MEE1004: Fluid Mechanics

Introduction to Fluid Statics

Dr. Abinash Mohanta

Assistant Professor (Senior)
Department of Thermal and Energy Engg.
School of Mechanical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
Tamil-Nadu-632014, India
(WhatsApp No.: 07008923013)
Email ID: abinash.mohanta@vit.ac.in
Introduction to Fluid Statics
Properties of Fluid
 Definition of Fluid Concept of Continuum

 Fluid Properties

 Classification of Fluids

 Thermodynamic Properties
 Introduction
Fluid:
• A substance which is capable of flowing.
• It has no definite shape.
• It is a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied
shear stress .
Mechanics: Physical science that deals with both stationary and
moving bodies under the influence of forces.
Fluid Mechanics: Science that deals with the behavior of fluids
at rest (fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and
interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at the boundaries
Hydrodynamics & Hydraulics
Gas dynamics & Aerodynamics
Meteorology, Oceanography and Hydrology
 Statics

Mechanics Kinematics

Dynamics

FLUID STATIC - Study of fluid at rest

FLUID KINEMATICS - Study of fluid in motion without
considering pressure forces
FLUID DYNAMICS - Study of fluid in motion (with considering
forces)
The knowledge of fluid phenomena is important as it requires for
water supply, irrigation, navigation, and waterpower problems.
What is fluid mechanics?
• The branch of applied mechanics concerned with the statics
and dynamics of fluids - both liquids and gases.
• The analysis of the behavior of fluids is based on the
fundamental laws of mechanics which relate continuity of
mass and energy with force and momentum together with the
familiar solid mechanics properties.
• There are two aspects of fluid mechanics which make it
different to solid mechanics:
– The nature of a fluid is much different to that of a solid
– In fluids we usually deal with continuous streams of fluid
without a beginning or end. In solids we only consider
individual elements.
 Fluid Mechanics is everywhere
• Automobiles (standard car, sports
car)
• Space crafts (Airplane, rockets..)
 Fluid Mechanics is everywhere
• Sports ball dynamics
• Power and process plants
• Nature / inanimate (Tornado, River,
Raindrop…)
• Nature / animate (Butterfly, Fish, Snakes
…)
• Human body / Medical science
(Respiratory, Pulmonary, Cardiovascular
systems)
• Fluid structure interactions
 Applications & modern trends
The various applications of fluid mechanics are as
follows:
 Aerodynamics
 Automobile and aircrafts
 Hydraulic and pneumatic system
 Gas dynamics
 Civil engineering
 Chemical industries, etc.

The recent trends/techniques in the area of fluid

mechanics are:
 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
 Particle image velocimetry (PIV)
 What we Understand:::::
• A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously irrespective of
the magnitude of shear force applied.
i.e. Fluid can also be defined as the state of matter that cannot
sustain any shear stress.
• This continuous deformation under the application of shear stress
constitutes a flow.
• It also be defined as the state of matter that cannot sustain any
shear stress.
• Conversely this definition implies if a fluid is at rest there are no
shearing forces acting. All forces must be perpendicular to the
planes which they are acting.
• For fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero and pressure is the only
normal stress.
• A shear stress, often denoted by τ (Greek: τ), is the
component of stress coplanar with a material cross section.
Shear stress arises from the force vector component parallel to
the cross section of the material. Normal stress, on the other
hand, arises from the force vector component perpendicular to
the material cross section on which it acts.
• Shear stress arises from shear forces, which are pairs of equal
and opposing forces acting on opposite sides of an object.
Shear stress in Fluid
• Any real fluids (liquids and gases included) moving along a solid
boundary will incur a shear stress at that boundary.
• The no-slip condition dictates that the speed of the fluid at the
boundary (relative to the boundary) is zero; although at some
height from the boundary the flow speed must equal that of the
fluid. The region between these two points is named the boundary
layer.
• For all Newtonian fluids in laminar flow, the shear stress is
proportional to the strain rate in the fluid, where the viscosity is the
constant of proportionality. For non-Newtonian fluids,
the viscosity is not constant.
• The shear stress is imparted onto the boundary as a result of this
loss of velocity.
 where
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the flow;
u is the flow velocity along the boundary;
y is the height above the boundary.

