Biotechnology Applications - Applications

In Medicine
Biotechnology is a broad field that deals with the exploitation of living organisms to
develop products beneficial for sustainable development. It harnesses cellular and molecular
processes to develop products and technologies that could help in improving human life on
earth. It has a variety of applications that focus on human welfare. Let us have an overview
of major Biotechnology applications and its scope in today’s scenario.

Biotechnology Applications
Biotechnology is widely used in different fields such as medicine, agriculture, food
processing, etc. to produce useful products for human benefits.

The major biotechnology applications are discussed below in detail.

Biotechnology Applications in Medicine

Biotechnology has a variety of applications in the field of medicine. Some of the

biotechnology applications in medicine include the following:

Recombinant Insulin

Insulin is required by diabetic patients to remove excess sugar from the blood. Diabetic
patients have a very low level of insulin or no insulin produced by the body. Therefore, they
need external insulin to control blood glucose levels.
 Later it
was discovered that the insulin produced by the pancreas of the pigs can be used by humans.
But there were not enough pigs to provide the quantities of insulin required. This led to the
cloning of the human insulin gene.

The specific gene sequence that codes for human insulin were introduced in E.coli bacteria.
The gene sequence altered the genetic composition of the E.coli cells. Within 24 hours
several E.coli bacteria containing the recombinant human insulin gene were produced. The
recombinant human insulin was isolated from E.coli cells.

Gene Therapy

Gene Therapy holds the most promising answer to the problem of genetic diseases. Gene
therapy is used to treat genetic disorders usually by the insertion of a normal gene or correct
gene for the defective or inactive gene into an individual with the help of vectors such as
retrovirus, adenovirus, and herpes simplex virus.

The normal gene replaces the defective or inactive gene and carries out its functions. The
therapy has the highest chances of developing a permanent cure if introduced in the earliest
stages of life.

Molecular Diagnosis

Medical diagnosis is another application of biotechnology in the health sector. Many times
the pathogen concentration increases by the time the disease is diagnosed. Hence, early
diagnosis and knowledge of pathophysiology are essential for an effective cure. This can be
achieved with the help of techniques such as Recombinant DNA Technology, Polymerase
Chain Reaction (PCR) and Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), etc.

Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacogenomics has led to the production of drugs that are best suited to an individual’s
genetic makeup. It can be applied in diseases such as cancer, depression, HIV, asthma, etc.

Edible Vaccines

Vaccines are obtained by animals and cell cultures. These vaccines contain inactivated
pathogens.

The transgenic plants can produce antigens that can be used as edible vaccines. Antigenic
proteins from several pathogens can be expressed in plants such as tomato and banana.
Transgenic sugarbeet can treat foot and mouth disease of animals, transgenic banana and
tomato can cure diseases such as cholera and hepatitis B.

Other Biotechnology Applications

1. Fermentation is an ancient invention of biotechnology. Alcohol and bread are being

produced since ages with the help of microorganisms such as yeast. In today’s
scenario, the cultures have been purified and genetically refined to produce high-
quality food products.
2. Crop improvement by crossing the plant breeds with desired traits is another
application of biotechnology in the agriculture sector.
3. Transgenic plants are genetically engineered to produce plants with desired
characteristics.
4. Tissue culture is another application of biotechnology to produce a large number of
plants with an explant. It also helps in increasing the number of endangered plant
species.
5. It is also helpful in forensics for the identification of criminals, or in paternal
disputes.
 8.6 VACCINE

A vaccine is a preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. It is a

biologically prepared product which contains typical agents resembling a microorganism
that causes diseases, made from weakened or dead forms of the microbes, one of its surface
proteins or its toxins. It helps in the stimulation of the immune system and to identify the
invaded microbes as the foreign agent and destroy it so that the immune system can be
recognized and to destroy any microorganism encountered later.

Edward Jenner is considered the founder of vaccinology in the West in 1796, after he
inoculated a 13 year-old-boy with vaccinia virus (cowpox), and demonstrated immunity to
smallpox. In 1798, the first smallpox vaccine was developed.

You need to understand the difference between vaccinations, vaccines, and immunizations.
Let’s discuss them one after the other.

• A vaccine is an antigenic substance that develops immunity against a disease which

can be delivered through needle injections or by mouth or by aerosol.
• Vaccination is the injection of a dead or weakened organism that forms immunity
against that organism in the body.
• Immunization is the process by which an animal or a person stays protected from
diseases.

There are four main types of vaccines that act in different ways:

1. Live-attenuated vaccines
2. Inactivated vaccines
3. Toxoid vaccines.

There is a risk of side effects with all vaccines, but some are less likely to cause side effects
than others.

Live-Attenuated Vaccines
Live-attenuated vaccines inject a live version of the germ or virus that causes a disease into
the body. Although the germ is a live specimen, it is a weakened version that does not cause
any symptoms of infection as it is unable to reproduce once it is in the body.

Live-attenuated vaccines can be made to create immunity against viruses or bacteria, but
they are more commonly used for viruses.

This type of vaccine works by allowing a virus or germ to reproduce enough for the body to
make memory B-cells, which are a type of cell that can recognize and remember a virus and
generate an immune response against it for many years after their initial response.

Live-attenuated vaccines trigger an immune response that is similar to what would occur
during a natural infection, but the person is not able to pass on the virus to other people and
will not become ill with the disease the virus causes.

