Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 294 (2021) 102482

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Advances in Colloid and Interface Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cis

Historical Perspective

3D and 4D printing: From innovation to evolution

Shadpour Mallakpour a, *, Farbod Tabesh a, Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain b
a
Organic Polymer Chemistry Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan 84156-83111, Islamic Republic of Iran
b
Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark N J 07102, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The world and science are moving forward nonstop. Every day, we see novel technologies that are coming to
3D and 4D printing improve life quality. One of them is 3D printing or additive manufacturing. This technology covers the shortage
Additive manufacturing of the current manufacturing technologies, and it has been enhanced by introducing smart materials like smart
Smart material
polymers as feed. The following product can adapt to circumstance conditions such as temperature changes,
Shape memory material
compression alteration, etc. These responses resulted in an advanced 3D printing technology called 4D printing.
Nanotechnology
3D and 4D printing technologies found their applications in all areas and industry sizes, from home-scale to
large-scale industries. Regardless of all advantages of these technologies, there are still some shortages like low
printing speed. But this never stops their progression and promotion. In this review, we aimed to cover general
knowledge about 3D and 4D printing and their recent applications in various fields.

1. Background and introduction
“3D printing is actually 2D printing over and over again”. This sen­
tence is the best description of 3D printing technology given by Prof. J.
DeSimone during the TED talk in 2017. 3D printing or the term “ster­
eolithography” was first reported by Chuck Hull (Charles W. Hull) in
1983, although the patent was published in 1984 [1]. It has found
various and numerous applications from home-scale industries like
creating clothes1 to large-scale industries like small rockets.2
3D printing or additive manufacturing is a new technology that en­
ables producing limitless shapes and structure which are difficult to
make via traditional technologies [2]. Actually, it is by depositing the
materials layer by layer [3]. Therefore, the products have three di­
mensions; length, width, and height. What if these products can alter
their shapes, measures, etc., as smart materials do? The results would be
4D printed materials [4] or “stimuli-responsive 3D” [5]. Thus, if we use
smart or stimuli-responsive materials as a feed for 3D printers, the
product would change its shape, dimensions, etc., as a response to the
circumstance changes [6]. Therefore, shape changing as a function of
time would be the fourth dimension of the 4D printing technology.
Skylar Tibbits first introduced the term 4D printing during a TED talk in
2013.3
In this review, we try to introduce the basics of 3D and 4D printing
technologies, materials used, and some of their applications.
2. Methods, technologies, and materials
There are different technologies in the 3D printers [7], and Table 1
shows the difference among the processes.
Generally, shape-memory materials, metamaterials, self-healing
materials, polymers, metals, and nanocomposites can be used as feed
in 3D and 4D printing processes [9–12]. Among them, those with low
strength and stiffness are suitable for 4D printing [13,14]. The materials
in 4D printing must respond in real-time, respond in more than one
environmental state, be intelligent, have a predictable response, and
have a local response to the event [14,15]. A growing concern regarding

Abbreviations: ABS, Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene; DCM, Dichloromethane; DLP, Digital light process; ECG, Electrocardiography; HIPS, High impact polystyrene;
LAA, Left atrial appendage; LED, Light-emitting diode; MF, Magnetic field; NC, Nanocookie; NGF, Neuron growth factor; PC, Polycarbonate; PCL, Polycaprolactone;
PLA, Poly(lactic acid); PVA, Poly(vinyl alcohol); SA, Sodium alginate; SC, Supercapacitor; SMPI, Shape memory polyimide ink; 2D, Two dimensional; 3D, Three
dimensional; 4D, Four dimensional.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mallak@iut.ac.ir (S. Mallakpour).
1
https://www.ted.com/talks/danit_peleg_forget_shopping_soon_you_ll_download_your_new_clothes
2
https://www.ted.com/talks/peter_beck_small_rockets_are_the_next_space_revolution
3
https://www.ted.com/talks/skylar_tibbits_the_emergence_of_4d_printing?language=en

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2021.102482
Received in revised form 30 June 2021;
Available online 6 July 2021
0001-8686/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Mallakpour et al. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 294 (2021) 102482

Table 1
Comparison of 3D Printing Processes and Materials [8] Copyright 2016 SAGE Publishing.
Type Extrusion Light polymerization Powder bed Powder bed (heat/laser Lamination
melting/sintering)

