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Dokumen - Tips - Adaptive Missile Guidance Using Gps 562020c89c7d2
Dokumen - Tips - Adaptive Missile Guidance Using Gps 562020c89c7d2
com
CERTIFICATE
!u"ervisor%
Mr. Mehta !ingh Mr. ogendra Kr
Katiyar
(Assistant 'rofessor) *(E+E)
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AKNOWLEGEMENT
/ ant to give sincere than0s to the %O of the *e"artment, M!" &'gend!a
K!" Kati(a! for his valuale su""ort & co1o"eration.
ours !incerely,
ii
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A)STRACT
In the modern day theatre of combat, the need to be able to strike at targets that are on
the opposite side of the globe has strongly presented itself. This had led to the
development of various types of guided missiles. These guided missiles are self –
guiding
weapon sin tended to maximize damage to the target while minimizing collateral
damage
. The buzzword in modern day combat is fire and forget. GPS guided missiles, using
the exceptional navigational and surveying abilities of GPS, after being launched, could
deliver a warhead to any part of the globe via the interface pof the onboard computer in
the missile with the GPS satellite system.
Under this principle many modern day laser weapons were designed. Laser guided
missiles use a laser of a certain frequency bandwidth to acquire their target. GPS/inertial
weapons are oblivious to the effects of weather, allowing a target to be engaged at the
time of the attacker's choosing. GPS allows accurate targeting of various military
weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles and precision-guided munitions. Artillery
projectiles with embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12,000 G
have been developed for use in 155mm. GPS signals can also be affected by multipath
issues, where the radio signals reflect off surrounding terrain; buildings, canyon walls,
hard ground , etc. These delayed signals can cause inaccuracy. A variety of techniques,
most notably narrow correlator spacing, have been developed to mitigate multipath
errors.
Multipath effects are much less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS antenna is
moving, the false solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and only the
direct signals result in stable solutions... In summary, GPS-INS guided weapons are not
affected by harsh weather conditions or restricted by a wire, nor do they leave the
gunner
vulnerable for attack. GPS guided weapons with their technological advances over
previous, are the superior weapon of choice in modern day warfare.
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CONTENTS
+" CERTIFICATE i
/" Ac7n'1ledg-ent ii
S&STEM +8
GUIANCE /.
8" APPLICATIONS /0
4 E9ELOPMENT /3
5 CONCLUSION /6
6 REFERENCES /8
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INTROUCTION
valid military targets and ensuring our capacity for lighting fast strikes with pinpoint
accuracy. Guided missile systems help fulfill all of these demands.
The missile sensor or seeker, on the other hand, is a component within a missile that
generates data fed into the missile computer. This data is processed by the computer and
used to generate guidance commands. Sensor types commonly used today include
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Based on the relative position between the missile and the target at any given point in
flight, the computer autopilot sends commands to the control surfaces to adjust the
missile's course.
· Radar signal
· Wires
· Lasers (or)
hangers, launch pads, etc. have a specific signature when a radar wave is reflected off of
it. Guided missiles that use radar signatures to acquire their targ ets are programmed with
the specific signature to home in on. Once the missile is launched, it then uses its
onboard navigational array to home in on the preprogrammed radar signature. Most radar
guided missiles are very successful in acquiring their targets, however, these missiles
need a source to pump out radar signals so that they can acquire their target. The maor
"rolem ith these missiles in today8s battlefield is that the countermeasures used
against these missiles work on the same principles that these missiles operate under. The
countermeasures home in on the radar signal source and destroy the antenna array,
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which essential shuts down the radar source, and hence the radar guided missiles cannot
acquire their targets.
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missile locates the heat signature, the target is acquired, and the missile will home in on
the target even if the target is moving. Despite the much publicized success of laser
guided missiles, laser guided weapons are no good in the rain or in weather conditions
where there is sufficient cloud cover. To overcome the shortcomings of laser guided
missiles presented in unsuitable atmospheric conditions and radar guided missiles
entered GPS as a method of navigating the missile to the target. So, before going to GPS
guided missile we will have an introduction to GPS.
