Chapter1 - Emwaves - Student Share

Chapter
__________________________Electromagnetic waves
Introduction
The definition of wave reveals that the information of any change at any source, whether it is
periodic or non-periodic, spread in the space around the source and is termed as wave. The changes
in the source may be mechanical, electrical, magnetic etc. The information of these changes will
spread in the space around the sources in the form of mechanical, electrical and magnetic waves
respectively, if the space around is capable of passing this information into its neighbourhood. For
example, if the changes are mechanical, the information that spreads in the space around the source
is termed as a mechanical wave. A mechanical medium in needed for propagating the mechanical
waves in the space around the source. If the magnetism of a magnet changes with time, the change
in the magnetic field percolates in the form of magnetic waves. Similarly, the changing electric field
at the source of electric field can be understood as the source of electric waves, spreading in the
space around it.
Now, let a charge is placed in any medium, we may detect electric field around the charge. Similarly
if a magnet is placed, magnetic field can be detected in the space. These electric fields or magnetic
fields are not termed as the corresponding waves. But as soon as the electric field or magnetic field
changes with time due to some changes in the sources: either the value of the charge or the position
of charge changes with time, the information of these changes at the source, will be carried out in
the form of electric or magnetic waves, propagating into the space around the source.
Till now, we have understood about what is wave. But we exactly don’t know what an
electromagnetic wave is? Although, by the name we can infer that a wave consisting of electric and
magnetic waves simultaneously, can be termed as electromagnetic waves. But how a wave can
assimilate two different characteristics i.e. electric field as well as magnetic field simultaneously?
Maxwell rigorously analysed four fundamental equations of electric filed, magnetic field and
electromagnetic induction and came to the conclusion that these equations are interlinked where
they are written for static electric or magnetic field or electromagnetic induction and light is also an
electromagnetic wave. After doing some mathematical operations on these equations, he also
derived nearly all mathematical formulations for electromagnetic waves which are needed to treat
and apply to any wave equation for practical purpose. Heinrich Hertz was the first scientist who had
successfully generated the electromagnetic waves.
1.1 Idea of EM waves

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Conceptual Applied Physics
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Ampère’s circuital law was written and well explained for a circuit in which a conduction current is
flowing in the circuit. But if a circuit has a region where no conventional current is flowing, the
Ampere circuital law will not be valid at that place for example, the Ampere’s circuital law cannot
be applied throughout the whole circuitry, if a capacitor is connected in a circuit powered by an
alternating field Fig.1.1. During the flow of current inside the circuit, the Ampere’s circuital law is
applicable throughout the whole circuit except in the space between the plates of the capacitor as
there is no conventional current. So the Ampere’s circuital law i.e. ∮ B. dl = μ0 I = 0 and is not
valid in the space between the plates of a capacitor. But the circuit is complete otherwise current
will not flow in the connecting wires. It means two plates of the capacitor should be connected with
each other internally so that that the current may flow in the external circuit. As the whole circuit
contains conduction current except the gap between the plates of the capacitor, Maxwell
hypothesised that there must be some kind of current in between the plates of the capacitor. Later,
he termed it Maxwell displacement current which was due to the presence of variable electric and
magnetic fields between the plates. It means some energy propagates from one plate to the other
through the free space between the plates during the charging and discharging of the capacitor over
the complete cycle of the alternating field. As this energy is propagating in the form of oscillating
electric and magnetic field in the free space between the plates, this may be termed as
electromagnetic waves.
After rigorous mathematical operations on the four fundamental equations of electrostatics,

magnetism and electromagnetism, Maxwell concluded the physical interpretation of these equations
in integral as well as in the differential form. This formed the fundamental foundation of the
electromagnetic wave theory. Initially, he checked the consistency of each equation in every situation
and eventually found Ampere’s circuital law to be inconsistent if a capacitor is connected into an
AC circuit.
1.2 Inconsistency of Ampere’s Circuital Law—Maxwell’s Displacement Current

According to the Ampere’s circuital law, the line integral of the magnetic induction B around any
closed path around a current carrying conductor is μ0 times the current flowing through the
conductor i.e.
∮ B. dl = μ0 I (1)
It is clear from (1) that Ampere’s circuital law is not consistent for a circuit in which a capacitor is
maintained with alternating electric field, as there is not current flowing in the free space between
the plates Fig. 1.1
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Electromagnetic Waves
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Fig.1.1 Capacitor with alternating field
So,
∮ B. dl = μ0 IC = 0
To remove this inconsistency, the concept of Maxwell’s displacement current was introduced. The
expression for displacement current can be derived as follows;
Let an electric circuit contains a capacitor, connected to an AC source. For any instantaneous value
of surface charge density σ on the plates, the electric field between the plates is given by:
σ
E=𝜖 ,
0
q
Where σ = A, q is the instantaneous charge and A is the area of the plates and 𝜖0 is the permittivity
of the free space between the plates. So,
q
E=
𝜖0 A
As the capacitor is connected to an AC source, the variation of electric field between the plates is
given by:
∂E 1 ∂q
∂t
=𝜖
0 A ∂t
Or
∂q ∂E
∂t
= 𝜖0 A ∂t
(2)
The equation (1) has Ampere as the unit on both the sides, so it may be taken as some sort of
current, called Maxwell’s displacement current. On rearranging, equation (1) can be written as
∂q ∂𝜖0 E ∂D
Id = =A =A , (where D = 𝜖0 E is electric displacement vector)
∂t ∂t ∂t
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∂D
So Id = A ∂t (3)
The equation (3) is the expression for Maxwell’s Displacement current. As D = 𝜖E is known as
electric displacement vector and finally the current is proportional to the electric displacement
vector. That’s why it is called Maxwell’s displacement current. Hence, for the consistency of
Ampere’s circuital law for direct as well as AC circuit, the equation (1) must be modified as:
∮ B. dl = μ0 (IC + Id ) (4)
Or
∮ H. dl = (IC + Id )
Or
∮ H. dl = IC + 𝐼𝑑 = ∮(JC + 𝐽𝑑 ). ds (5)
The equation (5) is called modified Ampere’s law which is consistent for DC and AC both the
circuits.
Maxwell’s displacement current is different from the conventional current as there is no flow of
charge in this case. Now the question that arises is: Why this is called current? The explanation to
this is that the origin of any kind of magnetic field is current. So if there is an alternating magnetic
field in the free space between the plates of the capacitor, it means that there should be some sort
of current. Actually the flow of charge per unit time is not the proper definition of the current. This
can be used to measure the amount of the conduction current but is not the basic definition of
current. Whenever charge flow in the conductors, there is a magnetic field around the conductor
which means even in the case of the conduction current, magnetic field persist. So, existence of
alternating magnetic field in the free space between the two plates of conductor, whether it is a
capacitor or an electric dipole, there is always Maxwell displacement current.
1.3 Equation of Continuity – Conservation of Charge

The flow of conduction current in a circuit can be written as
∂q ∂
I = − = − ∫ ρ dv (6)
∂t ∂t
Also we have;
I = ∫ J. ds (7)
From (6) and (7) we have
∂
∫ J. ds = − ∂t ∫ ρ dv
Or
∂ρ
∫ J. ds = ∫ ∂t dv
Using Gauss’s Div. Theorem
∂ρ
∫ ∇. J dv = − ∫ ∂t dv
Or
∂ρ
∫(∇. J + ∂t )dv = 0
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As the integral is arbitrary, so the integrand vanishes to zero. i.e.
∂ρ
∇. J + ∂t = 0 (8)
This equation is called the equation of continuity.
Physical Interpretation Equation of Continuity

The equation (8) shows that if the divergence of conduction current density is zero, i.e.
∇. J = 0 then volume charge density ρ is constant; it means charge is static or charge is conserved. If
time rate of charge density is zero, then the conduction current density will not be originated from
any source. It will flow in a loop like magnetic field lines of force. It means the equation of continuity
tells whether the circuit is maintained by AC or DC.
1.4 Discovery of Electromagnetic waves

The existence of EM-waves was first investigated by Heinrich Hertz, who succeeded in generating
and detecting radio waves. But he could not lay down the fundamental formulations for the
electromagnetic waves. Maxwell is well known for his pioneer work in the area of electromagnetic
waves. Using fundamental equations of electromagnetism, he not only developed the equations for
electromagnetic waves but also proved that light is an electromagnetic wave and is transverse in
nature. Today, we all know about complete electromagnetic wave spectrum which we receive from
the Sun.
Four Equations of Electromagnetism – foundation of Electromagnetic Waves

Four equations of electromagnetism are as follows;
q Gauss’s Law of Electrostatics
(i) ∮ E. ds =
∈0
(ii) ∮ B. ds = 0 Gauss’s Law of Magnetostatics
(iii ξ =
∂𝜙
− ∂t𝐵 Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction
(iv) ∮ B. dl = μ0 I Ampere’s Circuital Law
After writing integral form of induced e.m.f and Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s circuital law,
these equations can be written as
(i) ∮ E. ds = ∈
0
(ii) ∮ B. ds = 0 Gauss’s Law of Magnetostatics
(iii ξ = ∮ E. dl =
∂𝜙
− ∂t𝐵 Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic Induction
(iv) ∮ H. dl = I + 𝐼𝑑 = ∮(J + 𝐽𝑑 ). ds Modified Ampere’s Circuital Law
Now these equations are called Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetic waves in integral from.
Maxwell performed rigorous mathematical manipulations on these equations and converted these
equations into differential form. This helped in interpreting the physical significances of the
Maxwell’s equations in a very different and an exhaustive manner. He reached on the conclusion
that these equations cannot be treated as completely standalone from each other as can be seen but
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are well connected to each other and in combined form, the physical significance of these equations
give the foundation of some other physical quantity called electromagnetic waves other than the
physical significances given by the individual equations.
To convert these equations in differential form, a mathematical operator called Del (∇) is
needed.Without this operator it was very difficult to convert integral form into differential form. So
let us have a brief description and discussion about this operator after which it will be very easy to
convert the integral form of four equations of electromagnetism into differential form. The physical
interpretation of the equations will reveal the hidden concepts of electromagnetic waves and proved
to be the foundation for the fundamental equations of electromagnetic waves.
1.5 Del Operator

The operator, del (or nabla) ‘ ∇ ̓ is a mathematical operator, defined as (in rectangular coordinates)
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Note: Sometimes the ̒del̓ operator is represented with a vector sign, but it should be kept in mind
that ̒del̓ is not a vector quantity; it is an operator which operates in a way similar to a vector. Some
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
of the operations of ∇ = (𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ ) are defined as follows:-
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1.5.1 Scalar Multiplication of ∇: Gradient of a Vector