Method Material (often molten plastic
filament) is extruded through a
nozzle that follows a path in x and y
dimensions
Layer height 0.050–0.400
Materials Various thermoplastics (ABS, PLA,
PVA, HIPS, PC, Nylon, etc.); molten
glass or sugar, clay, wax, edible
materials (chocolate, icing, pancake
batter, etc.)
Printer cost Start as low as $350 for small-
volume printers and printer kits; can
cost upward of $4000
Support Dependent on materials and
structures geometry; dissolvable supports can
Required be used
Pros Wide variety of affordable
materials; with two or more
extruders, can print in multiple
colors and materials, print
dissolvable support structures
Cons Complex geometries and overhangs
require support material; limiting
for single-extruder printers
Liquid resin is cured with Liquid binding material is The powdered material is Layers of paper or film are
laser light or with a selectively deposited selectively sintered or adhered together and cut to
projected image across a layer of powdered melted with a laser or shape with a knife or laser;
substrate electron beam may incorporate standard
inkjet printing methods
0.010–0.200 ~0.100 ~0.100 ~0.100
Various acrylic Powdered plaster, sugar Almost any metal alloy, Paper, metal foil, plastic film
photopolymers; properties titanium, thermoplastic,
can be rigid, flexible, or ceramic powder
castable, or transparent
Desktop models $2500+; $15,000 $30,000 Typically $200,000+ $30,000+
commercial printers can
range from $20,000 to
upward of $200,000
Dependent on printer type No No No
and model geometry
Can achieve very Capable of print at high Strong, durable parts; Capable of printing in full
Fine detail and resolution with full color; does not require support color; does not require support
Complexity, quiet does not require support structures structures
Operation structures
Materials are limited and Higher material cost; Printer and material costs Limitations in 3D geometry,
typically less durable messy postprocessing; are expensive, highly better for solid structures
consumables; messy relatively fragile specialized
postprocessing

Fig. 1. Examples of different shape responses 1D to 1D (expansion/contraction), 1D to 2D (folding and bending), 1D to 3D (folding), 2D to 2D (bending), 2D to 3D
(bending), 2D to 3D (folding), 2D to 3D (twisting), 2D to 3D (surface curling), 2D to 3D (surface topographical change), 2D to 3D (bending and twisting), 3D to 3D
(bending), 3D to 3D (linear deformation), and 3D to 3D (nonlinear deformation) [19] Copyright 2017 Elsevier.

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3D and 4D printing is the byproducts which sometimes are toxic nano­

plastics [16]. For example, when the printing process of producing a
polymer is done, the washing stage starts. A liquid, like ethanol, is used
at this stage, and the results must be collected. Exposure of this mixture
to sunlight produces very small particles of a new type of pollution [17].
But there is not sufficient and in-depth study about the risk of nano­
plastics, and the studies are at the stage of documentation.
As mentioned before, when a 4D printed material is exposed to
external stimuli like pH, temperature, light, etc. [18], it alters its shape,
and the alteration types might be 1/2/3D to 1/2/3D [19]. Fig. 1 depicts
the shape alteration examples.
There are some differences between 3D and 4D printing technolo­
gies, which are mentioned below [20]. Difference in:

A. Materials: in 3D printing, thermoplastics, metals, ceramics, bio­

materials, or nanomaterials are used, while in 4D printing, self-
assembled materials, multi-materials, designed materials.
B. Design: in 3D printing, 3D digital information (scanning, drawing) is
done, but in 4D printing, 3D digital information for change
(deformation).
C. Printer: in 3D printing, the 3D printer is used, but for 4D printing, the
device is a smart 3D printer or multi-material 3D printer.
D. Change: the product in 3D printing doesn't change, while in 4D
printing, it can change after printing in shape, color, function, etc.
E. Applications: most 3D printed materials are used in jewelry, toys,
fashion, entertainment, automobile, aerospace, defense, biomedical
devices, etc. About the 4D printed, they can be used where dynamic
changing configuration is needed for any applications.

Although 3D and 4D printing technologies have a lot in common,

they do have some differences. The most important differences are the
Fig. 2. The number of documents published per year regarding 3D and 4D types of materials and printers. As mentioned before, the materials must
printing, extracted from the Scopus database in May 2021. be stimuli-responsive, and the printers need some enhancement like

Fig. 3. 4D printing of smart structures. (a) Shape memory actuator. (b) Switch between the flat and the folded shapes [40] Copyright 2021 Elsevier.