Specifically, the wall shear stress is defined as:

Fluid Properties
 Density
 Specific volume
 Specific weight
 Specific gravity
 Viscosity
 Surface tension
 Capillarity
 Cohesion and adhesion
 Vapour pressure
Density/Mass Density
Specific Weight/ Weight Density
 VISCOSITY
VISCOSITY is defined as the property fluid which offers
resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over another
adjacent layer of the fluid.
 When two layers of a fluid, a
distance dy apart, move one over
the other at different velocities i.e
u and u+du, the viscosity together
with relative velocity causes a
shear stress acting between the
fluid layers
 The layers cause the shear stress to
each other.
 This shear stress (τ) is proportional
to the rate of change of velocity
(u) w.r.t. distance (y).
Conversion SI to CGS unit:
Viscosity

A simulation of liquids with different viscosities.

The liquid on the right has higher viscosity than
the liquid on the left.
• Two common units of kinematic viscosity are m2/s and stoke
(1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s).
• The viscosity of liquids decreases with temperature, whereas the
viscosity of gases increases with temperature.
S.I. Units : 𝑚2 /s
• C.G.S Units : Stoke = 𝑐𝑚 2 /sec
• One Stoke = 10−4 𝑚 2 /sec
For liquids the mass density, the specific weight and
specific volume vary only slightly with variation of
temperature and pressure(since the molecules are
arranged compactly)

For gases these properties vary greatly with variation

of either temperature, or pressure, or both(since the
molecular spacing in gases changes considerably on
account of pressure and temperature)
 Causes of Viscosity in Fluids
• The causes of viscosity in a fluid are possibly attributed to two
factors:
 (i) intermolecular force of cohesion

 (ii) molecular momentum exchange

• For Newtonian fluids, the coefficient of viscosity depends strongly

on temperature but varies very little with pressure.
 For liquids, molecular motion is less
significant than the forces of
cohesion, thus viscosity of liquids
decrease with increase in
temperature.
 For gases, molecular motion is more
significant than the cohesive forces,
thus viscosity of gases increase with
increase in temperature.
Change of Viscosity of Water and Air under 1 atm
Newton’s law of viscosity

Fluids which obey the above relation

are known as Newtonian Fluids
otherwise Non-Newtonian Fluids.
Classification of Fluids
Ideal fluid - incompressible & no viscosity
Real fluid - possesses viscosity
Newtonian fluid - obeys Newton’s law
Non-Newtonian fluid - disobeys Newton’s law
Ideal plastic fluid - shear stress is
more than the yield value and
obeys Newton’s law
 Ideal Fluid
• Consider a hypothetical fluid having a zero viscosity (μ = 0).
Such a fluid is called an ideal fluid and the resulting motion is
called as ideal or inviscid flow.
• In an ideal flow, there is no existence of shear force because of
vanishing viscosity.
• All the fluids in reality have viscosity (μ > 0) and hence they
are termed as real fluid and their motion is known as viscous
flow.
• Under certain situations of very high velocity flow of viscous
fluids, an accurate analysis of flow field away from a solid
surface can be made from the ideal flow theory.
 Newtonian fluids
• Among fluids there can be wide differences in behavior under
stress
• Fluids obeying Newton's law where value of m is constant are
known as Newtonian fluids.
• If m is constant the shear stress is linearly dependent on
velocity gradient.
• This is true for most common fluids viz. water, air, mercury
• Thus for these fluids, the plot of shear stress against velocity
gradient is a straight line through the origin. The slope of the
line determines the viscosity.
Newtonian fluids
• There are several categories of these fluids and are based on
the relationship between shear stress and the velocity gradient
(rate of shear strain) in the fluid.
For power law model(Ostwald –de Waele model),