The gradient of a scalar point function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), is represented by ∇𝑓 or grad(𝑓) and can be
obtained by operating the del operator ̒∇ ̓ on the function 𝑓. Thus, the gradient of 𝑓 is given by,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
∇𝑓 = ( 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂ ) 𝑓= ( 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂ ) (9)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Therefore, gradient of a scalar function is a quantity whose 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 components are respectively
the partial derivatives of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 , 𝑧.
Physical Interpretation of Gradient: If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is a scalar function at a point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), then on
changing the 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 , 𝑧 coordinates by 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 , 𝑑𝑧, the differential change in the scalar
function ̒𝑓 ̓can be written as,
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
d𝑓 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 = ∇𝑓. 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Where, 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 𝑑𝑥𝑥̂ + 𝑑𝑦𝑦̂ + 𝑑𝑧𝑧̂
So, we can write,

d𝑓=|∇𝑓||𝑑𝑟⃗|cos𝜃
Where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑑𝑟⃗ and ∇𝑓. From the above equations, we can see that for a fixed
value of dr (magnitude of 𝑑𝑟⃗ ), d𝑓 will be maximum when cos 𝜃 = 1, i.e. when 𝑑𝑟⃗ is in the direction
of ∇𝑓. Therefore, d𝑓 is maximum in the direction ∇𝑓, so we can say that, the gradient ∇𝑓 of a scalar
function ̒𝑓 ̓, points in the direction of maximum increase of the function. Further if (d𝑓)𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the
maximum change in the function for a fixed value of dr, we can write,
(d𝑓)𝑚𝑎𝑥 = |∇𝑓||𝑑𝑟⃗|=|∇𝑓|𝑑𝑟
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Thus, the magnitude of gradient of 𝑓 is given by,
(d𝑓)
𝑚𝑎𝑥
|∇𝑓| = (10)
𝑑𝑟
Therefore, the gradient of a scalar field is a vector field which points in the direction of the greatest
increase of the scalar field, and whose magnitude is equal to the greatest rate of change of the
function with distance.
The gradient can also be used to measure how a scalar field changes in other direction, rather than
just the direction of greatest change, by taking its dot product with the unit vector along that
direction. Another important property of gradient of a function ̒𝑓 ̓is that it is normal to the surface
over which 𝑓 is constant.
Illustration: Consider that the temperature in a room at different points(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)of the room is given
by 𝑇(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). Then, the gradient at each point in the room will show the direction in which the
temperature changes most quickly. The magnitude of the gradient determines that how fast the
temperature changes in that direction. Further consider a hill whose height at a point (𝑥, 𝑦, ) is
𝐻(𝑥, 𝑦, ). Then, the gradient of H at a point is a vector pointing in the direction of the steepest slope
at that point (as shown in Fig. 1.2). The steepness of the slope at that point is given by the magnitude
of the gradient of H.
Fig. 1.2. An infinitesimal volume dx dy dz
1.5.2 Scalar Product of ∇ : Divergence

The divergence of a vector point function 𝑓⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)= 𝑓𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑓𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑓𝑧 𝑧̂ {where𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑧 are
respectively the x, y and z components of the vector field 𝑓⃗ at a point having coordinates x,y,z}is
represented by div(𝑓⃗)or ∇. 𝑓⃗ and can be obtained by operating the del operator (∇) on the vector
field through dot product. Thus, the divergence of the vector field 𝑓⃗ is given by,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓𝑦 𝜕𝑓
∇. 𝑓⃗ =( 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂ ). 𝑓⃗ = 𝑥 +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
+ 𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Therefore, the divergence of a vector field is a scalar quantity.
Physical Interpretation of Divergence: Consider an infinitesimal volume with sides dx, dy and dz
as shown in Fig.1.3.
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Fig.1.3. an infinitesimal volume dx dy dz
If a vector field is 𝑓⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ) = 𝑓𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑓𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑓𝑧 𝑧̂ in the middle of the volume at the point ̒ O̓, having
coordinates (x, y, z), then the x-component of 𝑓⃗ at the middle of the face ABCD, can be of x-
component of 𝑓⃗, same over the face thus, the flux of the field 𝑓⃗ through the face ABCD can be
1 𝜕𝑓
written as (𝑓𝑥 − 2 𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧 {the y and z component of 𝑓⃗ do not contribute anything to the
flux since these components are perpendicular to the normal to the surface }. Similarly, the x-
1 𝜕𝑓
component of 𝑓⃗ at the face EFGH can be written as 𝑓⃗+ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and the flux through the face
2 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑓
EFGH can be written as (𝑓⃗ + 2 𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧. Therefore, the net amount of flux of the field that
1 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓
is diverging from the face EFGH, can be written as , (𝑓⃗ + 2 𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 − (𝑓𝑥 − 2 𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑓𝑥
= 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧. Similarly, the flux diverging from the faces ABFE and BCGF, can be written as
𝜕𝑓𝑦 𝜕𝑓𝑧
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧 and 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧, respectively. Thus the total flux diverging from the infinitesimal
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑓𝑥 𝜕𝑓𝑦 𝜕𝑓
volume is given by, ( + + 𝑧) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Thus, the amount of flux diverging through an infinitesimal volume per unit of its volume is given
𝜕𝑓𝑥 𝜕𝑓𝑦 𝜕𝑓𝑧
by 𝜕𝑥
+ 𝜕𝑦
+ 𝜕𝑧
which, as we know, is equal to the divergence of the field.
Therefore, we can define the divergence of a vector field as the net amount of flux of the field
diverging through an infinitesimal volume per unit of its volume or we can say that the divergence
basically represents the flux generation per unit volume at each point of the field. If ̒ S ̓ is the surface
that bounds a volume ̒ V ̓we can alternatively, write the divergence of a vector field 𝑓⃗ as,
∮ 𝑓.𝑑𝑆 ⃗ ⃗
∇. 𝑓⃗ = V→ 0 𝑠 (11)
𝑉
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Thus, the divergence of a vector field at a point tells that how much the vector field diverges or
spreads out from that point. The point, from where the field lines diverge, can be called a source of
the field while the point where the field lines converge can be called a sink of the field, so a point of
positive divergence is a source and a point of negative divergence is a sink. If the divergence of a
vector field is non-zero, then here must be a source of sink of the field.
Solenoidal Vector Fields:

The vector fields that have zero divergence everywhere are called solenoidal or divergence-less
vector fields.
Gauss̓ Divergence Theorem

From above, we have understood that the amount of flux diverging through an infinitesimal volume
per unit of its volume is also called divergence of the field and if ̒ S̓ is the surface that bounds a
volume ̒ V ̓ we can also write the divergence of a vector field 𝐴⃗ as,
∮ 𝐴⃗.𝑑𝑆⃗
∇. 𝐴⃗ = V →0 𝑠 𝑉
Thus, we can write,
∮𝑠𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ = ∫𝑉(∇. 𝐴⃗)𝑑𝑉 (12)
In other words, the total inward or outward flux of a vector point function through a closed surface
is equal to the divergence of the vector point function, from the volume enclosed by that surface.
The equation (12) is called Gauss̓ divergence theorem of the vector fields. In simple way it is used
to convert any surface integral into volume integral enclosed by the surface.
1.5.3 Vector Product of ∇: Curl

The curl of a vector point function 𝑓⃗(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)=𝑓𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝑓𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝑓𝑧 𝑧̂ (where𝑓𝑥 , 𝑓𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑧 respectively are
the x, y and z components of the vector field 𝑓⃗ at a point having coordinates x,y,z) is represented
by ∇ × 𝑓⃗ and can be obtained by operating the del operator (∇)on the vector field through cross
product. Thus the curl of 𝑓⃗ is given by,
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × 𝑓⃗ = ( 𝑥̂ + 𝑦̂ + 𝑧̂ ) × 𝑓⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑓𝑧 𝜕𝑓𝑦 𝜕𝑓𝑥 𝜕𝑓𝑧 𝜕𝑓𝑦 𝜕𝑓𝑥
=|𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
| = 𝑥̂ ( − ) + 𝑦̂ ( − )+ 𝑧̂ ( − )
𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑓𝑥 𝑓𝑦 𝑓𝑧
(13)
Therefore, the curl of a vector field is a quantity.
Physical Interpretation of Curl : To see, what the curl of a vector means, consider a rectangular
element of length dx and width dy in the region of a vector field 𝑎⃗ as shown in Fig. 1.4.
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Fig. 1.4.
We can write the x-components of the field 𝑎⃗ at the bottom and at the top of the element as , 𝑎𝑥 (𝑦)
𝜕𝑎𝑥
and 𝑎𝑥 (𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦)= 𝑎𝑥 (𝑦)+ dy. Similarly, we can write, the y-components of the field 𝑎⃗ at the left
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑎
and right side of the element as ,𝑎𝑦 (𝑥) and 𝑎𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) = 𝑎𝑦 (𝑥)+ 𝑦 𝑑𝑥.
𝜕𝑥
Now working round the clockwise sense, the circulation of the vector around the element can be
written as,
dC = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑦)𝑑𝑥+𝑎𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) − 𝑎𝑥 (𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦)𝑑𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 (𝑥)𝑑𝑦
where the minus signs in the last two terms arise because there the path is opposite to the direction
of the field.
Therefore, the circulation of the field 𝑎⃗ around the element can be written as,
𝜕𝑎𝑦 𝜕𝑎𝑥
dC = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑦)𝑑𝑥+{𝑎𝑦 (𝑥) + 𝑑𝑥} 𝑑𝑦 − {𝑎𝑥 (𝑦) + dy} 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 (𝑥)𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝑎𝑦 𝜕𝑎𝑥 𝜕𝑎𝑦 𝜕𝑎𝑥
Or, dC= 𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 − 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥= ( 𝜕𝑥 − 𝜕𝑦
) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 =(∇ × 𝑎⃗).d𝑆⃗
Where d𝑆⃗ = dx dy 𝑧̂
Thus, the curl of a vector field is a measure of the circulation of the vector field per unit area, i.e.
also called vertically of the field.
Now the circulation of the vector field around any closed curve can be written as
∮ 𝑎⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∮ 𝑑𝐶 = ∫ (∇ × 𝑎⃗).d𝑆⃗
𝑙 𝑙 𝑆
If the integral of a vector field around a closed loop is not zero, then it implies that there is some
circulation of the vector field around the loop, i.e. a non –zero curl implies that there is a circulation
of the vector field. Note that, if the curl of the vector is zero everywhere, then there cannot be any
circulation of the vector field, anywhere in space. Hence, the name ̒curl ̓is given for ∇ × 𝑎⃗.
Thus, the curl of a vector field tells us about the circulation of rotation per unit area the field has at
any point. The magnitude of the curl tells us how much rotation there is and its direction tells us ,
by the right –hand rule (four fingers of the right hand are curled in the direction of the vector field
11
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, then the thumb points in the direction of the rotation)that about which axis the field is rotating.
That is way; curl of a vector field is also called rot (short for rotor).
Illustration: Consider a vector a vector field 𝑓⃗= y𝑥̂ − 𝑥𝑦̂. This vector field is shown in Fig. 1.5.
Fig. 1.5
From figure, it can be seen that 𝑓⃗ is circulating around the point ̒O̓ . Using the right –hand rule, we
expect the curl to be into the page or in the negative z-direction.
The curl of 𝑓⃗is given by
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ × 𝑓⃗ = (𝜕𝑥 𝑥̂ + 𝜕𝑦 𝑦̂ + 𝜕𝑧 𝑧̂ ) × 𝑓̂
𝑥̂ 𝑦̂ 𝑧̂
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
=|𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
| = 𝑧̂ (− − )= -2𝑧̂
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑦 𝑥 0
Which, indeed is in the negative z-direction, as expected. In this case, the curl is actually a constant,
irrespective of position. The ̒ ̒amount ̓ ̓ of rotation in the above vector field is the same at any point
(x,y).
Irrotational Vector Fields: The vector fields which have zero curl everywhere are called irrotational
or curl-less vector fields.
Stoke’s Theorem: For any vector field 𝐴⃗, we can write as,
∫ (∇ × 𝐴⃗).d𝑆⃗ = ∮ 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑆 𝑙
(14)
This equation is called Stokes ̓ theorem.
1.10 Application of Gauss `s Law