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INTROUCTION TO GPS*
the only system today able to show us our exact position on the Earth anytime, in any
weather, anywhere. GPS satellites, 24 in all, orbit at 11,000 nautical miles above the
Earth. Ground stations located worldwide continuously monitor them. The satellites
transmit signals that can be detected by anyone with a GPS receiver. Using the receiver,
you can determine your location with great precision. The <'! "roect as develo"ed in
design studies from the :6;s. <'! as created and reali=ed y the >.!. *e"artment of
*efense (*o*) and as originally run ith 24 satellites. /t ecame fully o"erational in
::4. Bradford 'ar0inson, ?oger @. Easton, and /van A. <etting are credited ith
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inventing it. Advances in technology and ne demands on the e-isting system have no
led to efforts to moderni=e the <'! system and im"lement the ne-t generation of <'! ///
from Cice 'resident Al <ore and the Dhite ouse in ::9 initiated these changes. /n
2;;;, the >.!. +ongress authori=ed the moderni=ation effort, <'! ///.
/n addition to <'!, other systems are in use or under develo"ment. The ?ussian <loal
ut suffered from incom"lete coverage of the gloe until the mid12;;;s.
4
such as @?A and the *ecca avigator, develo"ed in the early :4;s and used during
The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used y the >nited !tates avy, as first
successfully tested in :6;. /t used a constellation of five satellites and could "rovide
a navigational fi- a""ro-imately once "er hour. /n :67, the >.!. avy develo"ed the
Timation satellite that "roved the aility to "lace accurate cloc0s in s"ace, a technology
reuired y <'!. /n the :7;s, the ground1ased mega avigation !ystem, ased on
"hase com"arison of signal transmission from "airs of stations, ecame the first
orld ide radio navigation system. @imitations of these systems drove the need for a
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more universal navigation solution ith greater accuracy. Dhile there ere ide needs
for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none of those as seen as
e"loyment, and o"eration for a constellation of navigation satellites. *uring the +old
Dar
arms race, the nuclear threat to the e-istence of the >nited !tates as the one need that
did ustify this cost in the vie of the >nited !tates +ongress. This deterrent effect is
hy
<'! as funded. /t is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time. The nuclear triad
along ith >nited !tates Air Gorce (>!AG) strategic omers and intercontinental
allistic missiles (/+BMs). +onsidered vital to the nuclear deterrence "osture, accurate
'recise navigation ould enale >nited !tates sumarines to get an accurate fi- of their
"ositions efore they launched their !@BMs. The >!AG, ith to thirds of the
nuclear triad, also had reuirements for a more accurate and reliale navigation system.
The avy and Air Gorce ere develo"ing their on technologies in "arallel to solve
hat
there as a "ro"osal to use moile launch "latforms (such as ?ussian !!124 and !!125)
and so the need to fi- the launch "osition had similarity to the !@BM situation.
/n :6;, the Air Gorce "ro"osed a radio1navigation system called M!A/+ (Mile
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!ystem for Accurate /+BM +ontrol) that as essentially a 31* @?A. A follo1on
study, 'roect 57, as or0ed in :63 and it as Hin this study that the <'! conce"t as
ornH. That same year, the conce"t as "ursued as 'roect 62B, hich had Hmany of the
attriutes that you no see in <'!H and "romised increased accuracy for Air Gorce
omers as ell as /+BMs. >"dates from the avy Transit system ere too slo for the
high s"eeds of Air Gorce o"eration. The aval ?esearch @aoratory continued
advancements ith their Timation (Time avigation) satellites, first launched in :67,
and ith the third one in :74 carrying the first atomic cloc0 into orit.
(a)Space segment: The s"ace segment (!!) is com"osed of the oriting <'! satellites,
or
!"ace Cehicles (!C) in <'! "arlance. The <'! design originally called for 24 !Cs,
eight
each in three a""ro-imately circular orits, ut this as modified to si- orital "lanes
ith four satellites each. The si- orit "lanes have a""ro-imately 55I inclination (tilt
relative to EarthFs euator) and are se"arated y 6;I right ascension of the ascending
node
(angle along the euator from a reference "oint to the oritFs intersection). The orital
"eriod is one1half a sidereal day, i.e., hours and 59 minutes so that the satellites "ass
over the same locations or almost the same locations every day. The orits are
arranged so that at least si- satellites are alays ithin line of sight from almost
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everyhere on EarthFs surface. The result of this oective is that the four satellites
are not evenly s"aced (:; degrees) a"art ithin each orit. /n general terms, the angular
difference eteen satellites in each orit is 3;, ;5, 2;, and ;5 degrees a"art hich
26,6;; 0m (6,5;; mi), each !C ma0es to com"lete orits each sidereal day, re"eating
The same ground trac0 each day. This as very hel"ful during develo"ment ecause
even ith only four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visile from one s"ot
for a fe hours each day. Gor military o"erations, the ground trac0 re"eat can e used to
As of *ecemer 2;2,63L there are 32 satellites in the <'! constellation. The additional
measurements.
