Crankshafts

Lion DVD AFA I CHAPTER: Crankshafts
Crankshafts
Service Training Malaga 1
Welcome to a continuation of our failure analysis

seminar.
In this section we will learn to apply failure analysis
principles to crankshafts.
1
In This Presentation
• Nomenclature
• Function
• Materials
• Manufacturing
• Operation
• Normal Appearance
• Failure Analysis
First we will review some facts about crankshaft

functions, materials, and manufacturing processes. Then
we will review crankshaft operation and normal
appearance.
Finally we will look at crankshaft failure analysis
using the eight steps and our visual examination
procedure to discover roadsigns that can guide us to the
root cause of failure.
2
Nomenclature
Let's begin by looking at crankshaft nomenclature,

function and structure.
Crankshafts are heat treated forgings consisting of rod
and main journals held together by webs or
counterweights.
Each journal blends through a fillet into sidewalls.
One main journal has specially ground sidewalls called
thrust faces.
Rod journals contain lightening holes reducing the
weight of steel orbiting around the main journals. The
main and rod journals contain drilled oil passages that
provide an oil path from the block to the main and rod
bearings.
Some crankshafts have flanges on the front and rear to
provide oil sealing surfaces, or to hold gears, dampers,
and flywheels.
3
Crankshaft Functions
• Convert Reciprocating to Rotary Motion
• Carry Heavy Bending, Torsional & Thrust Loads
• Deliver Pressurized Oil to Main & Rod Bearings
• Provide Bearing with Hard Wear Resistant Surface
• Deliver Power to Gears & Flywheel
• Provide Sealing Surface for Oil Seals
Crankshafts perform six functions:

1)change reciprocating up and down motion into rotary
motion
2)carry heavy bending, torsional, and thrust loads
3)deliver pressurized oil to main and rod bearings
4)provide hard wear resistant surfaces for main and rod
bearings
5)deliver power to gear trains and flywheels
6)provide sealing surfaces for front and rear main oil
seals.
4
Materials Forged High/Medium Carbon Steel
Natural metal flow lines
To perform these functions, Cat crankshafts are forged

from plain carbon steel.
Forging maintains natural metal flow lines that follow
crank contours.
This gives greatly increased resistance to fillet
cracking from bending loads and exceptional axial
strength to withstand torsional loads.
5
Hardening Process Medium Carbon Steel
Furnace Heated and water quenched

• Hardness Rockwell C 48
• Deep 2.5mm
Rough forgings are first machined and then heat treated.

3200, 3300, 3400 and 3508 crankshafts made from medium
carbon steel are furnace heated and water quenched to
produce a Rc 48 minimum surface hardness with a case
about .100 inches (2.5 mm) deep over the main and rod
journal wear surface and fillets.
This hardened material reduces journal wear and gives
fillets increased strength to counteract the stress
concentrating effect of the small fillet radii.
6
Hardening Process High Carbon Steel
Induction Hardened and water quenched

Shot peened fillet radius
Most other crankshafts are made from high carbon steel,

induction heated and water quenched on the main and rod
journal wear surfaces only, to provide a hard, wear
resistant surface. The larger fillet radius of these
cranks can be sufficiently strengthened by shot peening
and do not require heat treatment.
Shot peening leaves beneficial compressive stresses in
the fillets that increase fatigue strength and resist
crack formation.
7
Hardening Process Medium Carbon Steel
Rockwell C 40
Ground and Polished to final finish
To minimize bearing friction and wear, crankshaft main

and rod bearing journals haye hard, wear resistant
surfaces ground to very smooth finishes. Cat cranks are
hardened above Rc 40 and polished to a 5 microinch
surface finish, the best in the industry.
8
Crankshaft Forces
• Bending - Fillets
• Torsion - Journals
• Thrust - Sidewalls
In the process of converting reciprocating to rotational

motion, the crankshaft is subjected to tremendous
bending forces in the rod and main journal fillets,
twisting (torsional) forces on the rod and main journal
surfaces, and thrust (axial) forces on the thrust
journal sidewalls. Piston combustion gas loads are
transfered to the rod journals in some cases producing
fillet bending loads exceeding 100,000 p.s.i. Gear and
flywheel loads, as well as loads from pistons being in
various portions of the power cycle, produce torsional
and thrust loads strong enough to break crankshafts
through thick rod and main journals if problems occur.
9
Bending Loads Combustion Stroke
High tensile stresses rod fillets

