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THE STATES OF MATTER

Learning objectives
1. State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases
2. Describe the structure of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle separation, arrangement and motion
3. Describe changes of
4. state in terms of melting, boiling, evaporating, freezing and condensing
5. Describe the effects of temperature and pressure.
6. Explain changes of state in terms of kinetic particle theory, including the interpretation of heating and
cooling curves
7. Explain, in terms of kinetic particle theory, the effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas
8. Describe and explain diffusion in terms of kinetic particle theory
9. Describe and explain the effect of relative molecular mass on the rate of diffusion of gases.

Definition of matter :
CHEMIST structure, and properties of matter and the changes it undergoes
• The two properties of MATTER are:
• Mass – amount or quantity of matter
• Volume – amount of space occupied
• Therefore…MATTER is anything that has mass and takes up space.
I. General characteristics of solid, liquid and gases

Solids

 Has a definite shape and volume and high density

 True solids have very rigid, ordered structures, in fixed positions i.e. high density
 atoms held tightly together, therefore incompressible
 Atoms move through vibration only, therefore small thermal expansion
 Strong forces of attraction between particles, particles are packed very closely together in a fixed and
regular pattern
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THE STATES OF MATTER

Liquids

• Has a definite volume, not a fixed shape and have a moderate to high density and small compressibility.
• No definite shape i.e. Particles can move and slide past each other which is why liquids adopt the shape of
the container they’re in and also why they are able to flow.
• Atoms move rapidly enough to slide over one another i.e. ability to flow.
• Small thermal expansion.
 Weaker attractive forces in liquids than in solids, particles are close together in an irregular, unfixed pattern.

Gases

• Also known as vapour.

• No intermolecular forces, particles are in random movement and so there is no defined pattern.
• No fixed volume or shape, conforms to the volume and shape of its container.
• Atoms far apart i.e. low density and can be compressed.
• Moving at high speeds, colliding with container, moderate thermal expansion.
• Particles are far apart and move quickly (around 500 m/s) in all directions, they collide with each other and
with the sides of the container (this is how pressure is created inside a can of gas).
• No fixed volume, since there is a lot of space between the particles, gases can be compressed into a much
smaller volume. Gases have low density. Gaseous particles are in constant and random motion. An increase
in temperature increases the kinetic energy of each particle, as the thermal energy is transformed to kinetic
energy, so they move faster. Decreasing the temperature has the opposite effect.
• The pressure that a gas creates inside a closed container is produced by the gaseous particles hitting the
inside walls of the container. As the temperature increases, the particles in the gas move faster, impacting
the container’s walls more frequently. Therefore an increase in temperature causes an increase in pressure.
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THE STATES OF MATTER

II.Changes of state

1. Melting

→Melting is when a solid changes into a liquid.

→Requires heat energy which transforms into kinetic energy, allowing the particles to move.

→Occurs at a specific temperature known as the melting point (M.P.) which is unique to each pure solid.

2. Boiling

→Boiling is when a liquid changes into a gas.

→Requires heat which causes bubbles of gas to form below the surface of a liquid, allowing for liquid particles to

escape from the surface and within the liquid.

→Occurs at a specific temperature known as the boiling point (B.P.) which is unique to each pure liquid.

3. Freezing

→Freezing is when a liquid changes into a solid.

→This is the reverse of melting and occurs at exactly the same temperature as melting, hence the melting point and

freezing point of a pure substance are the same. Water for example freezes and melts at 0ºC.

→Requires a significant decrease in temperature (or loss of thermal energy) and occurs at a specific temperature

which is unique for each pure substance.

4. Evaporation

→When a liquid changes into a gas. Evaporation occurs only at the surface of liquids where high energy particles can

escape from the liquid’s surface at low temperatures, below the b.p. of the liquid.

→The larger the surface area and the warmer the liquid/surface, the more quickly a liquid can evaporate.

→No heat is required and evaporation occurs over a range of temperatures.

5. Condensation

→When a gas changes into a liquid, usually on cooling. When a gas is cooled its particles lose energy and when they

bump into each other they lack the energy to bounce away again, instead they group together to form a liquid.

→No energy is required for condensation to occur and it takes place over a range of temperatures.

6. Sublimation

→When a solid changes directly into a gas.

→This happens to only a few solids such as iodine or solid carbon dioxide.

→The reverse reaction also happens and is also called sublimation (sometimes called deposition or desublimation).

→Sublimation occurs at a specific temperature which is unique for a pure substance.

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THE STATES OF MATTER

III.Brownian motion
Explanation and evidence for Brownian motion

An example of Brownian motion is the observed jerky and erratic motion of smoke particles as they are hit by the
unseen molecules in the air which can be seen under a microscope

In 1905, physicist Albert Einstein explained that pollen grains in water were being moved by individual water
molecules

In all cases, larger and visible particles are caused to move by the random bombardment of smaller, invisible
particles

Brownian motion is defined as the random movement of particles in a liquid or a gas produced by large numbers of

collisions with smaller, often invisible particles.