A person will usually get lifelong immunity from disease through live-attenuated vaccines,
and only one or two doses of the vaccine are usually needed to provide this immunity.

The types of diseases that live-attenuated vaccines are used for include:
 1. Measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR combined vaccine)
2. Rotavirus
3. Smallpox
4. Chickenpox
5. Yellow fever.

As a live version of the virus or bacteria is included this type of vaccine, medical advice
should be sought before the vaccine is given as they may not be suitable for people with
weakened immune systems or long-term health conditions.

Live-attenuated vaccines also need to be kept cool while they are stored, so they may not be
suitable for use in environments where there is little access to refrigeration.

Inactivated Vaccines
An inactivated vaccine uses a strain of a bacteria or virus that has been killed with heat or
chemicals. This dead version of the virus or bacteria is then injected into the body.

Inactivated vaccines are the earliest type of vaccine to be produced, and they do not trigger
an immune response that is as strong as that triggered by live-attenuated vaccines.

Inactivated vaccines do not offer lifelong immunity and need topping up over time, but they
may cause fewer side effects than live-attenuated vaccines.

The types of diseases that inactivated vaccines are used for include:

• Hepatitis A
• Flu
• Polio
• Rabies.

Toxoid Vaccines
1. Toxoid vaccines use toxins created by the bacteria or virus to create immunity to the
specific parts of the bacteria or virus that cause disease, and not the entire bacteria or
virus. The immune response is focused on this specific toxin.
2. Toxoid vaccines do not offer lifelong immunity and need to be topped up over time.
3. Toxoid vaccines are used to create immunity against diphtheria and tetanus.
 8.7 MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS
Molecular diagnosis helps to solve the problem of early diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

Using conventional methods of diagnosis (serum and urine analysis), early detection of diseases
is not possible.To overcome this problem, some molecular diagnosis techniques were developed
that provide early detection of diseases. These are as follows:

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) helps in early detection of diseases or pathogens by the
amplification of their nucleic acid.

Low concentration of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, etc) in the blood does not allow its detection.
PCR can amplify nucleic acids of such pathogens even when their concentration is very low.
PCR technique can be used for detecting HIV in suspected AIDS patients, genetic mutation in
suspected cancer patients and in identifying genetic disorders.

Recombinant DNA technology is a modern molecular diagnostic technique. It is done in the

following steps:

1. A single stranded DNA or RNA tagged with a radioactive molecule called probe, is
allowed to hybridise to its complementary DNA in a clone of cell
2. The cells are then detected by autoradiography.
3. The clone having mutated gene will not appear on the photographic film, because the
probe will not have complementarity with the mutated gene.

Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA) is based on the principle of antigen-
antibody interaction. Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of antigens
(proteins, glycoproteins, etc) or by detecting the antibodies synthesised against the pathogen.
What is Gene therapy?
Gene therapy is a technique which involves the replacement of defective genes with healthy
ones in order to treat genetic disorders. It is an artificial method that introduces DNA into
the cells of the human body. The first gene therapy was successfully accomplished in the
year 1989.

The simple process of gene therapy is shown in the figure below:

In the figure, the cell with the defective gene is injected with a normal gene which helps in
the normal functioning of the cell. This technique is employed mainly to fight against the
diseases in the human body and also to treat genetic disorders. The damaged proteins are
replaced in the cell by the insertion of DNA into that cell. Generally, improper protein
production in the cell leads to diseases. These diseases are treated using a gene therapy
technique. For example, cancer cells contain faulty cells which are different from the normal
cells and have defective proteins. Hence, if these proteins are not replaced, this disease
would prove to be fatal.

Types of Gene Therapy

Basically, there are two types of gene therapy

• Somatic Gene Therapy

This type usually occurs in the somatic cells of human body. This is related to a single
person and the only person who has the damaged cells will be replaced with healthy cells. In
this method, therapeutic genes are transferred into the somatic cells or the stem cells of the
human body. This technique is considered as the best and safest method of gene therapy.

• Germline Gene Therapy

It occurs in the germline cells of the human body. Generally, this method is adopted to treat
the genetic, disease causing-variations of genes which are passed from the parents to their
children. The process involves introducing a healthy DNA into the cells responsible for
producing reproductive cells, eggs or sperms. Germline gene therapy is not legal in many
places as the risks outweigh the rewards.

Application of Gene Therapy

1. It is used in the replacement of genes that cause medical ill-health

2. The method generally destroys the problem causing genes
 3. It helps the body to fight against diseases by adding genes to the human body
4. This method is employed to treat diseases such as cancer, ADA deficiency, cystic
fibrosis, etc.

The first clinical gene therapy was given in 1990 to a 4 - year old girl with adenosine
deaminase (ADA) deficiency. This enzyme is very important for the immune system to
function. SCID is caused due to defect in the gene for the enzyme adenosine deaminase.

Gene therapy holds promise for treating a wide range of diseases, such as cancer, cystic
fibrosis, heart disease, diabetes, hemophilia and AIDS.

TRANSFER OF GENETIC MATERIAL

1. Transfection is the process of deliberately introducing naked or purified nucleic

acids into eukaryotic cells.
2. "Transformation" is typically used to describe non-viral DNA transfer in bacteria
and non-animal eukaryotic cells, including plant cells. In animal cells, transfection is
the preferred term as transformation is also used to refer to progression to a
cancerous state (carcinogenesis) in these cells.
3. Transduction is often used to describe virus-mediated gene transfer into eukaryotic
cells.
 Transgenic animals

Transgenic animals are animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess
and express an extra (foreign) gene. For example, transgenic mice, rats, rabbits, pigs,
sheeps, cows and fish have been produced.