Compressive stresses in main fillets
Combustion loads push conrods against rod journals

creating high tensile stresses in the rod journal
fillets.
The slight journal bending that occurs, puts compressive
stresses on the main journal fillets. The forging flow
lines and shot peened or heat treated fillet material
carry the rod journal tensile stresses preventing crack
formation.
10
Bending Loads End of Combustion Stroke
Low tensile stresses in main fillets

compressive stresses in rod fillets
As pistons complete the power stroke, they create low

tensile stresses in the main journal fillets and
compressive stresses in the rod journal fillets.
Later, when we discuss bending fatigue failures, this
information will be very useful to us.
11
Torsional Loads
As pistons fire, each rod journal sees different loads,

but must move in unison with the others. Resistance to
movement at either end of the shaft adds to this load as
gears and flywheels transfer power into mating gears or
transmissions.
The combined effect produces twisting or torsional
crankshaft loading.
This causes the crankshaft to wrap up slightly like a
spring produces flexing during operation.
12
Thrust Load
Carried by one main journal
As power is taken from the shaft to drive gear trains,

accessories, vehicle transmissions, etc., axial forces
develop which push the crankshaft one direction or the
other in the block.
These axial forces are called thrust loads which are
carried by one main journal thrust wall acting against a
thrust bearing in the block.
13
Eight Steps of Applied Failure Analysis
1. State Problem Clearly & Concisely

2. Organize Fact Gathering
3. Observe & Record Facts
4. Think Logically with the Facts
5. Identify Most Probable Root Cause
6. Communicate with Responsible Party
7. Make Repair as Directed
8. Follow-Up with Customer
The safest way to proceed in analyzing crankshaft

failures is to use the Eight Steps of Applied Failure
Analysis.
This helps us gather necessary facts, identify fracture
types, and follow roadsigns to the real root cause of
failure.
14
Inspect All Surfaces
• Inspect Bearings
• Inspect Fillets
• Inspect Fractures
Before beginning visual examination, all involved parts

should be arranged as they were removed from the engine.
A careful inspection of bearings can tell us if
crankshaft taper or alignment was bad, if a spun bearing
generated lots of heat on a rod journal, if fillet
contact was a result of crankshaft failure or a cause,
etc.
Fracture examination can tell us types of fractures
present, where they started, what stress raiser started
the crack, and whether they were causes or results.
15
Crankshaft Failures
• Bending Fatigues
- Main Fillets
- Rod Fillet
• Torsional Fatigue
- Main Journals
- Rod Journals
Crankshafts fail in bending or torsional fatigue.

Bending fatigue starts in the main or rod fillet at or
near the surface.
It can be caused by application, remanufacturing,
materials, or process problems.
Torsional fatigue starts on the main or rod journal
surface area and spirals around the shaft. it is usually
caused by material or process problems.
Major improvements in steel cleanliness over the last
decade are making material related failures rare.
We will become familiar with roadsigns of bending and
torsional fatigue after which we
will look at various kinds of stress raisers and their
roadsigns.
16
Bending Fatigue
This is a rod journal and adjacent web from a D348

crankshaft.
What roadsigns are present?
17
Bending Fatigue
When we have located the initiation site, we should look

more closely for additional road signs.
What additional road signs do we see here and what are
they telling us?
Ans. - Ratchet marks and multiple initiation sites
indicating the presence of high tensile stresses or some
type of defect acting to raise the stresses.
Where did the fatigue crack start and how does this
relate to the crank loading we learned about earlier?
Ans. - The crack started in a main journal fillet
meaning combustion loading was probably not responsible.
Combustion loads put main fillets into compression and
tensile stresses are required to make cracks start.
18
Bending Fatigue Reverse Bending
This is another D348 rod journal and web. What fracture