Gauss’s law allows easier calculations of electric fields in the case of symmetric charge distributions.
If however, charge distribution suffers any kind of lack in symmetry then for the application of
Gauss’s law, the electric field can be found by summing the electric fields due to individual charge
elements.
12
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For the application of gauss’s law for the calculation of electric fields, the first step is to choose a
Gaussian surface such that every point on it, electric field is either parallel or perpendicular normal
on the surface. For this, the direction of electric field everywhere on the surface must be determined
by the symmetry arguments. Also, the surface should be such that the magnitude of electric field
must be constant over the portion of the surface, where it is along the normal to the surface.
Examples given below illustrate the use of Gauss`s law in solving some important problems.
1.10.1 Electric field due to a line charge

Consider an infinitely long positive line charge of uniform linear charge density  and it is required
to find the electric field at a point P at a distance r from the line charge as shown in Fig.1.6.
Fig.1.6 Line charge enclosed by cylindrical Gaussian surface ‘S’

We can now construct a cylindrical surface as the Gaussian surface. This is because the electric field
at the point ‘P’ can be resolved in two components: along the length and perpendicular to the length
of the line charge. The electric field component along the length vanishes out and thus the direction
of electric field is along the perpendicular to the length of the line charge. Thus, at the cylindrical
surface the electric field lines point along the outward normal to the surface and at the ends of the
cylinder the normal to the surface is perpendicular to the electric field lines. Due to infinitely long
line charge, at all the points on the curved surface of the cylinder, the electric field is same on it.
Consider the surface of a cylinder of radius ‘r’(passing through P) and length ‘l’ having its axis at the
line charge as the Gaussian surface. From Gauss’s law we have,
𝑞
∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 =
𝜀0
𝑠
Where d𝑆⃗ is a vector having its magnitude equal to the elemental area dS of the surface ‘S’ and
having direction normal to the element dS. 𝐸⃗⃗ is the electric field at the element dS and q is the charge
enclosed by the surface.
We can write as,
∫𝑠𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = ∫𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ + ∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ +∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗

1 1 2
13
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The whole cylindrical surface is being divided into three portions, 𝑆1 which is the curved surface of
the cylinder, 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 which are the flat surfaces of the two ends of the cylinder. Since the
component of electric field vanishes along the length of the line charge and the only contribution is
through the perpendicular component to the length of the line charge. At the ends of the cylinder
i.e. 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 the electric field lines are perpendicular to the normal to the surface i.e. there the
angle between 𝐸⃗⃗ and d𝑆⃗ is 900
Or 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = 0. Thus,
∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = 0 =∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗
1 2
At the curved surface 𝑆1 , 𝐸⃗⃗ is along the outward drawn normal so the angle between 𝐸⃗⃗ and d𝑆⃗(which
points in the direction of outward drawn normal to the surface) is zero.
Thus , 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = 𝐸𝑑𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑆
We can write as: ∮𝑆 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑆
𝑆1
Hence,
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞
∮𝑆 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆
0 𝜖
The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface ‘S’ is
equal to the charge on the length ‘l’ of the line charge,
i.e.
𝑞 = 𝑙
Also since is constant at all the points on the curved
surface ‘S1’ of the cylinder, therefore it can be taken out
of integration, thus
𝑙
𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑆 =
𝜖0
𝑆1
𝑙
Or 𝐸 × 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 =
𝜖0
{as ∫𝑆 𝑑𝑆 = surface area of the curved ‘S1’ of the
1
cylinder = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙}
Therefore, the electric field at the point ‘P’ is given by,

𝐸= 2𝜋𝑟𝜖0
(15)
1.10.2 Electric field Due to a infinitely long sheet of charge

Consider an infinite sheet of positive charge density (i.e., charge per unit area) 𝜎. A point P lies in
front of the charged sheet on one side. We want to obtain the electric field at the point P due to this
charged sheet at a distance ‘r’. We can now construct a pillbox as a Gaussian surface having cross-
sectional area ‘A’ and height ‘2r’ piercing the sheet (Fig. 1.7)
Fig.1.7. A plane sheet of charge enclosed by a hypothetical pillbox

14
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This is due to the fact that the electric filed at point ‘P; can be resolved in two component: along the
plane of sheet and perpendicular to the plane of the sheet. Thus electric field components along
the plane of the sheet vanish out and thus the direction is perpendicular to the plane of the sheet.
The electric field lines point along the outward normal to the surface at the ends of the pillbox and
at other portions of the surface of the box the electric field lines are perpendicular to the normal to
the surface. Also the sheet is infinite, the electric field at all the points on the
ends of the box is same.
For a pillbox with cross-sectional area ‘A’ and height ‘2r’, from gauss’s law we have:
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞
∮𝑆 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆 𝜖0
Where, d𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a vector having its magnitude equal to an elemental area dS of the surface ‘S’ and
having direction along the outward normal to the element d𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗. 𝐸⃗⃗ is the electric field at the element
d𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ and q is the charge enclosed by the surface.
We can write as:
∫𝑠𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = ∫𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ + ∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ +∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗
1 1 2
We have divided the surface of the pillbox in three parts: S1 i.e. the curved surface, A1 and A2 i.e. the
flat surfaces of the two ends of the pillbox. Since the component of electric field vanishes out along
the plane of the sheet and the only component which contributes is the component perpendicular
to the plane of the sheet.
⃗⃗⃗⃗=EdS cos 900=0, so
At the curved surface ‘S1’, 𝐸⃗⃗ is perpendicular to ds i.e. 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆
∮𝑆 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = 0
1
At the ends (A1 and A2) however, the electric field lines are along the normal to the surface.
Therefore, at the ends of the pillbox, the angle between 𝐸⃗⃗ and d𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ is 00. So for
A1 and A2, 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = 𝐸𝑑𝑆 and we can write now:
∫𝑠𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = ∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ +∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗
1 2
From Gauss’s law we have:
𝑞
∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ +∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = 𝜖
1 2 0
The charge enclosed by the pillbox is equal to the charge that is there on the area A of the sheet,
pierced by the pillbox i.e.
𝑞 = 𝜎𝐴
Since all the points are equidistant from the sheet, so the electric field is equal to E at all the points
of the two ends, therefore, it can be taken out of the integration, thus
𝜎𝐴
𝐸 ∫𝐴 𝑑𝑆 +𝐸 ∫𝐴 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜖0
1 2
𝜎𝐴
Or 𝐸𝐴 + 𝐸𝐴 = 𝜖0
{ as ∫𝐴 𝑑𝑆 = surface area of the end A1 of the pillbox = A = ∫𝐴 𝑑𝑆}
1 2
𝜎𝐴
Or 2𝐸𝐴 =
𝜖0
15
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Therefore, the electric field at the point ‘P’ is given by
𝜎
𝐸= 2𝜖0
(16)
The electric field at a point to an infinitely long sheet of charge is independent on the distance of
that point from the sheet.
1.6 Electric field due to a uniformly charged non-conducting sphere

Consider a non-conducting sphere of radius ‘R’ having a positive charge Q uniformly distributed
uniformly and the electric field at any point ‘P’ can be calculated from the centre ‘O’ of the sphere.
Let us choose spherical surface as the Gaussian surface. This s because the electric field lines point
radially outward( as it is symmetrical spherical positive charge distribution) and so the electric field
at all points on the spherical surface will be along the outward normal to the surface. All the points
on the spherical surface will be equidistant from the centre of the charge distribution and so the
magnitude of the electric field at all points of the spherical surface will be same.
Case I:
Electric field at a point outside the sphere such that r > R
Consider a spherical surface ‘S’ having its centre at ‘O’ and

radius ‘r’ (passing through P) as the Gaussian surface as in
Fig. 1.8.
Applying Gauss’s law for the surface, we have

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞
∮𝑆 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆 𝜖0
Where d𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a vector having its magnitude equal to an
elemental area dS of the surface ‘S’ and having direction
along the outward drawn normal to the element dS. 𝐸⃗⃗ is
the electric field at the element d𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ and q is the charge enclosed by the surface.
Fig. 1.8 a
⃗⃗
Since, 𝐸 is along the outward drawn normal to the surface ‘S’ at all points on the surface and d𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is
also along the outward drawn normal to the surface ‘S’, the angle between 𝐸 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is zero. Thus,
⃗⃗⃗⃗and d𝑆
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐸𝑑𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑆
𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆 0
𝑞
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
Thus, ∮𝑆 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆 𝜖0
Also E is constant at all the points on the surface ‘S’, therefore it can be taken out of the integration
, thus
𝑞
𝐸 ∮𝑆 dS = 𝜖
0
𝑞
Or 𝐸 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜖 { as ∮𝑆 dS = surface area of the surface ‘S’ = 4𝜋𝑟 2 }
0
16
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Since we need to know the charge enclosed by the surface, thus Fig shows that the surface ‘S’
encloses the whole sphere and therefore the whole charge ‘Q’. So the charge enclosed by the surface
is q = Q. The electric field at point ‘P’ which is outside the sphere at a distance ‘r’ from its centre is
given by
1 𝑄
𝐸= 2 (17)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟
Case II:
Electric field at a point inside the sphere for r < R
Consider a spherical surface ‘S’ having its centre at ‘O’ and radius ‘r’(passing through P) as the
Gaussian surface as in Fig.1.9.
Fig.1.8 (b)
Applying the Gauss’s law;
𝑞
∮𝑆 𝑬. d𝑺 = 𝜖
0
As discussed in case I above, the left side of above equation reduces to 𝑬. d𝑺 = 𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 , thus
𝑞
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 =
𝜖0
Since q is the charge enclosed by the surface ‘S’ (volume of the region shown with the hatched lines
4
in Fig. 1.9. The spherical surface of radius r encloses the volume 𝜋𝑟 3 . Also the total charge
3
4
enclosed ‘Q’ is uniformly distributed on the whole volume 3
𝜋𝑅 3 , of the sphere therefore, the
𝑄
charge per unit volue (charge density) of the sphere is equal to 4 and so the charge enclosed by
𝜋𝑅 3
3
the surface ‘S’ is given by :
𝑄 4 𝑄𝑟 3
𝑞= × 𝜋𝑟 3 = 3
4 3 3 𝑅
3 𝜋𝑅
Thus,
𝑄𝑟 3
3
𝐸 × 4𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝑅
𝜖0
17
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The electric field at a point inside the sphere is given as:
1 𝑄𝑟
𝐸 = 4𝜋 𝜖 𝑅3 (18)
0
Case III:
Electric field at appoint on the surface of the sphere i.e. at r =R.
The electric field can be obtained by putting r = R in the above equation we get;
1 𝑄
𝐸= (19)
4𝜋 𝜖0 𝑅2
Fig. 1.10 shows the variation of electric field at different points, due to a non-conducting sphere
having uniform charge distribution as a function of the distance of the points from the centre of the
sphere.
Fig.1.10
1.7 Physical Significance of Maxwell’s equations in Integral Form