2. Common reasons for developing transgenic animals are:

(i) Study of normal physiology and development is carried out to understand gene
regulation, their effect on the normal functions of the body and its development.
For example, study of complex growth factors like insulin, growth factor.
(ii) Study of diseases can be done by studying genes, which are responsible for
causing diseases in human and their treatments.
For example, transgenic models have been developed for many diseases like cancer,
cystic fibrosis, Alzheimer’s disease.
(iii) Biological products can be produced by introducing the portion of DNA, which
codes for a particular product into transgenic animals.
For example,
(a) Human protein (a-1 antitrypsin) is used to treat emphysema.
(ii) The first transgenic cow in 1997, Rosie produced human protein enriched milk :
(2.4 g/L). This milk contained the human a-lactalbumin and was more ‘nutritionally
balanced for human babies than natural cow milk.
(iv) Vaccine safety can be ensured by testing vaccines on transgenic mice before
being used in humans, e.g. polio vaccine.
(v) Chemical safety testing known as toxicity/safety testing can be done in
transgenic animals.
(a) These animals are made to carry genes, which make them more sensitive to the
toxic substances than non-transgenic animals.
(b) When exposed to toxic substances, their effects are studied in a short time.

Ethical issues in biotechnology applications are

(i) Genetic modification of organisms can have unpredictable results when such organisms
are introduced into an ecosystem.
(ii) The modification/usage of living organisms for public services (food/medicine for
example) has also created problems with patents granted for the same.
(iii) In order to control these issues, the Indian Government has set-up organisations such as
Genetic Engineering Approval Committee (GEAC), which make decisions regarding the
validity of GM research and the safety of introducing GM organisms for public services.

4. Biopatent It is the right granted by the government to an inventor for production of

biological entities, i.e. GM microbes, plants and animals and products derived from them or
applications of such organisms and products.

(i) Public is concerned that certain companies are being granted patents for products and
technologies that make use of the genetic materials, plants and other biological resources
that have long been developed by farmers and indigenous people of a specific
region/country.
(ii) For example,
(a) Rice is being used since thousands of years in Asian countries, of which 20,0000
varieties are in India alone.
(b) Basmati rice is famous for its aroma and flavour, whose 27 varieties are cultivated in
India.
(c) An American company in 1997, got patent rights for Basmati rice through the US Patent
and Trademark Office and was allowed to sell a ‘new’ variety of Basmati in the US and
abroad.
(d) This new variety of Basmati was derived from Indian farmer’s varieties.
(e) Indian Basmati was crossed with semi-dwarf varieties and claimed as an invention or
novelty.
(f) Besides Basmati rice, now attempts are in progress for turmeric and neem (Indian
traditional herbal medicines).
(iii) If attention is not paid immediately to counter these patent applications, other
countries/individuals may encash on our rich legacy.

5. Biopiracy refers to the use of bio-resources by multinational companies and other

organisations without proper authorisation from the countries and people concerned without
any payment. .
(i) The industrialised nations are financially rich but poor in biodiversity and traditional
knowledge, in comparison to developing and under developed countries.
(ii) Traditional knowledge related to bio-resources can be exploited to develop modern
applications and to save time, efforts and expenditure.
(iii) Some nations are developing laws to prevent such unauthorised exploitation of their
bio-resources and traditional knowledge.
(iv) The Indian Parliament has recently cleared the second Amendment of the Indian Patents
Bill. It takes consideration of such issues including patent terms, emergency provisions,
research and development initiative.
What is Cancer?
Cancer is the uncontrolled cell division leading to the formation of a mass of cells called as
a tumor.

Contact inhibition is the property of normal cells by virtue of which contact with other cells
inhibits their uncontrolled growth.

Cancer cells lost the property of contact inhibition and as a result of this, cancerous cells
continue to divide giving rise to masses of cells called tumors.

Classification

A tumour is classified into one of these three types based on its ability to undergo metastasis
(spreading):

Benign Tumour

These tumours are localized at a particular location in the body. Moreover, it does not
spread to the other parts of the body and is generally harmless. However, when a benign
tumour occurs in areas such as the brain, they can turn fatal. Treatment often involves
surgery and it does not grow back.

Malignant Tumour

These tumours are cancerous – meaning that it will grow quickly and spread to other normal
tissues of the body. This ability to spread is called metastasis. Usually, cancer cells
metastasize when it gets into the bloodstream or the lymph nodes and form secondary
tumours across various sites in the body.

Premalignant Tumour

This type of tumour may be benign, but is observed to have the characteristics of a
malignant tumour. It may not have metastasized yet, but it has the potential to turn
cancerous. In other words, a premalignant tumour is a type of tumour that has an increased
risk of becoming cancer. Benign tumours become premalignant and eventually, malignant.

Cancer is one of the most feared diseases in the world and it affects over 11 lakh
people every year in India alone. Worldwide, more than 10 million people succumb to this
disease every year. Let us explore what is cancer, the causes of cancer, symptoms,
diagnosis, and treatment of cancer.

In humans, cell differentiation and proliferation are highly manipulated and regularized by
the cell division mechanism. Uncontrolled cell-division occurs when a process called
contact inhibition fails. In healthy organisms, during this process, when cells come in
contact with other cells, the process of cell replication ceases.