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Fig. 4. (a) PCL and SA in DCM; (b) cast and cut film and (c-e) extrusion method to create filaments of PCL/SA [41] (PCL: Polycaprolactone, SA: sodium alginate,
DCM: dichloromethane) Copyright 2020 RSC.
changing the laser, nozzle, binder, etc. [21].
In general, some parameters would affect the properties of the 3D or
4D printed materials. For example, in some cases, increasing the
extruder temperature may affect some features like enhancing the
bending and decreasing the materials' roughness properties [22]. On the
other hand, increasing the printing speed may cause a deficiency in the
compounds' mechanical properties [23].
3. Applications
As seen in Fig. 2, based on the Scopus database, the number of
documents regarding 3D and 4D printing increases. It shows that these
technologies are becoming popular and more convenient.
Hence, 3D and 4D printing technologies are spreading worldwide
and finding ways to replace traditional material production. The printed
materials from 3D and 4D printing technologies are capable of being
used in various fields, such as producing artificial organs [24],
biomedical applications [25], microwave absorption [26], soft robotics
[27], histology [28], nanomedicine [29], water treatment [30], marine
[31], food [32], electronics [33], aerospace [34], construction [35],
tissue engineering [36], expandable-shrinkable material [37], wearable
devices [38], bioprinting [39], etc. In this section, some 3D and 4D
printing applications in different fields are being explored.
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Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 294 (2021) 102482
Chen et al. produced a recyclable thermosetting 3D printer ink using
acrylate and epoxy resins [40]. They applied the bond exchange reaction
method to create the hybrid ink, and after printing the materials, they
dissolved the products into ethylene glycol. After the same procedure for
preparing the ink, they used the recycled ink reprinted, and the material
showed good mechanical properties. It is noteworthy to mention that
they tested the shape memory effect of the printed ink. As shown in
Fig. 3, the products showed excellent response implying a successful 4D
printer ink production.
Liakos et al. [41] used 3D printing technology to produce an adsor­
bent for heavy metal ions in the water solution. They dissolved poly­
caprolactone and sodium alginate in dichloromethane, and after casting
it in a Petri dish and evaporating, the obtained film was cut and extruded
to obtain a filament for the 3D printer (Fig. 4). The obtained filament
was used to print the adsorbent using a fused deposition modeling 3D
printer. The adsorbent was used to adsorb Cu2+, and the maximum
adsorption capacity (experimental) was 90 mg/g. The adsorption
progress was plotted vs. time, although no conclusion about the kinetic
mechanism was made.
Xiang et al. [42] applied the fused filament fabrication 3D printing
technology to produce a strain sensor from carbon nanotubes, graphene
sheets, and thermoplastic polyurethane. Results showed that the nano­
composite with 3:1 carbon nanotubes/graphene sheets had the best
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Fig. 5. Strain-sensing responses of the strain sensor to repetitive (a) finger bending, (b) wrist bending, (c) swallowing, (d) blinking, (e) normal and deep breath, and
(f) speaking “go”, “belong”, and “important” [42] Copyright 2020 Springer.
Fig. 6. The four SCs connected in series can be used to power a green LED (left) or a LED array (right) [43] (SCs: Supercapacitors) Copyright 2021 Wiley.
mechanical properties. Besides the analytical sensing investigation, the
sensor was tested over experimental conditions. As shown in Fig. 5, the
sensor was used to sense human activities, and the response was
recorded. Based on the results, the sensor was able to record physical
and verbal stimuli.
Zhou et al. [43] produced stretchable supercapacitor via 4D printing
using poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate, reduced
graphene oxide, and carbon nanotube. The supercapacitor had a specific
capacity of 22 F/g at 0.5 A/g, and when it was used to light LEDs on, as
seen in Fig. 6, it worked well.
Jeong et al. [44] prepared a light-responsive shape memory polymer-
based material through the polyjet method. This flat and rectangular
compound consists of two different layers with two colors: blue and
yellow, which each layer responds to either blue or red light. Fig. 7a and
b show the response scheme of the compound and experimental
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Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 294 (2021) 102482
observation, respectively. As shown, when the red light is applied, the
blue layer responds to shrink. When the blue light is used to the bent