The set of four equations of electromagnetism are known as Maxwell’s equations in integral form.
(i) ∮ 𝑬. d𝑺 = ∈0
(ii) ∮ 𝑩. d𝑺 = 0 Gauss’s Law of Magnetostatics
(iii) ∮ 𝐄. d𝐥 = −
∂𝜙𝐵 Faraday’s Law of EM Induction
∂t
(iv) ∮ 𝐇. d𝐥 = I + Id = ∮(𝐉 + 𝐉𝐝 ). d𝐒 Modified Ampere’s Circuital Law
Their physical significance is given as;

(i) This equation is Gauss’s law in electrostatics which states that, the total outward electric flux
over any closed surface is equal to total charge enclosed within volume surrounded by the surface.
(ii) The total outward flux of magnetic flux B through any closed surface ‘S’ is equal to zero. i.e.
monopole does not exist.
(iii) If an electric circuit is placed in magnetic field and the magnetic flux close to a circuit changes,
an electromotive force (e.m.f) is induced in the circuit. The magnitude of which is proportional to
the rate of change of flux and the direction of the induced e.m.f is given by Lenz’s law which states
18
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
that “the direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that the magnetic flux associated with the current
generated by it opposes the original change of flux causing e.m.f”.
(iv)This equation has been derived from ampere’s law in circuital form for a magnetic field
accompanying an electric current. This law states that the line integral of magnetic field around a
closed path is equal to the total current crossing any surface bounded by the line integral path.
The physical significance of the integral forms do not give rise to the inter-connectivity of these
equations, but their differential forms signify that these equations not only are coupled to each other
but are the basic equations of EM waves. These equations can then be used further to derive the
equations of EM waves for different media. Let us convert integral form into differential form.
1.8 Conversion of Maxwell’s equation from Integral form into Differential form
1. Conversion of Gauss law of electrostatics
q
Here we have, ∮ 𝑬. d𝑺 = 𝜖
0
1
If ρ is the charge density, then ρ dV is the charge in volume element dV which contributes 𝜖 ρ dV
0
to the surface integral. If the surface s encloses a volume V then
1
∮ 𝑬. d𝑺 = ∮ ρ dV
𝜖0
But if the surface is bounded volume V of a dielectric, then the total charge must include both the
free and polarisation charges. Thus, the total charge density at a point in a small volume dV, should
be(ρ + ρ′ ) where ρ′ is polarisation charge density and ρ is free charge density. Thus, the above
equation can be expressed as
1
∮ 𝑬. d𝑺 = ∮(ρ + ρ′ ) 𝑑𝑉
𝜖0
If P is polarisation i.e. electric dipole moment per unit volume then div P or ∇ ∙ P is the amount of
polarised charge in a unit volume. As the polarised charge is reverse in nature with respect to real
charge, thus
ρ′ = −∇ ∙ P = −div P
1
∮ 𝑬. d𝑺 = ∮(𝜌 − 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑃) 𝑑𝑉
𝜖0
Or
1
∮ 𝑬. d𝑺 =
∮ ρ dV − ∮ div P dV
𝜖0
Applying Gauss Divergence Theorem to change surface integral to volume integral, we get
∮ 𝜖0 𝑬. d𝑺 = ∮ div ( 𝜖0 𝐄)dV = ∮ ρdV − ∮ div P dV
Or
∮ div( 𝜖0 𝐄 + 𝐏)dV = ∮ ρ dV
The quantity, 𝜖0 𝐄 + 𝐏 = 𝐃 , called electric displacement vector,
∮ div 𝐃 dV = ∮ ρ dV
19
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
∮ div( 𝐃 − ρ)dV = 0
Since the equation is true for arbitrary volume, the integrand must vanish,
Thus div(𝐃 − ρ)=0
Or
div 𝐃 = ρ
Or
∇. 𝐃 = ρ
When the medium is isotropic the three vectors D, E, P are in the same direction and for small
fields, D is proportional to E i.e. 𝐃 = ϵ𝐄 where ϵ is the permittivity of the dielectric medium. In
free space, 𝐃 = 𝜖0 𝐄, 𝜖0 is the permittivity of free space. Thus,
ρ
∇. 𝐄 = (20)
𝜖0
2. Conversion of Gauss law of Magneto-statics

Since the magnetic lines of force are either closed or go off to infinity, the number of magnetic lines
of force entering any arbitrary close surface is exactly the same as leaving it. This means the total
outward flux of magnetic induction B through any closed surface ‘s’ is equal to zero i.e.
∮ 𝐁. d𝐒 = 0
Transforming the surface integral into volume integral, using Gauss divergence theorem, we get
∮ ∇. 𝐁 dV=0
The integrand should vanish for the surface boundary as the volume is arbitrary i.e.
Or
div 𝐁 = 0
or
∇. 𝐁 = 0 (21)
3. Conversion of Faradays law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz law

We know according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the induced e.m.f is given by;
∂𝜙
ξ = − dt𝐵,
i.e. time rate of change of magnetic flux produces an induced e.m.f. and it is produced to oppose
this change. Also the induced e.m.f. is equal to the work done per unit charge and can be written as
the line integral of the induced electric field E around the circuit i.e.
e = ∮ 𝐄. d𝐥
And the rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit is equal to
∂𝜙𝐵 ∂(𝐁. d𝐒)
=∮
dt ∂t
Where the integral is taken over any area ‘s’ bounded by the circuit. Since the surface ds does not
change its shape or position with time, we can write the above equation as:
∂𝐁
∮ 𝐄. d𝐥 = − ∮ . ds
∂t
20
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The total time derivative has been changed to partial derivative as we are only concerned with the
changes in the field B with time at a fixed position of the elemental area. d signifies that “ the
electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the time derivative of the magnetic
displacement through any surface bounded by the path.
Using Stokes theorem, the line integral can be transformed into the surface integral i.e.
∂B
∮ 𝐄. d𝐥 = ∮ curl 𝐄. d𝐒 = − ∮ ∂t . d𝐒
∂𝐁
Or ∮(curl 𝐄 + ∂t ). d𝐒=0
This equation must hold for any arbitrary surface in the field, thus the integrand should vanish i.e.
∂𝐁
curl 𝐄 + ∂t
=0
Or
∂𝐁
∇ × 𝐄 = − ∂t (22)
This is called differential form of Maxwell third equation.
4. Conversion of Ampere’s Circuital Law

Ampere’s law states that the line integral of magnetic field intensity around a closed path is equal to
the total current crossing any surface bounded by the line integral path i.e.
∮ 𝐇. d𝐥 = I = ∮ 𝐉. d𝐒
Now changing the line integral into the surface integral by the use of Stoke’s theorem,
∮ 𝐇. d𝐥 = ∮ curl 𝐇. ds = ∮ 𝐉. d𝐒
Or
∮(∇ × 𝐇 − 𝐉). d𝐒 = 0
For an arbitrary surface, the integrand should vanish, thus
∇ × 𝐇 − 𝐉=0
Or
∇×𝐇=𝐉
Or
curl 𝐇 = 𝐉 (23)
This is the differential form of Ampere’s law for steady current only.
1.9 Consistency of Ampere’s Law for Time Varying Fields

This is another way to check the consistency of Ampere’s law for DC and AC fields. As we can see
from the equation of continuity, the divergence of current density can reveal whether the field is DC
or AC. So, taking the divergence of equation (23), we have;
∇. (∇x𝐇) = ∇ . 𝐉
(∇. ∇)H − ∇(∇ . 𝐇) = ∇ . 𝐉
Or 0 = ∇ . 𝐉
It means the divergence current density is zero. Now according to the equation of continuity;
21
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∂ρ
∇. 𝐉 + ∂t = 0 (24)
If ∇ . 𝐉 = 0, then ρ is constant i.e. volume charge density is not function of time. This shows that the
Ampere’s circuital is true only for the circuits in which charge does not change with time i.e. it is
true for DC fields only.
To make it consistent for a circuit having connected a capacitor or an electric dipole maintained by
alternating electric filed, Maxwell added some quantity in the right hand side of the equation (22) let
it be 𝐉 ′ . So the Ampere’s equation is modified as;
curl 𝐇 = 𝐉 + 𝐉 ′ (25)
′
as the addition is in current density so J is also some kind of current density. Now the divergence of
equation (25) gives as;
∇. (curl 𝐇) = ∇. (𝐉 + 𝐉 ′ )
Or
∇. 𝐉 + ∇. 𝐉 ′ = 0 (26)
Using equation (24) and (26) we have
∂ρ
∇. 𝐉 ′ =
∂t
From first differential form of Maxwell, we have
∇. 𝐃 = ρ
So
∂(∇. 𝐃)
∇. 𝐉 ′ =
∂t
Or
∂𝐃
∇. 𝐉 ′ = ∇.
∂t
Or
∂𝐃
𝐉′ =
∂t
Or
∂D
I′ = A (27)
∂t
As the current given by the equation (27), is defined as the time rate of change of electric
displacement vector D, so this may be called as displacement current or Maxwell’s displacement
current.
The magnitude of Maxwell’s displacement current can be calculated as
∂E
Id = Aϵ0
∂t
Where A is the area, ϵ0 is the permittivity of free space where the electric field is changing with
time.
So, the differential form of modified Ampere’s law can be written as the Maxwell’s fourth equation
of electromagnetic wave in differential form. That is
∂𝐃
∇×𝐇=𝐉+
∂t
22
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∇ × 𝐇 = 𝐉 + 𝐉′ (28)
Here, it is very important to note that the equation (28) is true for a DC circuit as well as AC circuit
having a capacitor like component or an electric dipole operated by an alternating electric filed
(Fig.1.1) In the portion of the circuit containing conducting wires only, i.e. in the portion of circuit
containing conduction current, only the conduction current density comes into picture and the
displacement current density will be zero. But in the portion of the circuit where there is free space,
for example the space between the plates of a capacitor or space between the two poles of an electric
dipole operated by alternating electric field, only the displacement current density will come into
picture and at that place the conduction current density will be zero. From this, it may be concluded
that in a circuit shown in Fig. 1.1 the magnitude of conduction current and Maxwell current should
be equal as it may be considered that the current in whole of the circuit remains the same. In the
wires, it is conduction current I but in the free space it is Maxwell displacement current Id .
1.20 Maxwell Equations Differential Form and their Physical Significance

The four fundamental equation of electromagnetism in differential form are known as Maxwell
equations differential form and are given as:
ρ
∇. 𝐄 = ϵ or ∇. 𝐃 = ρ (i)
0
∇. 𝐁 = 0 (ii)
∂𝐁
∇×𝐄= − (iii)
∂t
∂𝐄
∇×𝐇=𝐉+ ϵ0 ∂t (iv) (29)
Physical Significance
1. The divergence of electric displacement vector gives the volume charge density. If it is positive
than the position of charge is the origin of source of the electric field, if it is negative, the electric
field is sinking at the position of charge and if it is zero then the electric field entering from one side
is the same as coming out from the other side. But if the value of charge divergence is oscillating
between a maximum and minimum value then the charge density is changing with time i.e. there is
oscillating electric field at that point.
2. The divergence of magnetic field at any point is always zero. This verifies the concept that
monopole does not exist.
3. This equation shows that curling effect of electric field give us the changing magnetic field with
time and also perpendicular to the electric field. This also shows that space varying electric field
gives time varying magnetic field.
4. This equation is one of the most important contributions of Maxwell. As if the Ampere’s law was
not modified by Maxwell, the equation 29(iv) shows that space varying magnetic field gives
conduction current density and there is no time varying electric field. After the introduction of
displacement current it is possible that space varying magnetic field can generate time varying electric
field in the free space. And that is the basic concept of electromagnetic waves.
23
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The physical significance of the equation 29(iii) and 29(iv) is the foundation for the development of
the theory of electromagnetic waves. As 29(iii) and 29(iv) equations shows vice versa effects of
varying electric and magnetic fields i.e. if magnetic field vary at any point in space, it propagates
varying electric field in the space around it and if electric field vary with time at any point, the varying
magnetic field propagates in the space around it. It means that propagation of varying electric and
magnetic field is due to the time variation of magnetic and electric field respectively.
As the propagation of electromagnetic wave in any medium is the propagation of varying electric
and magnetic field in the medium, so we can conclude that these four equations of Maxwell are the
fundamental equations which can be used for further derivation of equations of electromagnetic
waves in different media. Now let us derive the equations of plane electromagnetic waves in various
media.
1.21 Electromagnetic waves in free space