An oncogene is a gene that has the potential to cause cancer.[In tumor cells, these genes
are often mutated, or expressed at high levels.oncogenes may activate or increase growth
factor receptors on the surface of cells (to which growth factors bind). One example
 includes the HER2 oncogene that results in a significantly increased number of HER2
proteins on the surface of breast cancer cells.

Proto-oncogenes are a group of genes that cause normal cells to become cancerous when
they are mutated (Adamson, 1987; Weinstein & Joe, 2006). Mutations in proto-oncogenes
are typically dominant in nature, and the mutated version of a proto-oncogene is called an
oncogene.

Tumor suppressor genes are normal genes that slow down cell division, repair DNA
mistakes, or tell cells when to die (a process known as apoptosis or programmed cell
death). When tumor suppressor genes don't work properly, cells can grow out of control,
which can lead to cancer.

CARCINOGEN

The substances, radiations, or radionuclide which are directly involved in the formation of
cancer are called carcinogenic substances or carcinogen and this process is called
carcinogenicity.

The carcinogenic substances have the ability to damage the genome or disrupt the cells
which are involved in the process of metabolism. There are many radioactive substances
which are considered to be carcinogenic, but their carcinogenic behavior is caused by the
radiations that they emit. Gamma rays and alpha particles are examples of carcinogenic
substances. We also have non-radioactive carcinogens like tobacco smoke, certain dioxins,
and inhaled asbestos. Tobacco smoke produces harmful gases like carbon monoxide which
are cancer causing substances. Carcinogenic substances are often thought as synthetic
chemicals but in reality, they can be both natural or synthetic. The carcinogenic substances
need not be toxic immediately, they are insidious.

Carcinogenic Substances
Cancer is a group of diseases that cause abnormal cell growth with the potential to spread to
the other parts of human body. It is the disease where cells of the body get damaged.
Carcinogenic substances generally increase the risk of cancer because they damage the
metabolic cells of the body. They also damage the DNA component of the cell which is
directly associated with many biological processes in the body. This leads to tumors.

Aflatoxin B1 is produced by a fungus. It grows on the surface of grains, peanut butter, and
various nuts and is a naturally occurring microbial carcinogenic substance. The virus
hepatitis B and human papilloma can also cause cancer to the person who is infected by
them.

Apart from a virus, fungus and radiations there are many other carcinogenic substances. The
substances such as benzene and polynuclear hydrocarbons having more than two benzene
rings which are fused together also have carcinogenic effects. These polynuclear
hydrocarbons are formed when an incomplete combustion of organic material such as
tobacco, coal, and petroleum takes place. These substances enter the human body and
undergo biochemical reactions. This damages the DNA cells and causes cancer which can
further lead to death.
Toxicity is defined as the degree to which a chemical can damage the human cells of a
body. We have seen the effect of carcinogenicity and the substances which are associated
with it. These substances are highly toxic in nature and their use should be avoided in order
to sustain a healthy body.

Types of Cancer
From a medical perspective, cancer types can be classified based on the type of cell it
originated from. Therefore cancer can be classified into:

Carcinoma

The most common form of cancer, it originates from the epithelial cells

Sarcoma

Originates from the connective tissues such as cartilage, fat and bone tissues.

Melanoma

Originates from melanocytes, which are a type of cell that contains pigments.

Lymphoma & Leukaemia

Originates from the cells that comprise blood (such as b lymphocytes or white blood cells)

Causes of Cancer
Many factors are attributed to causing cancer. The most probable factors include:

1. Physical factors – Ionizing radiation, such as X-rays and gamma rays

2. Chemical factors – Such as tobacco and smoke
3. Biological factors – Viral oncogenes, proto-oncogenes and cellular oncogenes

The above factors are called carcinogens.

Diagnosis of Cancer
The detection and diagnosis of cancer are very important before it spreads to other parts of
the body. Identification of cancer genes is pivotal to prevent cancer.

The following methods are used to detect cancer –

1. Biopsy.
2. Histopathological studies of tissue.
3. Radiography technique.
4. Computed tomography.
5. Magnetic resonance imaging.
6. Molecular biology techniques.

Treatment of Cancer
Commonly, three types of treatment are available for cancer.

1. Surgery – Surgically removing localized cancerous mass (Effective for benign

tumours)
2. Radiation therapy – In this therapy, radiation is used to kill the cancer cells.
3. Chemotherapy – Chemotherapeutic drugs are used to kill cancer cells.

Many chemical drugs have side effects in cancer patients like hair loss. So, interferons are
injected into cancer patients to develop immunity against these side-effects.
 “Stem cells are special human cells that can develop into many different types of
cells, from muscle cells to brain cells.”

What are Stem Cells?

Stem cells also have the ability to repair the damaged cells. These cells have strong healing
power. They can evolve into any types of cell.

Researches are going on and it is believed that stem cell therapies can cure ailments like
paralysis and Alzheimer’s as well. Let us have a detailed look at stem cells, its types and
functions.

Types of cells
Stem cells are of the following different types:

• Embryonic Stem Cells

• Adult Stem Cells
• Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
• Mesenchymal stem cells

Embryonic Stem Cells

The fertilized egg begins to divide

immediately. All the cells in the young
embryo are totipotent cells. These cells
form a hollow structure within a few days.
Cells in one region group together to form
the inner cell mass. This contains
pluripotent cells that make up the
developing foetus.