availaility of the system, relative to a uniform system, hen multi"le satellites fail.64L
Aout nine satellites are visile from any "oint on the ground at any one time (see
animation at right), ensuring considerale redundancy over the minimum four satellites
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Fig/"+* A visual e;a-ple ', a /2 satellite GPS c'nstellati'n in -'ti'n 1it# t#e Ea!t#
!'tating" N'tice #'1 t#e nu-$e! ', satellites in view ,!'- a given p'int 'n t#e Ea!t#<s su!,ace= in t#is
e;a-ple at 23>N= c#anges 1it# ti-e"
Fig/"/* A!tist<s c'ncepti'n ', GPS )l'c7 II?F satellite in Ea!t# '!$it"
+.
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Fig/"0* 9e#icles using gps ,'! getting -ap t' g' t#!'ug#"
++
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@$:c'nt!'l seg-ent*
The control segment is com"osed of
The M+! can also access >.!. Air Gorce !atellite +ontrol etor0 (AG!+) ground
antennas (for additional command and control ca"aility) and <A (ational
<eos"atial1
/ntelligence Agency) monitor stations. The flight "aths of the satellites are trac0ed y
dedicated >.!. Air Gorce monitoring stations in aaii, Kaalein Atoll, Ascension
/sland, *iego <arcia, +olorado !"rings, +olorado and +a"e +anaveral, along ith
shared
<A monitor stations o"erated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and
Dashington *+.65L The trac0ing information is sent to the Air Gorce !"ace +ommand
M+! at !chriever Air Gorce Base 25 0m (6 mi) E!E of +olorado !"rings, hich is
o"erated y the 2nd !"ace "erations !uadron (2 !'!) of the >.!. Air Gorce.
Then 2 !'! contacts each <'! satellite regularly ith a navigational u"date using
dedicated or shared (AG!+) ground antennas (<'! dedicated ground antennas are
located at Kaalein, Ascension /sland, *iego <arcia, and +a"e +anaveral). These
u"dates synchroni=e the atomic cloc0s on oard the satellites to ithin a fe
nanoseconds
of each other, and adust the e"hemeris of each satelliteFs internal orital model. The
u"dates are created y a Kalman filter that uses in"uts from the ground monitoring
stations, s"ace eather information, and various other in"uts.66L !atellite maneuvers are
:
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+/
not "recise y <'! standards. !o to change the orit of a satellite, the satellite must e
mar0ed unhealthy, so receivers ill not use it in their calculation. Then the maneuver can
e carried out, and the resulting orit trac0ed from the ground. Then the ne e"hemeris
is
u"loaded and the satellite mar0ed healthy again. The "eration +ontrol !egment (+!)
currently serves as the control segment of record. /t "rovides the o"erational ca"aility
that su""orts gloal <'! users and 0ee"s the <'! system o"erational and "erforming
ithin s"ecification. +! successfully re"laced the legacy :7;s1era mainframe
com"uter at !chriever Air Gorce Base in !e"temer 2;;7. After installation, the
system hel"ed enale u"grades and "rovide a foundation for a ne security architecture
that su""orted the >.!. armed forces. +! ill continue to e the ground control system
of record until the ne segment, e-t <eneration <'! "eration +ontrol !ystem
(+), is fully develo"ed and functional. The ne ca"ailities "rovided y + ill e
the cornerstone for revolutioni=ing <'!Fs mission ca"ailities, and enaling Air
Gorce !"ace +ommand to greatly enhance <'! o"erational services to >.!. comat
The <'! + "rogram also ill reduce cost, schedule and technical ris0. /t is designed
to "rovide 5; sustainment cost savings through efficient softare architecture and
'erformance1Based @ogistics. /n addition, <'! + e-"ected to cost millions less than
the cost to u"grade +! hile "roviding four times the ca"aility.