m - flow consistency index & n - flow behavior index

• is known Apparent viscosity or Effective viscosity

• The abscissa in represents the behavior of ideal fluids since for

the ideal fluids the resistance to shearing deformation rate is
always zero, and hence they exhibit zero shear stress under
any condition of flow.
• The ordinate represents the ideal solid for there is no
deformation rate under any loading condition.
 Non-Newtonian fluids
• fluids where the linear relationship between the shear stress and
the deformation rate is not valid is known as non Newtonian
fluids.
• The fluids, viz. paints, different polymer solution, blood do not
obey the typical linear relationship are known as non-Newtonian
fluids.
• For non-Newtonian fluids the value of m is not constant and it
varies with rate of deformation.
• No general model can describe the constitutive equation of all
kinds of non-Newtonian fluids
• The mathematical model for describing the mechanistic behavior
of a variety of commonly used non-Newtonian fluids is Power-
Law model
• The Newtonian fluids behave according to the law that shear stress
is linearly proportional to velocity gradient or rate of shear strain.
• Thus for these fluids, the plot of shear stress against velocity
gradient is a straight line through the origin. The slope of the line
determines the viscosity.
• The non-Newtonian fluids are further classified as plastic, pseudo-
plastic, dilatant and Bingham plastic.
• When n=1, m equals µ, the model identically satisfies Newtonian
model as a special case
• When n<1, the model is valid for Pseudoplastic fluids (Eg:
gelatin, blood, milk )
• When n>1, model valid for Dilatant fluids,(Eg: sugar in water,
aqueous suspension of rice starch)
• The fluids which require a yield stress for the deformation rate to
be established, is known as Bingham plastic(Eg: Sludge)
• Consider three molecules X, Y and Z in the liquid.
• Molecule X is attracted equally in all direction therefore it is in
equilibrium condition. It exerts equal force in all direction. The
resultant force acting on the molecule is zero.
• Consider molecule Y which is placed near the free surface. The
upward and downward force acting on that molecule Y is
unbalanced. Obviously the net resultant force is acting downward
direction.
• The molecule Z is
placed at the free
surface and it has a
net downward force.
• The phenomenon of surface tension arises due to the two kinds of
intermolecular forces
 Cohesion
 Adhesion
• Mechanical work is performed in creating a free surface or in
increasing the area of the surface
• Thus a surface requires mechanical energy for its formation and the
existence of a free surface implies the presence of stored
mechanical energy known as free surface energy
• Any system tries to attain the condition of stable equilibrium with
its potential energy as minimum.
• Thus a quantity of liquid will adjust its shape until its surface area
and consequently its free surface energy is a minimum
• It describes the strength of the surface interactions.
COHESIVE FORCE is the force acting between like
molecules or between molecules of same matter.
ADHESIVE FORCE is the force acting between unlike
molecules or between molecules of different matter.
The surface tension is everywhere on the surface irrespective of its
curvature and acts in the surface.
(i) Formation of water bubbles.
(ii) Formation of rain droplets.
(iii) Collection of dust particles on water surface.
(iv) A small needle can gently placed on the liquid surface without
sinking.
(v) Breakup of liquid jets.
(vi) Capillary rise and capillary siphoning.
Surface tension depends directly upon the intermolecular cohesion and
hence the cohesion decreases with temperature rise, the surface
tension also decreases with rise in temperature.
It also depends upon the following factors.
(i) Nature of the liquid.
(ii) Nature of the surrounding liquid.
(iii) Kinetic energy of the liquid.
Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet
 It shows that with decrease of diameter of the droplet, pressure
intensity inside the droplet increases.
Surface Tension on Soap Bubble
 Surface Tension on a Liquid Jet
Consider a liquid jet. The cylinder diameter of this liquid jet is ‘d’
and length is ‘L’.
For equilibrium condition,
Force due to excess pressure =
Force due to surface tension Excess Pressure x Normal area
= Surface tension x circumference
Hence, P ( d x L ) = σ (2L)
Hence, P= 2σ/d
• Special cases: (1) Spherical liquid droplet, ∆P = 2σ/R