The embryonic stem cells can be further

classified as:

• Totipotent Stem Cells: These can differentiate into all possible types of stem cells.
• Pluripotent Stem Cells: These are the cells from an early embryo and can
differentiate into any cell type.
• Multipotent Stem Cells: These differentiate into a closely related cell type. For eg.,
the hematopoietic stem cells differentiate into red blood cells and white blood cells.
• Oligopotent Stem Cells: Adult lymphoid or myeloid cells are oligopotent. They can
differentiate into a few different types of cells.
• Unipotent Stem Cells: They can produce cells only of their own type. Since they
have the ability to renew themselves, they are known as unipotent stem cells. For
eg., Muscle stem cells.

Adult Stem Cells

These stem cells are obtained from developed organs and tissues. They can repair and
replace the damaged tissues in the region where they are located. For eg., hematopoietic
stem cells are found in the bone marrow. These stem cells are used in bone marrow
transplants to treat specific types of cancers.
Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

These cells have been tested and arranged by converting tissue-specific cells into embryonic
cells in the lab. These cells are accepted as an important tool to learn about normal
development, onset and progression of the disease and also helpful in testing various drugs.
These stem cells share the same characteristics as embryonic cells do. They also have the
potential to give rise to all the different types of cells in the human body.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells

These cells are mainly formed from the connective tissues surrounding other tissues and
organs known as the stroma. These mesenchymal stem cells are accurately called stromal
cells. The first mesenchymal stem cells were found in the bone marrow that is capable of
developing bones, fat cells, and cartilage.

There are different mesenchymal stem cells that are used to treat various diseases as they
have been developed from different tissues of the human body. The characteristics of
mesenchymal stem cells depend on the organ from where they originate.

Hematopoietic stem cells

An immature cell that can develop into all types of blood cells, including white
blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Hematopoietic stem cells are found in the
peripheral blood and the bone marrow. Also called blood stem cell.

MYELOGENOUS CELLS

In hematopoiesis, myeloid or myelogenous

cells are blood cells that arise from a
progenitor cell for granulocytes, monocytes,
erythrocytes, or platelets[1][2] (the common
myeloid progenitor, that is, CMP or CFU-
GEMM), or in a narrower sense also often
used, specifically from the lineage of the
myeloblast (the myelocytes, monocytes, and
their daughter types). Thus, although all
blood cells, even lymphocytes, are normally born in the bone marrow in adults, myeloid
cells in the narrowest sense of the term can be distinguished from lymphoid cells.

Lymphoid cells
. Lymphoid cells include T cells, B cells, natural killer cells, and innate lymphoid cells

Sources of Stem Cells

Stem Cells originate from different parts of the body. Adult stem cells can be found in
specific tissues in the human body. Matured cells are specialized to conduct various
functions. Generally, these cells can develop the kind of cells found in tissues where they
reside.

Embryonic Stem Cells are derived from 5-day old blastocysts that develop into embryos and
are pluripotent in nature. These cells can develop any type of cell and tissue in the body.
These cells have the potential to regenerate all the cells and tissues that have been lost
because of any kind of injury or disease.

Myeloid tissue is the bone marrow arising tissue; bone marrow is the place where blood
cells are synthesized. Bone marrow is two types of red marrow known as myeloid tissue and
yellow marrow. Bone marrow contains two types of stem cells, hematopoietic cells, and
stromal cells. All the blood cells (red blood cells and white blood cells) are produced from
hemopoietic tissue or hematopoietic tissue (a group of cells) by the process of
hematopoiesis, so the myeloid tissues are the type of hematopoietic tissue because of they
are comprised of the hematopoietic stem cells which are responsible for performing
hematopoiesis. :

Applications of Stem Cells

Following are the important applications of stem cells:

Tissue Regeneration

This is the most important application of stem cells. The stem cells can be used to grow a
specific type of tissue or organ. This can be helpful in kidney and liver transplants. The
doctors have already used the stem cells from beneath the epidermis to develop skin tissue
that can repair severe burns or other injuries by tissue grafting.

Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease

A team of researchers have developed blood vessels in mice using human stem cells. Within
two weeks of implantation, the blood vessels formed their network and were as efficient as
the natural vessels.

Treatment of Brain Diseases

Stem cells can also treat diseases such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s. These can
help to replenish the damaged brain cells. The researchers have tried to differentiate
embryonic stem cells into these type of cells and make it possible to treat diseases.

Blood Disease Treatment

The adult hematopoietic stem cells are used to treat cancers, sickle cell anaemia, and other
immunodeficiency diseases. These stem cells can be used to produce red blood cells and
white blood cells in the body.
Major advancements in the medical sciences have been the development of new imaging
techniques that provide detailed pictures of internal organs.
(1) X-RAYS
(i) Following their discovery by Wilhelm Roentgen, a German physicist in 1895, X-ray
became an important tool for medical diagnosis.
(ii) X-ray are a form of electromagnetic radiation of extremely short wavelength.
(iii) When a beam of X-rays is directed at a part of the body such as chest, the rays
are absorbed more by dense structures such as the ribs or heart muscles than by less
dense structures such as the skin or lungs.
(iv) This causes shadows of variable intensity to be cast on a photographic film.
(v) X-rays cause no sensation when passed through body tissues.
(vi) Large or frequent radiation doses may damage the skin and internal organs and
may cause cancer in later life.
(vii) The study of X-rays for detection and treatment of disease is called radiology.
(viii) X-ray imaging in the simplest form is commonly employed for diagnosing
diseases of the heart, lungs and detection of bone and joint injuries.
(ix) Nowadays, the risk involved in having X-rays is extremely small; radiation
doses are kept to a minimum.