The observation of Brownian motion proves the correctness of the kinetic particle theory

IV.Diffusion

This is the process by which different gases or different liquids mix and is due to the random motion of their particles

Diffusing particles move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

Eventually the concentration of particles is even as they spread out to occupy all of the available space

Diffusion happens on its own and no energy input is required although it occurs faster at higher temperatures

Diffusion & Molecular Mass

Diffusion occurs much faster in gases than in liquids as gaseous particles move much quicker than liquid particles

At the same temperature, different gases do not diffuse at the same rate.

This is due to the difference in their relative molecular masses

Lighter gas particles can travel faster and hence further, therefore the lower its relative mass the faster a gas will
diffuse
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THE STATES OF MATTER

V. Heating and cooling curve

→ These curves are used to show how changes in temperature affect changes of state.

→ The graph of temperature against time is called a heating curve.

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THE STATES OF MATTER

→ when substances are heated, the particles absorb thermal energy which is converted into kinetic energy. This is

the basis of the kinetic theory of matter.

→ Heating ice (solid) causes its particles to vibrate more and as the temperature increases, they vibrate so much that

The solid (ice) expands until the structure breaks and the solid (ice) starts melting.

→ On further heating, the now liquid (water) expands more and some particles at the surface gain sufficient

energy to overcome the intermolecular forces which lead to breaks bonds more and start to evaporate.

→ When the b.p. temperature is reached, all the particles gain enough energy to escape and the liquids boils,

These changes in state can be shown on a graph which is called a heating curve.

→ Cooling down a gas has the reverse effect and this would be called a cooling curve.

→During the phase changes of a heating curve the KE remains constant while PE increases (heat is absorbed during

heating) to allow the molecules to move farther apart together and Inter molecular force decreases.
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THE STATES OF MATTER

→ During the phase changes of a cooling curve the KE remains constant while PE decreases (heat is lost during

cooling) to allow the molecules to move closer together and IMF(Inter molecular force) increases.

→ CONCLUSION:

All phase changes occur at constant temperature. Therefore average kinetic energy remains constant.

During a phase change, the heat added (PE increases) or released (PE decreases) will allow the molecules to move

apart or come together.

→ Impurity of the substance can lead to the formation of curved graph instead of typical heat & cooling curve.
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→ Boiling point & condensation point of a given substance are always same.

→ Melting point & freezing point of a given substance are always same.

USES:

• Shows the temperature of each phase change when temperature is constant. (Flat line)

• Shows the boiling point and melting point of a substance.

• Can be used to determine the phase of matter at a given temperature.

• Can be used to determine if the substance needs more energy to melt (fusion) or boil (vaporize).

End chapter questions:

1. Identify in which of the three states of matter are the particles moving fastest?

2. Describe the arrangement of particles in a liquid.

3. Identify in which state of matter do the particles just vibrate about a fixed point.

4. Sodium (melting point of 980 c) and aluminum (melting point of 6600 c) are both solids at room

temperature. From their melting points, state what you can conclude about the forces of attraction

between the particles in the two metals.

5. Identify one of the processes shown as an example of evaporation.

A Fe(s) → Fe (l) B H2O (l) → H2O (l)

C H2O (g) → H2O (l) D H2O (l) → H2O (s)

6. Ethanol liquid turns into ethanol vapour at 780c. State what is the name of this temperature?

7. Explain how water in the earth’s Polar Regions can produce water vapour even when the

temperature is very low.

8. A student wrote in her exercise book. ‘The particle arrangement in a liquid is more like the

arrangement in a solid than in a gas’. Do you agree with this statement? Justify your reasoning.

9. State the word that describes the rapid mixing and moving of particles in gases.
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10. Look at fig. 1.12 showing gas jars of air and bromine. Explain why bromine gas fills the top gas jar

even though it is denser than air.

11. Use the kinetic particle theory to explain:

a) The effect of temperature on the volume of a gas

b) The effect of pressure on the volume of a gas.

Class room aids:

1. state in terms of the kinetic theory as in this link: www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/kt/basic.html

2. www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29376436 (shows liquid and bromine vapour)

3. https://edu.rsc.org/resources/melting-and-freezing-stearic-acid/1747.article (heat & cool curves)

4. www.youtube.com/watch?v=bxaPf7HRjZo (iodine sublimation (and deposition)

5. https://edu.rsc.org/resources/diffusion-of-gases-a-safer-alternative-to-bromine/684.article

6. https://edu.rsc.org/resources/diffusion-of-gases-ammonia-and-hydrogen-chloride/682.article

7. https://edu.rsc.org/resources/diffusion-in-liquids/685.article .