structure, the yellow layer acts to restore the flat shape by shrinking.
Again, by illuminating the blue light, the yellow layer starts to shrink,
and by applying the red light, the blue layer compensates for the
shrinkage.
Fang et al. [45] reported in vivo and in vitro studies of the neuron
cell proliferation under magnetic field using 4D printed structure con­
sisting of urethane-polyethylene glycol-polypropylene glycol and
reduced graphene oxide. The simulator was loaded with the neuron
growth factor, and the in vivo study was conducted. As shown in Fig. 8,
based on the immunohistochemistry images, the 4D-printed substance
with neuron growth could heal the sciatic nerve under the microwave
field. The results indicated that this system could be a promising option
in imitating and healing the neuron.
S. Mallakpour et al.
Fig. 7. Bending behavior of the multicolor sample. A thermomechanically programmed structure bends to an n-shape under red illumination. After bending, the
structure can recover to an initial fat state with blue illumination. In the case of illuminating blue light first, the structure bends to a U-shape. It can also recover to the
initial state with red-light illumination. (a) is the schematic for dual-step actuation, while (b) is the experimental result [44] Copyright 2020 Nature.
Lin et al. [46] prepared a 4D-printed occlude for the left atrial
appendage, which is remote-controllable by a magnetic field. In this
study, poly(lactic acid) and Fe3O4 nanoparticles were used to prepare
the occluder. Mechanical testing of the occluder showed that it main­
tained its structure after 20 cycles of compression. It also showed good
biocompatibility after 48 weeks of implantation. For the final test, the
occluder's injectability was investigated, and as seen in Fig. 9, the
occluder was smoothly injected into a swine heart, and the occlusion
process was successfully done.
Natural polymers like polysaccharide gums have some advantages
such as renewability, low cost, green, non-toxic, biocompatibility,
edible, and safe [47,48]. Therefore, they are good candidates for 3D
printer feed. Hence, Guo et al. [49] produced microwave-responsive
dough using 4D printing technology. They applied gum arabic, fluo­
rescein isothiocyanate, sodium alginate, yellow flesh peach powder,
buckwheat flour, and other materials to prepare the product. Based on
the results, the dough was darkened by exposing the microwaves over
time (Fig. 10). The samples with different formulations showed a
different trend of color-changing during microwave exposure. This new
technique could be useful in the food industry.
Li et al. [50] prepared a new ink that is applicable for extrusion
molding 3D printing, and digital light process technologies. This ink is
made of shape memory polyimide through a polycondensation mecha­
nism. Products from both methods with this ink were heat-responsive
and showed a remarkable shape memory effect after post-process. As
seen in Fig. 11a, a processed 3D-printed airplane responded to heat and
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Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 294 (2021) 102482
bent its wings. The same bending-response was also observed for the
extruded box (Fig. 11b). As shown, by applying the heat to a flat box, it
started bending to become a box. These results would be helpful in
advanced manufacturing.
Weng et al. [51] reported the preparation of high stiffness materials
from pyrrolidinone and urethane acrylate derivatives using 4D printing
technology. They used a dual nozzle direct ink writing printer to pro­
duce the materials. The result of the sample's load-bearing showed that
this small and lightweight could bear more than 3500 times its weight
(Fig. 12), which is very valuable in the construction.
Deng et al. [52] manufactured a shape morphing elastomer from
silicone and wax using 4D printing technology. After printing and pro­
cessing the materials, they tested their shape morphing and efficiency in
electronic devices. As seen in Fig. 13A-D, the structures retain their new
form after the external force without any deficiency in conducting the
current. As Fig. 13E shown, the material effectively recorded the elec­
trocardiographs. One of this compound's advantages is that it can be
reformed to another shape for other applications.
4. Conclusions
In the review, we attempted to introduce 3D and 4D printing as new
technologies. In most cases, they have a lower price, smaller size, and
lighter weight than the other current technologies. As seen, they found
their way into whether small or large industries, from manufacturing
clothes in the home to producing small rockets in aerospace. They could
S. Mallakpour et al. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 294 (2021) 102482