(2) COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC SCANNING (CT)

(i) CT scanning was developed by Godfrey Hounsfield of Britain in 1968 (Nobel
Prize in 1979).
(ii) This technique combines the use of X-rays with computer technology to produce
a two or three-dimensional clear cross-sectioned image of an area.
(iii) Computed tomographic scanning is also known as CAT (Computed Axial
Tomography).
(iv) CT scanning provides clearer and more detailed information than X-rays.
(v) Another advantage of CT scanning is that it tends to minimize the amount of
radiation exposure.
(vi) CT scanning can be used to obtain images of any part of the body.
(vii) CT scanning helps in the diagnosis of diseases of brain, spinal cord, chest and
abdomen.
(viii) This technique is also extremely useful in detecting tumour and monitoring the
extent of their spread to surrounding tissues and organs.

(3) MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI)

(i) MRI was originally discovered in 1946 independently by Felix Bloch and Purcell
in USA.
(ii) MRI is a diagnostic technique that provides high-quality cross-sectioned or
three-dimensional images of organs and structures without using X-rays or other
radiation.
(iii) This technique exploits the natural behaviour of the protons (nuclei) of
hydrogen atoms when they are subjected to a very strong magnetic field and radio
waves.
(iv) The most abundant source of protons in the body are hydrogen atoms in water
molecules.
(v) An MRI scan reflects differences in the water content of tissues.
(vi) A newer application of MRI known as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
spectroscopy (NMR) relies on the detection of other chemical elements such as
phosphorus and calcium.
(vii) The patient lies down surrounded by massive electromagnets and is exposed to
short bursts of powerful magnetic field and waves.
(viii) The bursts stimulate protons (hydrogen nuclei) in the patient's tissues to emit
radio signals.
(ix) The signals are detected and analyzed by a computer to create an image of a
“slice” of the patient's body.
(x) In imaging NMR is superior to CT scanning; it generally gives much greater
contrast between normal and abnormal tissues, it is free from radiation hazards and
images can be obtained in any plane unlike CT, which is restricted to cross-sectional
imaging.
(xi) There are no known risks or side effects of MRI.
(xii) MRI is a costly test that is not yet widely available.
(xiii) MRI is especially useful in studying brain and spinal cord. It can clearly
differentiate between white and gray matter.
ECG
ECG stands for electrocardiograph. It gives a graphical representation of the electrical
activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle which helps to further detect the abnormalities
and help us to measure the functioning of the heart. To obtain a standard ECG graph, a
patient is connected to the machine with three electrical leads, one to each wrist and to the
left ankle, that continuously monitor the heart activity and functioning. The human heart
produces an electrical impulse passing through our heart, it generates an electrical impulse
by itself.

Explanation of ECG Different Waves

There are mainly three different types of ECG is performed:

1. Resting ECG: When your body is in resting state.under this type machine examine
your heart beat during resting condition.
2. Ambulatory ECG: This type of ECG is conducted for 24 hours. The heart’s
electrical impulses are measured by a device called the Holter Monitor.
3. Cardiac Stress Test: This test is used to measure ECG when you are on an exercise
bike.

Different Types of Waves Produced By Electrocardiogram

1. The P-Wave

It represents the electrical excitation (or depolarisation) of the atria, which leads to the
contraction of both the atria.

Features of P - Wave

• P duration < 0.12 sec

• P amplitude < 2.5 mm
• Frontal plane P wave axis: 0° to +75°
• May see notched P waves in frontal plane

2. The QRS Complex

It represents the depolarisation of the ventricles, which initiates the ventricular contraction.

Features of QRS Complex

• QRS duration ≤ 0.10 sec

• QRS amplitude varies from lead to lead and also from person to person. Two
determinants of QRS voltages are:

Size of the ventricular chambers (i.e., the larger the chamber, the larger the voltage)

Nearness of chest electrodes to ventricular chamber (the closer, the larger the voltage)

3. T-Wave
It represents the return of the ventricles from excited to normal state (repolarisation) and the
end of the T-wave marks the end of systole.

The normal peak of the T wave is usually in the same direction as the QRS wave except in
the right precordial leads. In the normal ECG the T wave is always upright.

By counting the number of QRS complexes that occur in a given time period, a person can
determine the heart beat rate of an individual.

ECG Graph

Electrocardiograph machine includes:

1. They have small sticky electrodes attached to the arms, chest, legs.
2. These electrodes are connected to the ECG machine with the help of wires that help
in detecting the electrical impulses occurring at each heartbeat.
3. These electrodes can detect every minute form of changes happening in heart
muscles and draw every depolarising pattern of heartbeat on a graph.

Feature of Normal ECG

1. Heart beat should be in between 60-90 beats per minute (bpm).

2. PR Interval: 0.12 - 0.20 sec
3. QRS Duration: 0.06 - 0.10 sec
4. QT Interval (QTc ≤ 0.40 sec)

Types of ECG Test

Three major types of ECG test are there:

1. Resting ECG: When your body is in resting state.under this type machine examine your
heart beat during resting condition.