The <'! + "rogram re"resents a critical "art of <'! moderni=ation and "rovides
significant information assurance im"rovements over the current <'! +! "rogram.
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+0
+ ill have the aility to control and manage <'! legacy satellites as ell as the ne-t
generation of <'! /// satellites, hile enaling the full array of military signals.
Built on a fle-ile architecture that can ra"idly ada"t to the changing needs of todayFs
and
future <'! users alloing immediate access to <'! data and constellations status
Em"oers the arfighter ith more secure, actionale and "redictive information to
enhance situational aareness. Enales ne moderni=ed signals (@+, @2+, and @5) and
including detecting and "reventing cyer attac0s, hile isolating, containing and
o"erating during such attac0s. !u""orts higher volume near real1time command and
n !e"temer 4, 2;,the >.!. Air Gorce announced the com"letion of <'! +
'reliminary *esign ?evie and confirmed that the + "rogram is ready for the ne-t
"hase of develo"ment.
The <'! + "rogram has achieved maor milestones and is on trac0 to su""ort the
<'!
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1
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Fig/"2* G!'und -'nit'! stati'n used ,!'- +862 t' /..5= 'n displa( at t#e Ai! F'!ce
Space Missile Museu-"
current <'! +! "rogram. + ill have the aility to control and manage <'! legacy
satellites as ell as the ne-t generation of <'! /// satellites, hile enaling
Built on a fle-ile architecture that can ra"idly ada"t to the changing needs of todayFs
and
<'! data and constellations status through secure, accurate and reliale information.
and
"redictive information to enhance situational aareness. Enales ne moderni=ed
signals (@+, @2+, and @5) and has M1code ca"aility, hich the legacy system is
unale
to do.
including detecting and "reventing cyer attac0s, hile isolating, containing and
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!u""orts higher volume near real1time command and control ca"ailities and ailities.
+3
n !e"temer 4, 2;,6:L the >.!. Air Gorce announced the com"letion of <'! +
'reliminary *esign ?evie and confirmed that the + "rogram is ready for the ne-t
"hase of develo"ment.
The <'! + "rogram has achieved maor milestones and is on trac0 to su""ort the
<'!
@c:Use! seg-ent*
The user segment is com"osed of hundreds of thousands of >.!. and allied military users
of the secure <'! 'recise 'ositioning !ervice, and tens of millions of civil, commercial
and scientific users of the !tandard 'ositioning !ervice. /n general, <'! receivers are
"rocessors, and a highly stale cloc0 (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a
dis"lay for "roviding location and s"eed information to the user. A receiver is often
descried y its numer of channels% this that, as of 2;;7, receivers ty"ically have
eteen 2 and 2; channels.L <'! receivers may include an in"ut for differential
corrections, using the ?T+M !+1;4 format. This is ty"ically in the form of an ?!1232
"ort at 4,9;; itNs s"eed. *ata is actually sent at a much loer rate, hich limits the
accuracy of the signal sent using ?T+M.citation needed L ?eceivers ith internal *<'!
receivers can out"erform those using e-ternal ?T+M data. citation needed L As of 2;;6,
even lo1cost units commonly include Dide Area Augmentation !ystem (DAA!)
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receivers.
+4
Many <'! receivers can relay "osition data to a '+ or other device using the MEA
;93 "rotocol. Although this "rotocol is officially defined y the ational Marine
Electronics Association (MEA),7;L references to this "rotocol have een com"iled
from "ulic records, alloing o"en source tools li0e g"sd to read the "rotocol ithout
violating intellectual "ro"erty las. ther "ro"rietary "rotocols e-ist as ell, such as the
!i?G and MTK "rotocols. ?eceivers can interface ith other devices using methods
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+5
/"0"+:" Wor*ing of +!"# :
1.) Technique called differential correction can yield accuracies within 1 -5 meters,
or even better, with advanced equipment.
2.) Differential correction requires a second GPS receiver, a base station, collecting
data at a stationary position on a precisely known point (typically it is a surveyed
benchmark).
3.) Because physical location of base station is known, a correction factor can be
computed by comparing known location with GPS location determined by using
satellites.
