & two secondary combinations of loads are specified;

values of γfL for each load for each combination in which it is considered
are given in the relevant clauses & also summarized in Table 1

4.4.1 Combination 1
For highway and foot/cycle track bridges, the loads to be considered are
the permanent loads, together with the appropriate primary live loads,
and, for railway bridges, the permanent loads, together with the
appropriate primary and secondary live loads

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

4.4.2 Combination 2
For all bridges, the loads to be considered are the loads in
combination 1, together with those due to wind, and, where erection
is being considered, temporary erection loads

4.4.3 Combination 3
For all bridges, the loads to be considered are the loads in
combination 1, together with those arising from restraint due to the
effects of temperature range and difference, and, where erection is
being considered, temporary erection loads

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

4.4.4 Combination 4
Combination 4 does not apply to railway bridges except for vehicle
collision loading on bridge supports
For highway bridges, the loads to be considered are the permanent
loads & the secondary live loads, together with the appropriate primary
live loads associated with them
Secondary live loads shall be considered separately & are not required
to be combined
Each shall be taken with its appropriate associated primary live load
For foot/cycle track bridges, the only secondary live load to be
considered is the vehicle collision load with bridge supports

4.4.5 Combination 5
For all bridges, the loads to be considered are the permanent
loads, together with the loads due to friction at bearings

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF PERADENIYA