2. Ambulatory ECG: This type of ECG is conducted for 24 hours. The heart’s electrical
impulses are measured by a device called the Holter Monitor.

3. Cardiac Stress Test: This test is used to measure ECG when you are on an exercise bike.

Why is an ECG Done?

ECG is done to determine or detect

1. Abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmias)

2. If there are any blocked or narrowed arteries in your heart (coronary artery disease)
are causing chest pain or a heart attack.
3. To find weather you have had a previous heart attack or not.
4. To monitor if the medicines are causing any side-effects to our body system.

Medical Use of ECG

The main function of ECG is to obtain information regarding the heart impulse. There is a
great medical use of this information regarding your health issues like:
 1. Chest pain
2. Shortness of breath
3. Lightheadedness
4. Dizziness
5. Fainting spells
6. It is also required prior to any type of heart surgery, including surgery for
pacemaker placement.

Clinical significance

1. Enlarged p wave

The presence of broad, notched (bifid) P waves in lead II is a sign of left atrial
enlargement, classically due to mitral stenosis. The presence of tall, peaked P
waves in lead II is a sign of right atrial enlargement, usually due to pulmonary
hypertension (e.g. cor pulmonale from chronic respiratory disease).

2. A short QRS complex is desirable as it proves that the ventricles are depolarized
rapidly, which in turn implies that the conduction system functions properly. Wide
(also referred to as broad) QRS complexes indicate that ventricular depolarization is
slow, which may be due to dysfunction in the conduction system.

3. Long PR interval (of over 200 ms) indicates a slowing of conduction between the
atria and ventricles, usually due to slow conduction through the atrioventricular node
(AV node). This is known as first degree heart block.Bradycardia.

4. Prolonged QT Multiple medications, electrolyte abnormalities (hypocalcemia,

hypomagnesemia and hypokalemia) and certain disease states (ie, intracranial
hemorrhage) can prolong the QT interval. Prolonged QT genetic syndromes exist
and include Romano-Ward syndrome, Jervell-Lange-Nielsen syndrome and long-
QT 1-13 syndrome.

5. Elevated ST segment
summarize, non-ischemic causes of ST-segment elevation include left ventricular
hypertrophy, pericarditis, ventricular-paced rhythms, hypothermia, hyperkalemia
and other electrolyte imbalances, and left ventricular aneurysm.
6.
Tall T waves suggest hyperkalemia, but there are other causes as well, including
hyperacute ischemic changes or a normal variant (see Figure 2). In hyperkalemia,
the T waves are tall, symmetric, narrow, pointed, and tented as if pinched from
above.
 8.12.5 EEG

The full meaning of EEG is Electroencephalogram. This is a test to know the proper
functionality of our brain. With the help of this test, the doctors can understand the electrical
activity in the brain. Our brain cells communicate with each other with electrical impulses,
and if any problem occurs in that process, an EEG test can detect it.

EEG abbreviation works by tracking and recording the electrical wave in our brain. Small
metal discs will be attached to your scale, these are called electrodes. These electrodes are
there to analyze the functionality of the brain waves and send that report to a computer to
record the results.

When Is An EEG Performed?

As said above, this test can analyze and record the electrical waves of our brain, which are
very important to keep our brain's functionality. Thus, if there is any problem like a brain
disorder or something like that, EEG's full form helps to identify the problem. Here are the
many conditions in which EEG should be performed…

• Head injury
• Seizure disorder
• Memory problems
• Dementia
• Sleep disorder
• Brain tumor
• To evaluate brain activity before heart or liver transplant
• Inflammation of the brain
• Stroke
• Monitoring activity during brain surgery

If a person is in coma, then with the help of an Electroencephalogram, doctors can

determine the level of brain activity.

• Head injury
• Alcohol or drug abuse
• Hemorrhage
• Epilepsy
• Blockage in blood flow etc.

The preparation procedure is relatively easy. Before EEG meaning Electroencephalogram,

you will need to wash your hair the night before the test. You should not use any products
on your head such as dry shampoo, hairspray, or anything like that. Other than this, your
doctor will give you a list of precautions that you must follow beforehand.

Brain wave types

1. Alpha brainwaves

Alpha brainwaves (8-12 Hz.) are slower and larger. They are associated with a state
of relaxation and represent the brain shifting into an idling gear, waiting to respond
when needed. If we close our eyes and begin picturing something peaceful, there is
an increase in alpha brainwaves.
2. Beta brainwaves

Beta brainwaves (13 – 38 Hz) are

small, faster brainwaves associated
with a state of mental, intellectual
activity and outwardly focused conce
nd most subtle brain waves. Gamma
rhythms modulate perception and
consciousness

3. Delta brainwaves

Delta brainwaves (1-3 Hz) are the

slowest, highest amplitude brain waves, and are what we experience when we are
asleep. In general, different levels of awareness are associated with dominant
brainwave states.

4. Theta brain waves

Theta brainwaves (4-7 Hz) brain waves represent a day dreamy, spacey state of mind
that is associated with mental inefficiency. At very slow levels, theta brain wave
activity is a very relaxed state, representing the twilight zone between waking and
sleep.

5. Gamma brainwaves

Gamma brainwaves (39 – 42 Hz) are the fastest and most subtle brain
waves. Gamma rhythms modulate perception and consciousness.
 8.12.6 ELISA

ELISA is a plate based technique used to detect and quantify peptides, antibodies,
proteins and hormones.”