Although the four equations written in differential form are sufficient to understand the concept of
electromagnetic waves, but there is a need to formulate the equation of electromagnetic waves which
resembles the general wave equation so that we can treat and analyse that equation to find various
physical parameters of a wave. By doing some mathematical operations on the Maxwell equation in
differential form, we can obtain the required equations of electromagnetic waves.
General Maxwell equations in differential form are as follows;
ρ
∇. 𝐄 = or ∇. 𝐃 = ρ (i)
ϵ0
∇. 𝐁 = 0 (ii)
∂𝐁
∇×𝐄= − ∂t (iii)
∂𝐄
∇ × 𝐇 = 𝐉 + 𝜖0 ∂t (iv)
For free space, the charge density ρ and conduction current density J are both zero. So the Maxwell’s
equations reduce to:
∇. 𝐄 = 0 (v)
∇×𝐁=0 (vi)
∂𝐇
∇ × 𝐄 = − μ0 ∂t
(vii)
∂𝐄
∇×𝐇= ϵ0 ∂t (viii) (30)
Where μ0 and ∈0 is the permeability and permittivity of free space.
Now taking curl of the equations 30(vii), we have
∂(∇×H)
∇ × (∇ × 𝐄) = − μ0 (31)
∂t
On simplification of the vector triple product and putting the value of ∇ × H from 30(viii) into (31).
We have
∂ ∂E
∇. (∇. 𝐄) − ∇ 2 𝐄 = μ0 ∂t[ϵ0 ∂t ]
Or
∂2 E
∇ 2 𝐄 − μ0 ϵ0 dt2 = 0 ( As ∇. 𝐄 = 0 for free space) (32)
Similarly, taking curl of the equations 30(viii), we have
24
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∂(∇×𝐄)
∇ × (∇ × 𝐇) = − ϵ0 ∂t (33)
On simplification of vector triple product and putting the value of ∇ × E from equation 30(vii) into
equation (33) we have
∂ ∂𝐇
∇. (∇. 𝐇) − ∇ 2 𝐇 = −ϵ0 μ0 ∂t[ ∂t ]
Or
∂2 𝐇
∇ 2 𝐇 − μ0 ϵ0 =0 (34)
dt2
The equations (32) and (34) resemble the general wave equation, which is as follows;
1 ∂2 u
∇ 2u − 2 2 = 0 (35)
v dt
Where u is a wave variable and v is the velocity of the wave.
Now comparing the equations (32) and (34) with (35), we can say that E or H are the variable of the
wave represented by these equations and the velocity of the waves is given by
1
= μ0 ϵ0
v2
Or
1
v = μ ϵ =𝑐 (36)
√ 0 0
Which comes out to be 2.99× 108 m/s.
As we have already shown that the variable electric and magnetic fields are coupled together. So,
when we write equation of electromagnetic wave, either of the one is sufficient to consider for
further treatment of the wave equation. One most important conclusion can be made here, the
velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space comes out to be equation to the velocity of light in
vacuum. So in first impression, it may be said that light is an electromagnetic wave. We shall however
find other physical parameters of light with these equations to finally conclude the electromagnetic
nature of light.
The following coupled equations having E and H, as wave parameters are called equations of
electromagnetic waves in the free space.
∂2 𝐄
∇ 2 𝐄 − μ0 ϵ0 =0
dt2
∂2 𝐇
∇ 2𝐇 − μ0 ϵ0 dt2 = 0
And the velocity of light can be given as;
1
𝑐= μ ϵ
√ 0 0
For simplicity we can treat either of the two for finding various physical parameters of the
electromagnetic waves.
1.22 Flow of Energy of Electromagnetic Waves – Poynting Vector

25
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Like all other types of waves, electromagnetic waves also transport energy as they travel from one
place to other. But unlike other type of waves, the transfer of energy in case of electromagnetic
waves is different. In this case, it is described as flow of energy per unit cross-sectional area per unit
time or power per unit area.
Let a plane electromagnetic wave of cross-sectional area ds, travelling with velocity c. So, the volume,
crossing in unit time will be c.dS. The energy density passing with this region per second will be;
dU = ucdS = ϵ0 𝐸 2cdS
So, the energy flowing per time per unit cross-sectional area will be
𝑑𝑈
S= = ϵ0 𝐸 2C
𝑑𝑆
1
= ϵ0 𝐸 2.
√ 0 ϵ0
μ
ϵ
= 𝐸 2 √μ0
0
1
= 𝐸 2 μ √μ0 ϵ0
0
𝐸𝐸 1
= 𝐶 μ
0
1 𝐸
S = μ 𝐸𝐵 since 𝐵 = C
0
As the energy flow is perpendicular to the E and B vector, so the flow of electromagnetic wave
energy per unit cross-sectional area per unit time, in vector form, can be represented as;
1
S= 𝐄×𝐁 (37)
μ0
This vector quantity, S is termed as Poynting Vector.
So the poynting vector is defined as the energy flow per unit time per unit area i.e. power flow per
unit area and simply can be written as;
S= 𝐄×𝐇 (38)
1.21 Poynting Theorem – Electromagnetic Energy Theorem

Poynting theorem in electromagnetism is equivalent to mass-energy theorem in mechanics. It states
that rate of decrease of the energy in the electromagnetic fields in any volume minus flow of energy
per second through the surface of that volume is equal to the rate of work done on the charges by
the electromagnetic force or power transfer in the space. It can be written as
∂ 1 𝑩2 1 1
− ∂t ∮𝑉( 2 μ + 2 ϵ0 𝐸 2 )d𝐕 − μ ∮(𝑬 × 𝑩) . 𝑑𝑺 = ∮𝑉(𝐄. 𝐉)𝑑𝐕
0 0
𝜕 1 1
Or − ∮𝑉 ( 𝐄. 𝐃 + 𝐇. 𝑩) − ∮(𝐄 × 𝐇) . d𝐒 = ∮𝑉(𝐄. 𝐉)𝑑𝐕 (39)
𝜕𝑡 2 2
Where
∂ 1 𝐵2 1
− ∮{ + ϵ0 𝐸 2 }d𝐕 = Rate of decrease of electromagnetic energy in the electromagnetic
∂t 𝑉 2 μ0 2
fields in the volume V
1
− μ ∮(𝐄 × 𝐁) . 𝑑𝐒 = Rate at which the energy is propagated by the electromagnetic fields through
0
the cross sectional area that bounds the volume V
26
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∮𝑉(𝐄. 𝐉)𝑑𝐕 = Power transferred into the free space or rate of work done by the electromagnetic
fields in the volume V
Derivation of Poynting Theorem
Writing Maxwell’s equations in differential form :
∇. 𝑫 = 𝜌 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑫 = 𝜌 (40)
∇. 𝑩 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑩 = 0 (41)
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
∇ × 𝑬 = − 𝜕𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑬 = − 𝜕𝑡 (42)
𝜕𝑫 𝜕𝑫
∇ × 𝑯 = 𝑱 + 𝜕𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑯 = 𝑱 + 𝜕𝑡 (43)
Taking scalar product of equation (42) with H and equation (43) with E, we get
𝜕𝑩
𝑯. (∇ × 𝑬) = −𝑯. 𝜕𝑡 (44)
𝜕𝑫
𝑬. (∇ × 𝑯) = 𝑬. 𝑱 + 𝑬. 𝜕𝑡 (45)
Now subtracting equation (45) from equation (44), we get
𝜕𝑩 𝜕𝑫
𝑯. (∇ × 𝑬) − 𝑬. (∇ × 𝑯) = −𝑯. 𝜕𝑡 − 𝑬. 𝜕𝑡 − 𝑬. 𝑱
𝜕𝑩 𝜕𝑫
= − (𝑯. 𝜕𝑡 + 𝑬. 𝜕𝑡 ) − 𝑬. 𝑱 (46)
We have the vector identity;
∇. (𝑬 × 𝑯) = 𝑯. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑬 − 𝑬. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑯 (47)
So, the equation (46) takes the form;
𝜕𝑩 𝜕𝑫
∇. (𝑬 × 𝑯) = − (𝑯. + 𝑬. ) − 𝑬. 𝑱 (48)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
For a linear medium we can write;
𝑩 = 𝜇𝑯 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑫 = 𝜖𝑬
So the equation be written as;
𝜕(𝜇𝑯) 𝜕(𝜖𝑬)
∇. (𝑬 × 𝑯) = −[𝑯. + 𝑬. ] − 𝑬. 𝑱 (49)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕(𝜖𝑬) 𝜕(𝜇𝑯)
Now rearranging 𝑬. 𝜕𝑡 and 𝑯. 𝜕𝑡 , we have;
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 1
𝑬. (𝜖𝑬) = 𝜖 (𝐸 2 ) = ( 𝜖𝐸 2 ) = ( 𝑬. 𝑫) (50)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 1
𝑯. (𝜇𝑯) = 𝜇 (𝐻 2 ) = ( 𝜇𝐻 2 ) = ( 𝑯. 𝑩) (51)
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Using expression (50) and (51), the equation (49) takes the form;
𝜕 1
∇. (𝑬 × 𝑯) = − 𝜕𝑡 [2 (𝑬. 𝑫 + 𝑯. 𝑩)] − 𝑱. 𝑬 (52)
On integration the equation (52) over a volume V bounded by surface S, we have;
𝜕 1 1
∫𝑉 ∇. (𝑬 × 𝑯) 𝑑𝑽 = − ∫𝑉 {𝜕𝑡 (2 𝑬. 𝑫 + 2 𝑯. 𝑩)} 𝑑𝑽 − ∫𝑉 𝑱. 𝑬 𝑑𝑽
Using Gauss divergence theorem to change volume integral L.H.S. of above equation into surface
integral, we get
𝜕 1 1
∫𝑉 𝑱. 𝑬 𝑑𝑽 = − 𝜕𝑡 ∫𝑉 (2 𝑬. 𝑫 + 2 𝑯. 𝑩) 𝑑𝑽 − ∮𝑠(𝑬 × 𝑯) . 𝑑𝑺 (53)
Which is the poynting theorem.
Physical Significance of Poynting Theorem

Let us interpret each of three terms individually.
27
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Physical Interpretation of − ∮𝒔(𝑬 × 𝑯) . d𝐒