4.) Differential correction process takes this correction factor and applies it to GPS data
collected by the GPS receiver in the field. -- Differential correction eliminates
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+6
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Methods to do so have been devised. A classic mechanical gyroscope senses the stability
of a mass rotating on gimbals. More recent ring laser gyros and fiber optic gyros are
based on the interference between laser beams. Current advances in Micro-Electro-
Mechanical Systems (MEMS) offer the potential to develop gyroscopes that are very
small and inexpensive While gyroscopes measure angular motion, accelerometers
measure linear motion. The accelerations from these devices are translated into electrical
signals for processing by the missile computer autopilot. When a gyroscope and an
accelerometer are combined into a single device along with a control mechanism, it is
called an inertial measurement unit (IMU) or inertial navigation system(INS).
+8
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The INS uses these two devices to sense motion relative to a point of origin Inertial
navigation works by telling the missile where it is at the time of launch and how it should
move in terms of both distance and rotation over the course of its flight. The missile
computer uses signals from the INS to measure these motions and insure that the missile
travels along its proper - programmed path. Inertial navigation systems are widel y used
on all kinds of aerospace vehicles, including weapons, military aircraft, commercial
airliners, and spacecraft. Many missiles uses inertial methods for guidance including
AMRAAM ,storm shadow and tomahawk.
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likely to achieve a successful strike in any given weather conditions than any other type
of precision guided munition .
/+
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The central idea behind the design of DGPS/GPS/inertial guided weapons is that of using
a 3-axis gyro/accelerometer package as an inertial reference for the weapon's autopilot,
and correcting the accumulated drift error in the inertial package by using GPS PPS/P-
code. Such weapons are designated as "accurate" munitions as they will offer CEPs
(Circular Error Probable) of the order of the accuracy of GPS P -code signals, typically
about 40ft.
/ig..2. !lo'al "ositioning #ystem used in ranging naigation guidance .
The next incremental step is then to update the weapon before launch with a DGPS
derived position estimate, which will allow it to correct its GPS error as it flies to the
target, such weapons are designated "precise" and will offer accuracies greater than laser
or TV guided weapons, potentially CEPs of several feet. For an aircraft to support such
munitions, it will require a DGPS receiver, a GPS receiver and interfaces on its multiple
ejector racks or pylons to download target and launch point coordinates to the weapons.
The development of purely GPS/inertial guided munitions will produce substantial
changes in how air warfare is conducted.
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Unlike a laser-guided weapon, a GPS/inertial weapon does not require t hat the launch
aircraft remain in the vicinity of the target to illuminate it for guidance - GPS/inertial
weapons are true fire-and-forget weapons, which once released, are wholly autonomous,
and all weather capable with no degradation in accuracy. Existing precision weapons
require an unobscured line of sight between the weapon and the target for the optical
guidance to work.
APPLICATIONS OF GPS*
Many civilian a""lications use one or more of <'!Fs three asic com"onents% asolute
Astronomy% Both "ositional and cloc0 synchroni=ation data is used in Astrometry and
human driver.
+ellular tele"hony% +loc0 synchroni=ation enales time transfer, hich is critical for
stations to facilitate inter1cell handoff and su""ort hyrid <'!Ncellular "osition detection
for moile emergency calls and other a""lications. The first handsets ith integrated
<'!
launched in the late ::;s. The >.!. Gederal +ommunications +ommission (G++)
mandated the feature in either the handset or in the toers (for use in triangulation) in
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+loc0 synchroni=ation% The accuracy of <'! time signals (O; ns)7L is second only to
*isaster reliefNemergency services% *e"end u"on <'! for location and timing
ca"ailities.