(2) Cylindrical liquid jet, ∆P = σ/R

(3) Spherical bubble, ∆P = 4σ/R

• Surface tension is the driving force for water beading on a
waxy surface and free droplets of liquid assuming a spherical
shape.
• It decreases slightly with increasing temperature.
• The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20°C is
about 0.073 N/m.
• Surface tension can be reduced by adding surface active agents
(surfactants) to the liquid.
 Example
• The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20ºC is
0.0725 N/m. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be
0.02 N/cm2 greater than the outside pressure. Calculate the
diameter of the droplet of the water.
• Ans 1.45 mm
Capillarity
 Capillarity
• It is defined as the phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid
surface in a small tube relative to the adjacent general level of
liquid when the tube is held vertically in the liquid.
• The rise of liquid: Capillary rise
• The fall of the liquid surface: Capillary depression

 In other word the adhesion

and cohesion properties
result in the phenomenon
of capillarity by which a
liquid either rises or falls in
a tube dipped into the
liquid depending upon
whether the force of
adhesion is more than that
of cohesion or not.
Expression for Capillary Rise:
Consider a narrow glass
tube of diameter of d
dipped in a liquid
(water).
Water in the tube will
rise above the adjacent
liquid level. It is called
capillary rise.
Let • Under equilibrium, two forces are acting
σ = Surface tension of on the water inside.
liquid. • The rest one is weight of water column
ϴ = Angle of contact and second is the upward force acting on
between the glass tube water due to surface tension.
and the liquid surface. • The weight of liquid of height h should be
h = Height of liquid balanced by the force at liquid surface.
column in glass tube. • This force at surface of liquid is due to
surface tension.
The weight of liquid of height h in the tube = Volume x ρ x g
= (π/4)d x h x ρ x g

Here ρ = density of liquid

g = acceleration due to gravity.
The vertical component of surface tensile force = surface tension x
circumference x cosϴ
= σ x πd x cosϴ
At equilibrium, the weight of liquid balanced by the vertical
component of tensile force.

For water and glass tube, the angle ϴ is almost zero. ie cosϴ ≈ 1
Then the equation for capillary rise of water in the glass tube is
h = 4 σ /(ρgd)
Expression for Capillary Fall:
• Consider a narrow glass tube
dipped in mercury, the level of
mercury in tube will be lower than
the surface level of mercury
outside the tube.
• It is called capillary depression.
• Here in fig. two forces are acting
on the mercury inside the tube.
• First one is hydrostatic force that
acting upward, and
• Second one is downward force The hydrostatic force on liquid
due to surface tension. = Intensity of pressure at depth
• In equilibrium condition these (h) x Area
forces must be equal. = ρ x g x h x (π/4)d2
Let
h = height of capillary depression.
Surface tension acting downward
=Surface tension x circumference x cosϴ
= σ x πd x cosϴ
Equating two forces, we get

The value of contact angle for mercury in glass tube = 128°

Remember:
👉 Capillary is the result of both adhesion and cohesion.
👉 Curved free surface of liquid in tube is known as meniscus.
Thermodynamic Properties
Dimension of R
The Gas constant R, depends upon the particular gas.

In MKS units

In SI units

For air, in MKS:

in SI:
Isothermal Process: If the change in density occurs at
constant temperature, then the process is called isothermal.

Adiabatic Process: If the change in density occurs with no heat

exchange to and from the gas, and no heat is generated within the gas,
then the process is called adiabatic.

where
k=Ratio of specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and constant
volume=1.4 for air.
Universal Gas Constant
Let,
m=Mass of a gas in kg
v=Volume of gas of mass m
p=Absolute pressure
T=Absolute temperature
We have:
To made the above equation universal, i.e. applicable to all the gases,
it has to convert into mole-basis.

Now:
 Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
Compressibility is the reciprocal of the bulk modulus of elasticity
(K), which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to
volumetric strain.