What Is ELISA?
ELISA is the basic assay technique, known as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (also
referred to as EIA: Enzyme Immunoassay) that is carried out to detect and measure
antibodies, hormones, peptides and proteins in the blood.

Antibodies are blood proteins produced in response to a specific antigen. It helps to examine
the presence of antibodies in the body, in case of certain infectious diseases.

ELISA is a distinguished analysis compared to other antibody-assays as it yields

quantitative results and separation of non-specific and specific interactions that take place
through serial binding to solid surfaces, which is normally a polystyrene multiwell plate.

Types Of ELISA
ELISA tests can be classified into three types depending upon the different methods used
for binding between antigen and antibodies, namely:

• Indirect ELISA – Antigen is coated to the microtiter well

• Sandwich ELISA – Antibody is coated on the microtiter well
• Competitive ELISA – Microtiter well which is antigen-coated is filled with the
antigen-antibody mixture.

Indirect ELISA

• Indirect ELISA detects the presence of an antibody in a sample.

• The antigen is attached to the wells of the microtitre plate.
• A sample containing the antibodies is added to the antigen-coated wells for binding
with the antigen.
• The free primary antibodies are washed away and the antigen-antibody complex is
detected by adding a secondary antibody conjugated with an enzyme that can bind
with the primary antibody.
• All the free secondary antibodies are washed away. A specific substrate is added
which gives a coloured product.
• The absorbance of the coloured product is measured by spectrophotometry.

Sandwich ELISA

• Sandwich ELISA helps to detect the presence of antigen in a sample.

• The microtitre well is coated by the antibody.
• The sample containing the antigen is added to the well and washed to remove free
antigens.
• Then an enzyme-linked secondary antibody, which binds to another epitope on the
antigen is added. The well is washed to remove any free secondary antibodies.
• The enzyme-specific substrate is added to the plate to form a coloured product,
which can be measured.
Competitive ELISA

• Competitive ELISA helps to detect antigen concentration in a sample.

• The microtitre wells are coated with the antigen.
• Antibodies are incubated in a solution having the antigen.
• The solution of the antigen-antibody complex is added to the microtitre wells. The
well is then washed to remove any unbound antibodies.
• More the concentration of antigen in the sample, lesser the free antibodies available
to interact with the antigen, which is coated in the well.
• The enzyme-linked secondary antibody is added to detect the number of primary
antibodies present in the well.
• The concentration is then determined by spectrophotometry.

Principle of ELISA
ELISA works on the principle that specific antibodies bind the target antigen and detect the
presence and quantity of antigens binding. In order to increase the sensitivity and precision
of the assay, the plate must be coated with antibodies with high affinity. ELISA can provide
a useful measurement of antigen-antibody concentration.

ELISA Procedure
Materials needed in ELISA Testing

1. Pipettes, washer system, ELISA plate reader: Readers, washers and pipette are
available as manual or automated system. ...
2. Reagents needed for the testing– Concluded in the kit (coated plates, sample
diluents, controls, wash concentrate, conjugate, substrate, stop solution)

ELISA is one of the easiest blood tests that can be carried out. It is rapid, quick and requires
a blood sample of the patient. The entire procedure of ELISA is mentioned below.

1. An antibody is attached to a polystyrene plate which is a solid surface and is

attracted or has an affinity towards bacteria, other antibodies and hormones.
2. A microtiter coated with antigen is filled with this antigen-antibody mixture after
which free antibodies are removed by washing.
3. A second antibody specific to primary antibody is added which is usually conjugated
with an enzyme.
4. Free enzyme-linked secondary antibodies are removed by washing the plate.
5. Finally, the substrate is added. The substrate is converted by the enzyme to form a
coloured product, which can be measured by spectrophotometry.

HCG protein which indicates pregnancy is detected by ELISA. A combination of blood or

urine sample and purified HCG linked to an enzyme is added to the system. If HCG is
absent in the test sample, then only the linked enzyme binds to the solid surface.

The more the substance of interest is present, the more reaction takes place and less of
linked enzyme binds to the solid surface. These reactions are indicated usually with a
change in the colour of the solution.

Diseases That Can Be Diagnosed Using ELISA

ELISA can be used to detect some of these conditions:

• Ebola
• Pernicious anaemia
• AIDS
• Rotavirus
• Lyme disease
• Syphilis
• Toxoplasmosis
• Zika virus
• Carcinoma of the epithelial cells

Advantages Of ELISA
Following are some of the advantages of the ELISA technique:

• Results fetched from ELISA gives an accurate diagnosis of a particular disease since
two antibodies are used.
• Can be carried out for complex samples as the antigen is not required to get purified
to detect.
• It is highly responsive since direct and indirect analysis methods can be carried out.
• It is a rapid test, yields results quickly.
• Possible detection for ELISA ranges from the quantitative, semi-quantitative,
standard curve, qualitative, calibration curve models etc.
• Easier to perform and uncomplicated process as compared to other assays which
require the presence of radioactive materials.

Applications of ELISA
The applications of ELISA are discussed below:

1. The presence of antibodies and antigens in a sample can be determined.

2. It is used in the food industry to detect any food allergens present.
3. To determine the concentration of serum antibody in a virus test.
4. During a disease outbreak, to evaluate the spread of the disease, e.g. during recent
COVID-19 outbreak, rapid testing kits are being used to determine presence of
antibodies in the blood sample.