Gleet Trac0ing% The use of <'! technology to identify, locate and maintain contact
use <'! to locate a vehicle, "erson, or "et. These devices are attached to the vehicle,
"erson, or the "et collar. The a""lication "rovides continuous trac0ing and moile or
<eotagging% A""lying location coordinates to digital oects such as "hotogra"hs (in e-if
creating ma" overlays ith devices li0e i0on <'1 <'! Aircraft Trac0ing
<'! for Mining% The use of ?TK <'! has significantly im"roved several mining
Milita!(
Target trac0ing% Carious military ea"ons systems use <'! to trac0 "otential ground
and
air targets efore flagging them as hostile. These ea"on systems "ass
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accurately. Military aircraft, "articularly in air1to1ground roles, use <'! to find targets
(for e-am"le, gun camera video from A1 +oras in /ra sho <'! co1ordinates that
Missile and "roectile guidance% <'! allos accurate targeting of various military
E9ELOPMENT
Dith these "arallel develo"ments in the :6;s, it as reali=ed that a su"erior system
could e develo"ed y synthesi=ing the est technologies from 62B, Transit, Timation,
*uring @aor *ay ee0end in :73, a meeting of aout 2 military officers at the
'entagon discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). /t as
at this meeting that Hthe real synthesis that ecame <'! as created.H @ater that year, the
?anging.:L Dith the individual satellites eing associated ith the name avstar
(as ith the "redecessors Transit and Timation), a more fully encom"assing name as
shortened sim"ly to <'!.2;L After Korean Air @ines Glight ;;7, a Boeing 747 carrying
26: "eo"le, as shot don in :93 after straying into the >!!?Fs "rohiited airs"ace,
2L
in the vicinity of !a0halin and Moneron /slands, 'resident ?onald ?eagan issued a
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directive ma0ing <'! freely availale for civilian use, once it as sufficiently
develo"ed,
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as a common good.22L The first satellite as launched in :9:, and the 24th satellite
as
launched in ::4. The <'! "rogram cost at this "oint, not including the cost of the user
eui"ment, ut including the costs of the satellite launches, has een estimated to e
aout >!*P5 illion (then1year dollars).23L ?oger @. Easton is idely credited as the
"rimary inventor of <'!.
/nitially, the highest uality signal as reserved for military use, and the signal availale
for civilian use as intentionally degraded (!elective Availaility). This changed ith
'resident Bill +linton ordering !elective Availaility to e turned off at midnight May ,
2;;;, im"roving the "recision of civilian <'! from ;; meters (33; ft) to 2; meters (66
ft). The e-ecutive order signed in ::6 to turn off !elective Availaility in 2;;; as
"ro"osed y the >.!. !ecretary of *efense, Dilliam 'erry, ecause of the ides"read
groth of differential <'! services to im"rove civilian accuracy and eliminate the >.!.
military advantage. Moreover, the >.!. military as actively develo"ing technologies to
ver the last decade, the >.!. has im"lemented several im"rovements to the <'!
service,
accuracy and integrity for all users, all hile maintaining com"atiility ith e-isting
<'!
eui"ment. <'! moderni=ation25L has no ecome an ongoing initiative to u"grade the
<loal 'ositioning !ystem ith ne ca"ailities to meet groing military, civil, and
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acuisitions, including <'! Bloc0 /// and the e-t <eneration "erational +ontrol
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!ystem (+). The >.!. <overnment continues to im"rove the <'! s"ace and ground
*e"artment of *efense (*o*) is the steard of <'!. Interagency GPS Executive Board
(IGEB) oversa <'! "olicy matters from ::6 to 2;;4. After that the ational !"ace1
"residential directive in 2;;4 to advise and coordinate federal de"artments and agencies
on matters concerning the <'! and related systems.26L The e-ecutive committee is
chaired ointly y the de"uty secretaries of defense and trans"ortation. /ts memershi"
homeland security, the oint chiefs of staff, and A!A. +om"onents of the e-ecutive
office of the "resident "artici"ate as oservers to the e-ecutive committee, and the G++
'ositioning !ervice (as defined in the federal radio navigation "lan and the standard
asis,H and Hdevelo" measures to "revent hostile use of <'! and its augmentations
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CONCLUSION
The proliferation of GPS and INS guidance is a double-edged sword. n the one hand,
This technology "romise in revolution arfare not seen since the laser guided om,
ith
!ingle omers eing ca"ale of doing tas0 of multi"le aircraft "ac0ages. /n summary
<'!1/! guided weapons are not affected by harsh weather conditions or restricted by
a wire, nor do they leave the gunner vulnerable for attack. GPS guided weapons, with
their technological advances over previous, are the superior weapon of choice in modern
day warfare.
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REFERENCES
2) ttp://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/icd200/icd200cw1234.pdf
4)http://www.aero.org/news/current/gpsorbit. html.
5) http://www.trimble.com/gps/
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