roadsigns are present?
Ans. - Flat, smooth fracture with beach marks starting
at the main fillet. Also a fatigue crack with beach
marks and ratchet marks starting at the rod fillet.
Ductile final fracture occured where the two fatigue
cracks met.
Which fatigue crack started first?
Ans. - The main journal crack since it has grown longer
under lower loads as evidenced by the fine, close spaced
beach marks.
What caused the ratchet marks and second fatigue crack
at the rod fillet?
Ans. - Once the main fillet crack had weakened the web
cross section, the high combustion forces overloaded the
rod fillet starting a crack growing the other direction.
This is called reverse bending fatigue.
19
Torsional Fatigue
Now let's look at torsional fatigue roadsigns. As with

bending fatigue, torsional fatigue results in flat
smooth fractures with beachmarks radiating away from the
crack initiation site where ratchet marks may be
present.
Unlike bending fatigue, torsional fatigue spirals around
a rod or main journal starting from stress raisers in
oil holes or lightening holes, or from material flaws at
or just below journal surfaces.
20
Torsional Fatigue
This rod journal from a 3208 crankshaft has undergone

torsional fatigue.
To correctly identify the crack initiation site we
should look for the area where beach marks are very fine
or cannot be seen.
Coarse, wide spaced beach marks indicate we are
approaching final fracture, while close spaced or
difficult
to see beach marks indicate we are near the crack
origin. Using these roadsigns, we locate the crack
initiation site at the bottom of the lightening hole.
We would next look for stress raisers such as
undercutting by the drill point or quench cracks.
21
Fracture Causes
• Material Flaws
• Process Errors
Some crankshaft fractures result from material flaws and

processing errors.
Since materials and processes are carefully controlled
by steel mills, forgers, and Caterpillar, very few
crankshafts fracture in service.
22
Material Flaws
• Inclusions
• Seams
• Pipe
• Flake
Material flaws such as inclusions, seams, pipe, flakes,

etc. were discussed in the metallurgy section of this
seminar.
Any of these defects can be present in crankshaft steel,
but inclusions and flaking are most common. The
roadsigns of material related failures is fatigue
initiating from a subsurface origin.
23
Material Flaws (Inclusion)
This 3512 crankshaft was returned to Cat for failure

analysis.
24
The fracture appears to be bending fatigue occuring

between a rod and main journal.
25
A closer look at the fracture faces shows the bending

fatigue fracture initiated in a main journal fillet with
final failure at the rod journal fillet.
No ratchet marks are present but the beach marks are
very distinct.
26
Tracing the beach marks back to the origin, we see what

appears to be a fatigue fracture starting right at the
main journal fillet.
27
Using better lighting and magnification, we see the

initiation site is internal and a stress raiser is
present.
This inclusion was large enough and close enough to the
highly stressed fillet to initiate a fatigue crack.
Subsurface fatigue creates circular beachmark patterns
radiating away from the flaw.
Sometimes, overloading a part may cause an internal
crack to start from a flaw that would not have caused a
problem had loading remained normal. We should avoid
blaming the material flaw until we check the loading
conditions.
28
Material Flaws (Hydrogen Flake)
This bending fatigue failure occured in a 3408

crankshaft at the web between the first main and rod
journal.
Fatigue initiated well below the rod journal surface.
The stress raiser in this case is a hydrogen flake
present in the steel before forging. Notice the
roadsigns are identical to those of an inclusion related
failure.
We may not be able to tell the difference between types
of material flaws, but we can recognize the similarity
of the roadsigns that say a material flaw was involved.
Large flaws or overloading can make the material defect
the weakest link in the chain.
29
Processing Errors
• Forging
• Heat Treating
• Straightening
• Grinding
Process errors can occur during forging, heat treating,