As we have already shown that 𝑬 × 𝑯 = 𝐒 is a quantity called poynting vector and is defined as the
energy flow per unit time per unit area i.e. power flow per unit area and which is perpendicular to
𝑬 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑯 both. So ∮𝒔(𝑬 × 𝑯) . d𝐒 may be defined as the rate at with the energy of the
electromagnetic fields is decreased through the cross sectional area that bounds the volume V
𝜕 1 1
Physical Interpretation of − ∫𝑉 ( 𝑬. 𝑫 + 𝑯. 𝑩) 𝑑𝑽
𝜕𝑡 2 2
Here, we have;
1
∫𝑽 2 𝐄. 𝐃 d𝐕 = 𝑈𝑒, Electrostatic potential energy in volume V
1
∫𝑽 2 𝐇. 𝐁 d𝐕 = 𝑈𝑚, Magnetic energy in volume V
1
∴ 𝑂𝑏𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑙𝑦 𝑈 = ∫𝑉 2 (𝑬. 𝑫 + 𝑯. 𝑩)𝑑𝑽, represents some sort of potential energy of
electromagnetic field, as it exist due to static fields (electric and magnetic), known as electromagnetic
field energy in volume V. A concept such as energy stored in the field itself rather than residing with
1
the particles is a basic concept of electromagnetic theory. Obviously (𝑬. 𝑫 + 𝑯. 𝑩) represents
2
energy density of electromagnetic field i.e.
1
𝑈 = (𝑬. 𝑫 + 𝑯. 𝑩)
2
𝜕 1 1
Consequently the term, − ∫𝑉 ( 𝑬. 𝑫 + 𝑯. 𝑩) 𝑑𝑽 represents the rate of decrease of stored
𝜕𝑡 2 2
electromagnetic energy in volume V.
Physical Interpretation of ∫𝑉 𝑱. 𝑬 𝑑𝑽
To understand the physical significance of this term, let us consider a charged particle q in the charge
distribution acted upon by Lorentz force 𝑭 = 𝑞(𝑬 + 𝒗 × 𝑩), displaced by an amount 𝑑𝒍. Where
𝒗 may be considered as the drift velocity of the charges. So, the work done in this displacement will
be given as;
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑭. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑞(𝑬 + 𝒗 × 𝑩). 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑞(𝑬 + 𝒗 × 𝑩). 𝒗𝑑𝑡
Or 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑞𝑬. 𝒗𝑑𝑡 = 𝑭. 𝒗𝑑𝑡
𝜕𝑊
Or = 𝑭. 𝒗
𝜕𝑡
We can also get the above expression as for an electromagnetic force due to field vectors E and B
acting on the charged particle the magnetic force 𝒒(𝒗 × 𝑩) is always perpendicular to velocity.
Hence, the magnetic field does no work. Therefore, for a single charge q the rate of doing work by
electromagnetic field E and B is;
𝜕𝑊
= 𝑭. 𝒗 = 𝑞𝑬. 𝒗 (54)
𝜕𝑡
If the electromagnetic field consists of a group of charges moving with different velocities e.g. 𝑛𝑖
charge carriers each with charge 𝑞𝑖 , moving with velocity 𝑣𝑖 ( 𝑖-1,2,3...); then equation (54) can be
written as;
𝜕𝑊
𝜕𝑡
= − 𝑛𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝒗𝑖 . 𝑬𝑖 (55)
28
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In this case the total current density 𝑱 =  𝑱𝑖 =  𝑛𝑖 𝑞𝑖 𝒗𝑖 . So equation (55) becomes
𝜕𝑊
𝜕𝑡
= − 𝑱𝑖 . 𝑬𝑖 = −𝑱. 𝑬 (56)
Therefore, the expression, ∫𝑉 𝑱. 𝑬 𝑑𝑽 represents rate of energy transferred into the electromagnetic
field through the motion of free charge in volume V.
The physical significance of the equation of poynting theorem is that the time rate of decrease of
electromagnetic energy with a certain volume plus time rate of the energy flowing out through the
boundary surface is equal to the power transferred into the electromagnetic field. This is also the
statement of conservation of energy in electromagnetism which is known as Poynting theorem.
1.22 Electromagnetic waves in a non-conducting isotropic dielectric

Let us study the propagation of electromagnetic waves in a medium which is linear, non-conducting
dielectric, isotropic and homogeneous. Let ϵ and  are the permittivity and permeability respectively
of the medium. Let the medium is source free, the electric field enters from outside the medium
then the charge density  will be zero. Being non conducting, the conductivity  =0 and hence the
conduction current density ⃗J = σ ⃗E⃗ is also zero.
Now writing the Maxwell’s equations in differential form we have;

∇. 𝑫 = 𝜌 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑫 = 𝜌 (40)
∇. 𝑩 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑩 = 0 (41)
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐵
∇×𝑬=− 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑬 = − (42)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑫 𝜕𝑫
∇×𝑯=𝑱 + 𝜕𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑯 = 𝑱+ 𝜕𝑡
(43)
Now putting the electromagnetic physical parameters of the medium. i.e. putting
𝐃 = ϵ𝐄, 𝐁 = μ𝐇, 𝐉 = σ𝐄 = 0 and ρ = 0, in the above Maxwell equations 57(a), (b), (c) and (d),
Maxwell’s equations takes the form as:
∇. 𝐄 = 0 (e)
∇. 𝐇 = 0 (f)
∂𝐇
∇ × 𝐄 = −μ (g)
∂t
∂𝐄
∇×𝐇= ϵ ∂t (h) (58)
Taking curl of equation 58(g) we get

∂(∇×𝐇)
∇ × (∇ × 𝐄) = − μ ∂t
On simplification of vector triple product and putting the value of ∇ × H from 58(h), we have
∂ ∂E
∇(∇. 𝐄) − ∇ 2 𝐄 = −μ [ϵ ]
∂t ∂t
Or
∂2 E
∇ 2 E − μ ϵ dt2 = 0 (59)
Similarly, we can have following equation for magnetic field intensity, i.e.
∂2 H
∇ 2H − μ ϵ dt2
=0 (60)
29
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So, in coupled form, the equations (59) and (60) are the equations of electromagnetic waves in a
linear, non-conducting dielectric, isotropic and homogeneous medium.
∂2 E
∇2 E − μϵ ∂t2 = 0
∂2 H
∇2 H − μϵ ∂t2 = 0
Where E and H, are the wave variables. Again these equations, resembles with the general wave
equation i.e.
1 ∂2 u
∇2 u − v2 . ∂t2 = 0
Giving rise to the fact that the wave variable of the wave i.e. field vector E and H are propagated in
isotropic dielectric as waves with speed v given by
1
𝑣 = μϵ
√
1
= (K (61)
m μ0 Ke ϵ0 )
Where K m is relative permeability of medium and K e is relative permittivity (or dielectric constant)
of the medium.
1
As we have c = μ ϵ is the speed of electromagnetic waves in free space. Hence, the velocity of
√ 0 0
electromagnetic waves will be;
C
∴ 𝑣 = √K K (62)
m e
As K m > 1 and K e > 1: therefore we can say the speed of electromagnetic waves in an isotropic
dielectric is less than the speed of electromagnetic waves in free space.
The ratio of velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum to the medium give an another physical
parameter which is widely being used for light as a relative parameter between two media called
refractive index of any medium i.e.
C
Refractive index = v = √K m K e = n(say)
For a non-magnetic material K m = 1; therefore n = √K e i.e. n2 = K e
Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic waves

To show the transverse nature of electromagnetic waves in a linear, non-conducting dielectric,
isotropic and homogeneous medium, let us have the wave equations as derived above;
1 ∂2 𝐄
∇2 𝐄 − v2 . ∂t2 = 0 (63)
1 ∂2 𝐇
∇2 𝐇 − .
v2 ∂t2
=0 (64)
Mathematically these are the second order differential equations. So the plane-wave solutions of
equations (63) and (64), may be written as
𝐄(r, t) = E0 eik.r−iωt (65)

𝐇(r, t) = H0 eik.r−iωt (66)
30
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Where E0 and H0 are complex amplitudes which are constant in space and time: while k is wave
propagation vector given by
2π ω
𝐊 = kn̂ =  n̂ = v n̂ (67)
Here n̂ is a unit vector in the direction of wave propagation vector.
Now, as 𝐄(r, t) and 𝐇(r, t) are the solutions of the Maxwell waves equations so these should satisfy
all the four Maxwell equations. i.e.
∇. 𝐄(r, t) = 0 (68)
∇. 𝐇(r, t) = 0 (69)
∂𝐇(r,t)
∇ × 𝐄(r, t) = −μ ∂t
(70)
∂𝐄(r,t)
∇ × 𝐇(r, t) = ϵ ∂t (71)
Substituting E(r, t) and H(r, t) from equations (65) and (66) respectively we have;
∇. E0 eiK.r−iωt = 0 (72)
iK.r−iωt
∇. H0 e =0 (73)
Let us simplify equation (72), i.e. taking the dot product of Del operator and electric field vector we
have;
∂ ∂ ∂
(∂x i + ∂y j + ∂k k).(iE0x + jE0y+kE0z )ei(iKx + jKy +kKz)−iωt = 0
………………………………………….
K.E = 0 (74)
This implies the wave propagation vector K and the electric field vector of the electromagnetic wave
are perpendicular to each other.
On doing similar operation on equation (73), we have;
K.H = 0 (75)
Again we can infer the propagation vector K and the oscillating magnetic field vector H are also
perpendicular to each other.
The above mathematical operations shows that both the wave variables E and H oscillate
perpendicular to the propagation of wave. This proves the transverse character of electromagnetic
waves.
Mutually Perpendicularity of Electric and Magnetic field Vectors
On satisfying the equations (70) and (71) with the solutions given by (65) and (66), we have
∂𝐇(r,t)
∇ × 𝐄(r, t) = −μ ∂t
(76)
∂E(r,t)
∇ × 𝐇(r, t) = ϵ ∂t (77)
Or
∂H0 eik.r−iωt
∇ × E0 eik.r−iωt = −μ ∂t
(78)
∂E0 eik.r−iωt
∇ × H0 eik.r−iωt = ϵ (79)
∂t
31
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
On simplifying the mathematical operations of the equations (78) and (79), we have,
ik × 𝐄 = iμω𝐇 i. e. 𝐊 × 𝐄 = μω𝐇 (80)
𝐊 × 𝐇 = −ϵω𝐄 (81)
Fig. 1.11 Transverse Character of Electromagnetic wave
The equations (80) and (81) shows that the wave propagation vector K, electric field vector E and
Magnetic field vector H are mutually perpendicular to each other. Simply we can say the electric and
magnetic fields are oscillating perpendicular to each other.
By doing other mathematical manipulations on the equations derived above we are able to define a
lot of physical quantities related to the electromagnetic waves. For example;
Wave Impedance
On rearranging the equation (80), we have;
1 k
𝐇 = (𝐊 × 𝐄) = (n̂ × 𝐄)
μω μω
Or
E μω ω
| H| = K
= μ𝑣, (since K = v
)
Or
E μω μ 1
| H| = K
= (since 𝑣 = )
√μϵ √μϵ
Or
E μ
| H| = √ ϵ (82)
Now let us see what this quantity is showing. Putting the units of each term involved in it, we have;
volt/m volt
amp−turn/m
= amp = ohm
E μ
This implies that the magnitude of |H| = √ ϵ is giving some physical quantity which has the unit as
ohm. This unit represents impedance. Here, this is called wave impedance offered by medium when
electromagnetic waves propagate through it and is given by the modulus of the ratio of electric field
vector and magnetic field vector. This can also be calculated by the square root of the ratio of
permeability and permittivity of the medium. So, the wave impedance is given as;
32
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
E μ
Z=| |=√
H ϵ
As we have the values of the permeability and permittivity of the free space as μ0 and ϵ0 , the
impedance offered by the vacuum when electromagnetic waves propagate through it is given by;
μ
Z0 = √ ϵ 0
0
Substituting the values of μ0 and ϵ0 , the value of Z0 comes out to be as;