Fig. 8. Immunohistochemistry images of peripheral nerve regeneration. Sciatic nerve defects harvested from (a) autograft, (b) NC@C, (c) NGF-NC@C, and (d) NGF-
NC@C + MF (n = 5). The inserted images show the optical images, and the bar charts show the orientation analysis. Direct axonal outgrowth followed the
microchannels of the conduit. Green represents β-III-tubulin (axon), and blue represents nuclei. The orientation is from proximal to distal (n = 5) [45] (NC@C:
Nanocookie@conduit, NGF: neuron growth factor, MF: magnetic field) Copyright 2020 Nature.

Fig. 9. Feasibility demonstration of transcatheter LAA closure. Scale bar = 10 mm [46] (LAA: Left atrial appendage) Copyright 2021 ACS.

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Fig. 10. Photographs of 3D-printed samples from yellow flesh peach and buckwheat dough after microwave heating [49] Copyright 2021 Elsevier.

Fig. 11. (a) The DLP-based 4D printed complicated products of SMPIs airplane and (b) the 4D exhibition of extruded devices: the design diagrams and real
photography of self-folding box (homogeneous thickness) [50] (DLP: Digital light process, SMPIs: shape memory polyimide inks) Copyright 2020 Elsevier.

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Fig. 12. Actuation of a Miura-origami structure that has a high load-bearing capability. (A, B) Actuation of a Miura-origami from printed flat sheet. (C) Reconfigured
structure by simulation. (D) Miura-ori structure (1.9 g) can carry a load (6.8 kg) that is ~3580 times its weight. Scale bars: 10 mm [51] Copyright 2020 ACS.

Fig. 13. (A) Schematic of the assembly process for 3D electronics. (B) Photography showing the 3D electronics and their function for lighting up a LED. (C)
Schematic of the assembly process for a ring-shaped ECG sensor. (D) A ring-shaped ECG sensor wraps a human finger for (E) ECG measurement [52] (ECG: Elec­
trocardiography) Copyright 2020 ACS.

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cover some manufacturing shortages, such as inconvenience in creating
complicated shapes. Regardless of broad applications of 3D and 4D
printing, their medical and artificial organ production usage has a more
significant portion. The question is that what would be the next tech­
nology? Might it be 5D printing? Or, can this technology be used to
create a customized human, more intelligent, more accurate, more
efficient, and more kind with nature?
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
In the end, we kindly appreciate the support we received from the
Research Affairs Division of the Isfahan University of Technology
(Isfahan, Iran), Iran Nanotechnology Initiative Council, and National
Elite Foundation (Tehran, Iran). Also, the help of Dr. V. Behranvand, Ms.
E. Azadi, and Ms. F. Sirous is appreciated.
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Shadpour Mallakpour, an organic polymer chemist, gradu­
ated from the chemistry department, University of Florida
(UF), Gainesville, Florida, the USA, in 1984. He spent two years
as a post-doc at UF. He has joined the chemistry department,
Isfahan University of Technology (IUT), Iran, in 1986. He held
several positions, such as the chemistry department chairman
and deputy of research, department of chemistry at IUT. From
1994 to 1995 he worked as a visiting professor at the University
of Mainz, Germany, and from 2003 to 2004 as a visiting pro­
fessor, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, USA. He has published more
than 880 journal papers and more than 400 conference papers
and has more than 30 items of awards. The most important
award to him was given for the selection of the first laureate on
fundamental research at the 21st Khwarizmi International Award in 2008. He has been
listed as the Top 1% Scientists in Chemistry in ISI Essential Science Indicators Since 2003.
He also was listed as the Top 2% Scientists in the polymer in 2020. He was selected as an
academic guest of the 59th Meeting of Nobel Prize Winners in Chemistry, 2009, at Lindau,
Germany. He presented many lectures as an invited or keynoted speaker in different na­
tional and international conferences or universities. He was a member of organizing and
scientific committees for many national and international conferences. He was also the
chairperson of many national and international meetings. He has focused on the prepa­
ration and characterization of polymer-based nanocomposites to be used as bioactive
materials and adsorbents, and photocatalyst for remediation technology in recent years.
11
Advances in Colloid and Interface Science 294 (2021) 102482
Farbod Tabesh, Ph.D., gained his B.Sc. in Applied Chemistry in
2012 from Karaj Islamic Azad University (KIAU), Karaj, I. R.
Iran. In 2014 he got his M.Sc. in Organic Chemistry under Dr. G.
Bagheri Marandi's supervision from KIAU. His Ph.D. in Organic-
Polymer Chemistry was given to him in 2019 under the su­
pervision of Prof. S. Mallakpour. His research areas are natural
hydrogel bionanocomposites, natural polymers, synthetic
polymers, adsorbents, water remediation, nanomaterials,
nanotechnology, green synthesis of nanoparticles, magnetic
nanoparticles, and green chemistry.
Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain, Ph.D., is an Adjunct Profes­
sor, Academic Advisor, and Director of Chemistry & EVSc Labs
in the Department of Chemistry & Environmental Sciences at
the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT), Newark, New
Jersey, USA. His research is focused on the applications of
Nanotechnology & Advanced Materials, Environmental Man­
agement, Analytical Chemistry, and Various Industries. Dr.
Hussain is the author of numerous papers in peer-reviewed
journals and a prolific author and editor of several scientific
monographs and handbooks in his research areas published
with Elsevier, Royal Society of Chemistry, John Wiley & sons,
CRC, Springer, etc.