Consider a cylinder fitted with a

piston.
Let v= Volume of a gas enclosed
in the cylinder
p= Pressure of gas for volume v

-ve sign indicates that the volume

decreases with increase in pressure.
Bulk Modulus (K)=

Compressibility =
Thank You…..
MEE1004: Fluid Mechanics

Pressure and Its Measurement

Dr. Abinash Mohanta

Assistant Professor (Senior)
Department of Thermal and Energy Engg.
School of Mechanical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore
Tamil-Nadu-632014, India
(WhatsApp No.: 07008923013)
Email ID: abinash.mohanta@vit.ac.in
 Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit
area.
• Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid.
• If the fluid is stationary, then the force exerted by the surrounding
fluid on the area dA will always perpendicular to the surface dA.
• Let dF is the force acting on the area dA in normal direction.
• Then the ratio of dF/dA is known as the intensity of pressure or
pressure (p).
• Mathematically, the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is:

If the force (F) is uniformly distributed over the area (A), the
pressure at any point is given by:
i.e. Force or pressure force, F = p*A

Units of pressure are: (i) kgf/m2 and kgf/cm2 (MKS)

(ii)N/m2 and N/mm2 (SI unit)

1 N/m2=1 Pascal=1pa
1 kpa=1 kilo pascal=1000 N/m2
1 bar = 100 kpa=105 N/m2
1 atm = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
 Pascal's Law:
It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static
fluid is equal in all directions.

Let us consider:
PX = Pressure acting in X- direction
over the face AB
PY = Pressure acting in Y- direction
over the face AC
PZ = Pressure acting in Z- direction
over the face BC
θ = Angle ABC, as displayed above
in figure
dx, dy and ds : Fluid element
dimensions
ρ = Density of the fluid
Let us analyse here the forces acting on the fluid element ABC
Force on the face AB, AC and BC
FAB = PX x Area of face AB = PX. dy. 1 = PX. dy
FAC = PY x Area of face AC = PY. dx. 1 = PY. dx
FBC = PZ x Area of face BC = PZ. ds. 1 = PZ. ds
Weight of the fluid element,
W = Volume x Density of fluid x acceleration due to gravity
W = Area x width of fluid element x Density of fluid x acceleration
due to gravity
W = (AB x AC/2) x 1 x ρ x g = (dy dx/2) x ρ x g
Considering the forces in X-direction
PY. dx- PZ. ds Sin (90- θ) = 0
PX. dy = PZ. ds Cos θ
As we can see from above fluid element ABC, dy = ds Cos θ
PX. dy = PZ. dy
PX = PZ
Considering the forces in Y-direction
PY. dx - PZ. ds Cos (90- θ) - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0
PY. dx - PZ. ds Sin θ - (dy dx/2) x ρ x g = 0
As fluid element is very small and therefore, we can neglect the
weight of fluid element
PY. dx - PZ. ds Sin θ = 0
As we can see from above fluid element ABC, dx = ds Sin θ
PY. dx - PZ dx = 0
PY = PZ
Now,
PX = PY = PZ
We can say from above equation that pressure at any point in X, Y
and Z directions will be same.
Pascal’s Law provides the base for any hydraulic system or we can
say that complete hydraulic system is based on the principle of
Pascal’s Law.
Let us understand, how hydraulic system is based on Pascal's Law
• As we know that pressure at every point in enclosed liquid will be
same and hence there is no matter about the shape of vessel or
container in which liquid is placed.
• According to Pascal law, any increase in pressure in incompressible
fluid will be transmitted equally in all the directions.