Z0 = 376.66 ohm
Phase between Electric field and Magnetic Field Intensity Vector

A simple way to find whether the two vector quantities are in phase or out of phase is that if the
modulus of the ratio of the two quantities is real then those two vectors are said to be in phase but
if the modulus of the ratio, is a complex quantity then the two vector quantities are said to be out
of phase.
As we already have the modulus of the ratio of E and H in free space as well as in isotropic dielectric,
i.e.
E μ
Z0 = |H0 | = √ ϵ 0 = 376.6 ohm
0 0
and
E μ K μ
Z = |H| = √ ϵ = ( Km ϵ 0 )
e 0
Both of them will be real. So, we can say when electromagnetic waves propagate in free space and
isotropic dielectric, the oscillations of electric field and magnetic field are in phase with each other.
Poynting Vector for a plane electromagnetic wave in an isotropic dielectric

Let us find out the flow of electromagnetic energy when electromagnetic waves propagate through
an isotropic dielectric. The well-defined way of doing this is to find out the poynting vector of
electromagnetic waves in corresponding medium.
The poynting vector is calculated as;

𝐒 =𝐄×𝐇
K
= 𝐄 × (μω (n̂ × 𝐄))
1
= 𝐄 × (n̂ × 𝐄).μv
ϵ
= 𝐄 × (n̂ × 𝐄).√μ
𝐄×(n̂ ×𝐄) μ
= Z
(since Z = √ ϵ )
(𝐄.𝐄)n ̂ )E2
̂ −(𝐄.n
= Z
33
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
E2
= Z n̂ (since E. n̂ = 0, as E and n̂ are perpendicular) (83)
As E and H are oscillating between maximum and minimum values of these physical quantities, so
to find the flow of energy of electromagnetic waves, we have to take time average of poynting vector
over a complete cycle of electric of magnetic field vector i.e.;
E2
〈𝐒〉 = 〈𝐄 × 𝐇〉 = 〈 n̂〉
Z
1 2
= 〈(E0 eik.r−iωt ) 〉 n̂
Z real
Since for finding actual physical fields we often take real parts of complex exponentials. So, we have;
1
〈𝐒〉 = E0 2 〈cos 2 (ωt − k. r)〉n̂
Z
1 1 E0 2
= E 2 . n̂
Z 0 2
= 2Z
n̂
E2rms E
= Z
n̂ (since Erms = √20 ) (84)
The equation (84) gives the average energy flow of electromagnetic waves, per unit area per time i.e.
energy flux. It also shows that the flow of energy is along the direction of propagation of
electromagnetic wave.
Similarly for propagation in free space we have the time average poynting vector as;
E2rms
〈S〉free space =
Z0
n̂ (85)
Power Flow and Energy density

Let us find the ratio of electrostatic and magnetostatic energy densities in an electromagnetic wave
field i.e.
1
𝑢𝑒 ϵE2 ϵ E2 ϵ ϵ μ
= 12 = = Z2 = . =1 (86)
um μH 2 μ H2 μ μ ϵ
2
This implies that for the case of electromagnetic waves in an isotropic dielectric the electrostatic
energy density (ue ) is equal to the magnetostatic energy density (um ).
Therefore, total electromagnetic energy density
u = ue + um = 2ue (since ue = um )
1
= 2. ϵE 2 = ϵE 2
2
And the time average of energy density
2
〈u〉 = ϵ〈E 2 〉 = ϵ 〈(E0 eik.r−iωt ) 〉
real
= ϵE 2 〈cos2 (ωt − k. r)〉
1
= 2 ϵE02
1
i.e. the total electromagnetic energy density 〈u〉 = 2 ϵE02 = ϵErms
2
(87)
Relation between Energy Flux and Energy Density of Electromagnetic Waves

Dividing equation (85) and (87), we have;
34
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
〈S〉 E2rms n
̂/Z 1 1 μ
= = n̂ = n̂ (since Z = √ )
〈u〉 ϵ E2rms ϵZ μ ϵ
√ϵ ϵ
1 1
= n̂ = 𝑣n̂ 𝐴𝑠 𝑣=
√μϵ √μ ϵ
〈S〉
〈u〉
= 𝑣n̂
Or
〈S〉 = 〈u〉vn̂ (88)
Or
Energy Flux = Energy Density × velocity of em waves in the medium
This equation implies that the energy density associated with an electromagnetic wave in the
dielectrics, flows with the same speed of the wave in the dielectrics and it is in the direction of
propagation of the wave.
Following points can be summarised for the electromagnetic waves in isotropic dielectric:
1. The electromagnetic waves travel with a speed which is less than the speed of light in case of an
isotropic dielectric.
2. The electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature as the field vectors E and H are mutually
perpendicular and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation the electromagnetic wave.
3. The phase of field vectors E and H is same.
4. The direction of flow of electromagnetic energy and the direction of wave propagation is same
and the energy flowing per second is represented as
2
Erms n̂
〈S〉 = 〈u〉vn̂
Z
5. The electrostatic energy density and the magnetostatic energy density are equal and the total
energy density is given by
2
〈u〉 = ϵ Erms
6. The energy density associated with an electromagnetic wave in dielectrics flows with the same
speed as of the wave in dielectric and in the direction of propagation of the wave.
1.19 Plane Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium

Maxwell equations in differential form are
div 𝐃 = ∇. 𝐃 = 𝜌
div 𝐁 = ∇. 𝐁 = 0
∂𝐁
curl 𝐄 = ∇ × 𝐄 = −
∂t
∂𝐃
curl 𝐇 = ∇ × 𝐇 = 𝐉 + ∂t
Let us assume that medium is linear and isotropic and is characterised by permittivity ϵ permeability
μ and conductivity σ, but not any charge or any current other than that determined by Ohm’s law.
Then the parameters of the medium are written as;
𝐃 = ϵ𝐄, 𝐁 = μ𝐇, 𝐉 = σ𝐄 = 0 and ρ = 0
So that Maxwell’s for a linear, isotropic, homogeneous and conducting medium will be as;
∇. 𝐄 = 0 (a)
35
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
∇. 𝐇 = 0 (b) (89)
∂𝐇
∇ × 𝐄 = −μ ∂t (c)
∂𝐄
∇ × 𝐇 = σ𝐄 + ϵ (d)
∂t
Taking curl of equation 89(c), we get
∂
∇ × (∇ × 𝐄) = −μ (∇ × 𝐇) (90)
∂t
Substituting (∇ × H) from 89(d) into (90), we get
∂ ∂𝐄
∇ × (∇ × 𝐄) = −μ (σ𝐄 + ϵ )
∂t ∂t
Or
∂𝐄 ∂2 𝐄
∇ × (∇ × 𝐄) = −σμ ∂t − ϵμ ∂t2 (91)
2
As we know, ∇ × (∇ × 𝐄) = ∇(∇. 𝐄) − ∇ 𝐄 (92)
Using identity (92) and putting ∇. 𝐄 = 0 for the medium, the equation (91) takes the form
∂𝐄 ∂2 𝐄
∇ 2 𝐄 = −σμ ∂t − ϵμ ∂t2 (93)
Similarly taking curl of equation 89(d) and simplifying it, we have;
∂𝐇 ∂2 𝐇
∇2 𝐇 = −σμ ∂t −∈ μ ∂t2 (94)
The equations (93) and (94) represent electromagnetic wave equations in a linear, homogeneous,
isotropic and conducting medium of conductivity σ.
The general solutions of a second order differential equation of the type (93) or (94), may be written
as;
𝐄 = E0 eik.r−iωt (95)
𝐇 = H0 eik.r−iωt (96)
Where K is a wave vector, may be complex, while E0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 H0 are complex amplitudes which are
constant in space and time.
Satisfying the solutions from (95) and (96) with the corresponding differential equation (93) or (94)
respectively, we obtain
(−K 2 + iσμω + μϵω2 )E = 0
Or
(−K 2 + iσμω + μϵω2 )H = 0
As the fields E or H are arbitrary, therefore this equation holds only if
(−K 2 + iσμω + μϵω2 ) =0
Or
iσ
K 2 = μϵω2 (1 + ωϵ) = μϵω2 + i σμω (97)
From above equation, it seems that the wave propagation vector K is a complex quantity in case
when the electromagnetic waves propagate in a linear, isotropic, homogeneous and conducting
medium.
Let us further simplify the equation (97) to find out some more physical parameters of
electromagnetic waves in a conducting medium.
Let K = 𝛼 + iβ
36
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
So K 2 = 𝛼 2 − β2 + 2iαβ (98)
Comparing equation (97) and (98), we have
𝛼 2 − β2 = μϵω2 (99)
And
2αβ = μωσ (100)
Solving equations (99) and (100) we have,
1/2
σ 2
√{1+( ) }+1
ωϵ
α = √μϵ . ω 2
(101)
[ ]
1/2
σ 2
√{1+( ) }−1
ωϵ
β = √μϵ . ω 2
(102)
[ ]
So the wave propagation vector K of an electromagnetic wave travelling in a conducting medium
having conductivity σ , μ permeability, ϵ permittivity and ω as the frequency of em waves, can be
calculated as;
1/2 1/2
σ 2 σ 2
√{1+( ) }+1 √{1+( ) }−1
ωϵ ωϵ
K = = √μϵ . ω + 𝑖 √μϵ . ω (103)
2 2
[ ] [ ]
Which is a complex quantity. Let us find the propagation vector of electromagnetic waves for very
good and very poor conductors.
(i) Propagation vector for Very Good Conductor:

σ σ
For a good conductor ωϵ ≫ 1, so 1 can be neglected in comparison of ωϵ
so that ∝ and β are
approximately equal i.e.
σ
μσω
∝≈ β = √μϵ. ω√ ωϵ
2
= √ 2
So the propagation constant comes out to be
μσω μσω
k ≈ α + iβ = √ 2
+ i√ 2
(ii) Propagation vector for Very Poor Conductor:

σ
For very poor conductor, ωϵ ≪ 1, and be neglected then
∝= √μϵ. ω and β may neglected or can be taken as zero.
∴ K = α + iβ = √μϵ. ω (104)
37
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ω 1
Or 𝐾 = 𝑣 , since 𝑣 = μϵ
√
This comes out to be as the case of non-conductor and also shows negligible or zero attenuation of
electromagnetic waves in a homogeneous isotropic non-conducting medium.
Attenuation of Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium

Now putting the value of K = 𝛼 + iβ, in the solutions (95) and (96) we have:
E = E0 ei(α+iβ) n.r−iωt = E0 e−βn.r ei (αn.r−ωt) (105)
H = H0 ei(α+iβ) n.r−iωt = H0 e−βn.r ei (αn.r−ωt) (106)
From equations (105) and (106) it can be seen that field amplitudes of the electric and magnetic
oscillations i.e. E0 e−βn.rand H0 e−βn.r respectively, are attenuated with distance. Due to the
term e−βn.r, we can say the amplitude of electric and magnetic fields vectors decay exponentially.
The constant quantity β is a characteristic of the medium and is known as decay constant or
absorption coefficient. So, the attenuation coefficient is of any electromagnetic wave is given by;
1/2
σ 2
√{1+( ) }−1
ωϵ
β = √μϵ . ω 2
(107)
[ ]
Penetration of Electromagnetic Wave into the Medium
Skin Depth or Penetration Depth
From above we have seen that as the electromagnetic waves travel through a conducting medium,
the amplitude attenuates with distance. The penetration depth of electromagnetic waves is defined
1
the distance where the amplitude becomes e = 0.369 of its initial amplitude at the surface i.e. 𝐸 =
1
𝑒
𝐸0 ,
1
For this, the distance 𝑟 should be and is denoted by 𝛿.
𝛽
So the penetration of skin depth is given by;
1/2
1 1 2
𝛿=𝛽= (108)
√μϵ .ω σ 2
√{1+( ) }−1
ωϵ
[ ]
For good conductor, the penetration depth is given by
1 2
𝛿 = 𝛽 = √μϵω (109)
This expression may be useful to find the thickness of a conducting enclosure for protection from
electromagnetic radiation. This also shows that very high frequency electromagnetic waves travel
through the surface of the conductors.
Let us take a few examples:
(i) For copper at 60 cycles δ is 0.86 cm, but at 1 megacycle, it has dropped to 0.0067. That is why in
high frequency circuits current flows only on the surface of the conductors. The major importance
of the skin depth is that it measures the depth to which an electromagnetic wave can penetrate a
38
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
conducting medium. Therefore, the conducting sheets which are used as electromagnetic shields
must be thicker than the skin depth.
c
(ii)) For silver σ ≈ 107 mho/m at a typical microwave frequency≈ 108 s, the skin depth ≈
10−4 cm. Thus at microwave frequencies the skin depth in silver is very small and consequently
performance of a pure silver component and a silver plated brass component would be expected to
be indistinguishable.
(iii) For sea water σ ≈ 4.3 mho/m at a frequency of 60 kc/s ; so that δ ≈ 1meter. That is why
radiocommunication with submerged submarine becomes increasing difficult at several skin depths.
Transverse Character of Electromagnetic Waves Conducting Medium:

Now satisfying the general solutions of differential equations of electromagnetic waves, i.e.
Substituting E and H from (95) and (96) in Maxwell’s differential equation, we obtain;
iK. E = 0 or K. E = 0 (110)
iK. H = 0 or K. H = 0 (111)
These equations imply that field vectors E and H are both perpendicular to the direction of
propagation vector K. This implies that electromagnetic waves in a conducting medium are
transverse in nature.
On satisfying third and fourth equations we get
∂H(r,t)
∇ × E(r, t) = −μ ∂t
(112)
∂E(r,t)
∇ × H(r, t) = ϵ ∂t (113)
Or
∂H0 eik.r−iωt
∇ × E0 eik.r−iωt = −μ ∂t
(114)
∂E0 eik.r−iωt
∇ × H0 eik.r−iωt = ϵ (115)
∂t
On simplification we get;
iK × E = iμωH i. e. K × E = μω H (116)
and
iK × H = (σ − iϵω)E ie. k × H = (ϵω + iσ)E (117)
These equations imply that electromagnetic field vectors E and H are mutually perpendicular and
also they are perpendicular to the direction of propagation vector k.
Relative Phase of E and H: From equations (116) and (117) we have

1 1
H= (K × E) = K(n × E)
μω μω
(∝+iβ)
= (n × E) (118)
μω
H H0 ∝+iβ
This implies that |E| = = = complex quantity (119)
E0 μω
i.e. the field vectors H and E are out of phase in a conductor. The magnitude and phase of complex
K, written as K = |K|ei , may be defined as
1/4
σ 2
|K| = |∝ +iβ| = √(∝2 + β2 ) = √μϵω [1 + ( ) ] (120)
ωϵ
39
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
β 1 σ
 = tan−1 (α) = 2 tan−1 (ωϵ) (121)
So equation (118) may be expressed as
1
1 σ 2 4 i
H= μω √μϵω [1 + ( ωϵ
) ] e (n × E)
1
ϵ σ 2 4
= μ [1 + (ωϵ) ] ei() (n × E) (122)
This equation shows that H lags behind E by the phase angle  given by equation (121) and has a
relative magnitude
1
H H0 ϵ σ 2 4 1
|E| = E0
= √μ [1 + (ωϵ) ] = 𝑍, Where Z is the wave impedence in the conducting medium.
(123)
Poynting Vector or Energy Flow of EM in Conducting Medium
The Poynting vector is given by
𝐒 = (𝐄 × 𝐇)
And the time average of poynting vector may expressed as
1/2
1 ϵ σ 2 i(−)
Sav = Re [E × { [1 + ( ) ] e (n × E) }]
2 μ ωϵ
1
1 ϵ σ 2 4
= √
2 μ
[1 + (ωϵ
) ] Re{E × (n × E ∗ )ei(−) }
1
1 ϵ σ 2 4
= √ [1 + ( ) ] Re[{(E. E ∗ )n) − (E. n)E ∗ }ei(−) ]
2 μ ωϵ
1
1 ϵ σ 2 4
= √ [1 + ( ) ] E02 e−2βn.r n cos∅ (124)
2 μ ωϵ
[Since (E. E ∗ ) = E02 e−2βn.r and Re (ei(−) = cos∅ ]
E
For good conductor σ/ϵω ≫ 1 so that ∅ = π/4 and also Erms = √20
σ 2
Hence Sav = {( )} Erms e−2βn.r
2μω
Energy density: The total energy density of electromagnetic field is given by
u = ue + um
1 1
where electrostatic energy ue = 2 Re 2 (E. D∗ )
1
=2
ϵE02 e−2βn.r (125)
1 2
= 2 ϵErms e−2βn.r
(126)
1 1
and magnetic energy density um = 2 Re 2 (H. B ∗ )
1
= 4 u Re(H. H ∗ )
1
= 4 μ H02 e−2βn.r
1/2
1 ϵ σ 2
= 4 μ μ [1 + (ωϵ) ] E02 e−2βn.r using (123)
40
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1/2
1 σ 2
= ϵ {[1 + ( ) ] E02 e−2βn.r }
4 ωϵ
1/2
σ 2
= [1 + (ωϵ) ] ue (127)
Now using (125), we have;
1/2
σ 2
The total energy density u = ue + um = ue + [1 + (ωϵ) ] ue
2 1/2
σ
= [1 + {1 + ( ) }] ue
ωϵ
2 1/2
σ 21
= [1 + {1 + ( ) }] × ϵErms e−2βn.r
(128)
ωϵ 2
From equations (124) and (128) it is clear that the energy flux and energy density are damped as the
electromagnetic wave propagates in a conducting medium. This energy lose is due to Joule heating
of the medium. From equations (125) and (127) it is also obvious that in a conducting medium the
electrostatic and magnetic energy densities are different; the magnetic energy density being greater
than electrostatic energy density.
Following points can be summarised for the electromagnetic waves in conducting medium
1. The electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature in which the electric field vector E and
magnetic field vector H are mutually perpendicular and perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of electromagnetic wave.
2. The amplitudes of electric and magnetic field vectors E and H respectively are damped
exponentially as the wave propagates deeper in the conductors.
3. The electric and magnetic field vectors E and H of the electromagnetic wave are not in the same
phase as H lags behind E by angle ∅ given by
1 σ
∅ = tan−1 ( )
2 ϵω
And the magnitude of H is much greater that than of E.
4. The energy flow is along the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave and is damped
exponentially as the wave propagates in the conducting medium.
5. The magnetic energy density is much greater than electric energy density and both are damped
exponentially as the wave propagates in the conducting medium.

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Chapter

1.1 Idea of EM waves

After rigorous mathematical operations on the four fundamental equations of electrostatics,

1.2 Inconsistency of Ampere’s Circuital Law—Maxwell’s Displacement Current

Fig.1.1 Capacitor with alternating field

1.3 Equation of Continuity – Conservation of Charge

Physical Interpretation Equation of Continuity

1.4 Discovery of Electromagnetic waves

Four Equations of Electromagnetism – foundation of Electromagnetic Waves

1.5 Del Operator

1.5.1 Scalar Multiplication of ∇: Gradient of a Vector

So, we can write,

Fig. 1.2. An infinitesimal volume dx dy dz

1.5.2 Scalar Product of ∇ : Divergence

Fig.1.3. an infinitesimal volume dx dy dz

Solenoidal Vector Fields:

Gauss̓ Divergence Theorem

1.5.3 Vector Product of ∇: Curl

dC = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑦)𝑑𝑥+𝑎𝑦 (𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) − 𝑎𝑥 (𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦)𝑑𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 (𝑥)𝑑𝑦

This equation is called Stokes ̓ theorem.

1.10 Application of Gauss `s Law

1.10.1 Electric field due to a line charge

Fig.1.6 Line charge enclosed by cylindrical Gaussian surface ‘S’

∫𝑠𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ = ∫𝑠 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ + ∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗ +∫𝐴 𝐸⃗⃗ . d𝑆⃗

1.10.2 Electric field Due to a infinitely long sheet of charge

Fig.1.7. A plane sheet of charge enclosed by a hypothetical pillbox

1.6 Electric field due to a uniformly charged non-conducting sphere

Consider a spherical surface ‘S’ having its centre at ‘O’ and

Applying Gauss’s law for the surface, we have

1.7 Physical Significance of Maxwell’s equations in Integral Form

Their physical significance is given as;

2. Conversion of Gauss law of Magneto-statics

3. Conversion of Faradays law of electromagnetic induction and Lenz law

4. Conversion of Ampere’s Circuital Law

1.9 Consistency of Ampere’s Law for Time Varying Fields

1.20 Maxwell Equations Differential Form and their Physical Significance

1.21 Electromagnetic waves in free space

1.22 Flow of Energy of Electromagnetic Waves – Poynting Vector

1.21 Poynting Theorem – Electromagnetic Energy Theorem

Physical Significance of Poynting Theorem

Physical Interpretation of − ∮𝒔(𝑬 × 𝑯) . d𝐒

1.22 Electromagnetic waves in a non-conducting isotropic dielectric

Now writing the Maxwell’s equations in differential form we have;

Taking curl of equation 58(g) we get

Transverse Nature of Electromagnetic waves

𝐄(r, t) = E0 eik.r−iωt (65)

Fig. 1.11 Transverse Character of Electromagnetic wave

Substituting the values of μ0 and ϵ0 , the value of Z0 comes out to be as;

Phase between Electric field and Magnetic Field Intensity Vector

Poynting Vector for a plane electromagnetic wave in an isotropic dielectric

The poynting vector is calculated as;

Power Flow and Energy density

Relation between Energy Flux and Energy Density of Electromagnetic Waves

1.19 Plane Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium

(i) Propagation vector for Very Good Conductor:

(ii) Propagation vector for Very Poor Conductor:

Attenuation of Electromagnetic Waves in a Conducting Medium

Transverse Character of Electromagnetic Waves Conducting Medium:

Relative Phase of E and H: From equations (116) and (117) we have

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