In order to understand how hydraulic system depends over Pascal’s

law , we will consider following case.
P1= F1/A1
And
P2= F2/A2
According to Pascal's law
P1= P2
F1/A1 = F2/A2
F1 =F2 [A1/A2]
As we may see in above figure, area A2 is larger as compared to
area A1 hence we will require less force to lift the heavy load.
• The hydraulic jack is basically a mechanical device which is
applied in order to lift the heavier loads with the application of
very small force.
• Hydraulic jack work on the principle of Pascal’s law, according to
which increase in pressure in incompressible fluid will be
transmitted equally in all the directions.
• After applying smaller force, we can lift much heavier load due to
mechanical advantage of hydraulic jack.
• We have understood that all hydraulic system works on the law of
Pascal’s law.
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest
What’s the Difference Between Gauge, Absolute,
Vacuum and Atmospheric Pressure?????
• Pressure on a fluid will be measured with reference to some
datum. Pressure on a fluid will be measured in two different
systems.
• In first system, pressure will be determined by taking the
absolute zero pressure or complete vacuum as datum line and it
will be termed as absolute pressure.
• In second system,
pressure will be
measured by taking
atmospheric pressure as
datum line.
Absolute pressure
• Absolute pressure is basically defined as the pressure which will be
measured by taking absolute zero pressure or complete vacuum as
datum line.
• Absolute pressure will be always positive.
• Absolute zero pressure exists in complete vacuum where there will
be no fluid molecules at all.
Gauge pressure
 Gauge pressure is basically defined as the pressure which will be
measured above or below the atmospheric pressure i.e. atmospheric
pressure here will be taken as datum line.
 Gauge pressure will be measured with the help of pressure
measuring instrument.
 If pressure is measured above atmospheric pressure then it will be
termed as positive gauge pressure and if pressure is measured below
atmospheric pressure then it will be termed as negative gauge
pressure.
Vacuum pressure
 Vacuum pressure is basically defined as the pressure which will
be measured below than the atmospheric pressure.
 Therefore that measured pressure will be with negative sign and
we will say it vacuum pressure or negative gauge pressure.
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is basically defined as the pressure
exerted against a surface by weight of the air column over that
surface.

Relationship between Absolute pressure, vacuum

pressure and gauge pressure
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
Vacuum Pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure
Sol.
 Measurement of Pressure

Manometers Mechanical gauges

 Diaphragm pressure
gauge
 Bourdon tube
pressure gauge
Simple Differential  Dead weight
manometers manometers pressure gauge
 Bellows pressure
 Piezometer gauge
 U-tube
manometer
 Single column
manometer
Simple Manometer:
Piezometer:
This is measuring gauge pressure where one end is connected to the
point where the pressure needed to measure and another end is
exposed to atmosphere.
The rise of the liquid (similar or different) in the end exposed to the
atmosphere give the pressure head of that point to be measured (Point
A) as per the following equation:
𝐏abs=𝛒×𝐠×𝐡+𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎
𝑷gauge= 𝐏abs − 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 =𝛒×𝐠×𝐡
 U-tube Manometer
• It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape,
one end of which is connected to a point at
which pressure is to be measured and other
end remains open to the atmosphere.
• The tube generally contains mercury or any
liquid whose specific gravity is greater than
the specific gravity of the liquid whose
pressure is to be measured.
For gauge pressure
For gauge pressure :
PB+ρ1×g×h1=ρ2×g×h2
or, 𝑷𝑩=𝝆𝟐×g×𝒉𝟐−𝝆𝟏×g×𝒉𝟏
For vacuum pressure:
PBρ1×g×h1+ρ2×g×h2=0

For vacuum pressure or, 𝑷𝑩= − (𝝆𝟏×g×𝒉𝟏+𝝆𝟐×g×𝒉𝟐)

Single Column Manometer
As the area A is very large as compared
to a, i.e. the ratio a/A becomes very
small, so it can be neglected
Sol.
 Differential Manometer
• Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the
differences of pressure between two points in a pipe or in two
different pipes.
• A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy
liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose
difference of pressure is to be measured.
Types: (i) U-tube differential manometer
(ii) Inverted U-tube differential manometer
U-tube differential manometer
The two points A and B are at different level and also contains
liquids of different specific gravity.
The two points A and B are at the same level and also contains
the same liquid of density (ρ1).
Q. A pipe contains an oil of sp.gr. 0.9. A differential manometer
connected at the two points A and B shows a difference in mercury
level as 15 cm. Find the difference of pressure at the two points.
Inverted U-tube differential manometer
It consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two ends
of the tube are connected to the points whose difference of pressure is
to be measured. It is used for measuring difference of low pressures.
Let the pressure at A is more than the pressure at B.
Thank You…..