straightening or grinding.
We will take a few minutes to look at typical fracture roadsigns
produced by each.
30
Processing Errors (Forging Burns)
Failed after 80 hours of service
This 3408 crankshaft failed after 80 hours of service in

a 988B.
The fracture through the web shows smooth areas,
roadsigns of fatigue, and rough areas that may be
brittle or ductile.
31
Processing Errors (Forging Burns)
Subsurface originating fatigue
A closer look under better lighting shows the

crystalline brittle areas acted as initiation sites for
fatigue which grew to the web surfaces.
The large brittle areas are forging burns which occur
when the steel is overheated during forging creating
internal melting.
The large grains that form on cooling do not stick to
each other and form internal cracks which grow under
load.
Again, the roadsigns are subsurface originating fatigue,
and in this case, large subsurface ratchet marks.
32
Processing Errors (Heat Treating)
Quench Crack
Heat treat quench cracks may occur during the severe

water cooling of the forging from 16000F (870C).
If oil hole chamfers are not right, or quench water
becomes too cool, stresses set up during quenching can
cause small thumbnail shaped cracks in the oil holes.
These tiny quench cracks become stress raisers that
initiate a fatigue crack in service. Careful visual
examination at the fatigue origin will usually reveal
the small crack that started the entire problem.
Such a crack is located just above the center of this
slide.
33
Processing Errors (Heat Treating)
Straightening Crack
Here's another bending fatigue failure starting in the

main fillet of a 3208 crankshaft. Roadsigns are beach
marks, ratchet marks and an unusual appearing fracture
between the fillet surface and the internal fatigue
crack initiation site.
This area is a pre-existing crack caused by over-
straightening.
The crack was present when the crank went into service,
acted as a severe stress raiser, and initiated a fatigue
crack with the large ratchet marks we see here.
Anytime we see fatigue initiating below the part's
surface, we know a precrack existed or a material flaw
was present.
34
Reconditioned Crankshafts
Another major source of crankshaft failures is not

related to Caterpillar materials, suppliers or
processes.
Many crankshafts are reconditioned by machine shops that
are not aware of the materials and processes used to
make Cat cranks.
During reconditioning, they introduce stress raisers by
using processes that are not compatible with the
materials or previous processes used to make the shaft.
35
What do you see ?

Beach Marks, subsurface
Looking carefully at the fracture, we notice beachmarks

appear to start well below the crank surface at a
polished area.
36
What do you see ?

Straightening crack
A closer look fails to show any beach or ratchet marks

in the polished area, but does reveal that another crack
existed from the fillet surface down to the polished
area.
This shallow precrack resembles a straightening crack
but fatigue does not begin there.
37
What do you see ?
The roadsigns are telling us this failure is very

unusual, and we should gather facts from the rest of the
crank.
Looking at the thrust face, we see two irregular dark
lines running around the ground thrust surface.
Since this is abnormal, we should investigase it
further.
38
What do you see ?
Looking at the other side of the fracture, we see the

entire thrust face has these two irregular
circumferential shaped grooves going around it.
39
What do you see ?

Re- welded Thrust face ?!!!!
Using angled lighting and magnification, we find an

obvious weld bead at one location in this area giving us
the answer to the riddle.
This crankshaft had failed, possibly due to a thrust
plate installed backwards.
It was then sent to a rebuilder who machined the thrust
face, filled it with weld metal, and reground it.
40
Lion DVD AFA I
Grinder Burns
Grinder burning or cracking may not be detrimental

unless it occurs in a high load area such as fillets or
oil holes on journal surfaces. The fracture road signs
that indicate a grinder related failure is the presence
of ratchet marks indicating severe stress concentration.
If the fatigue process has not polished the origin too
badly, we might also see small thumbnail shaped cracks
at the initiation site.
41

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Lion DVD AFA I CHAPTER: Crankshafts

Service Training Malaga 1

Welcome to a continuation of our failure analysis

Service Training Malaga 2

First we will review some facts about crankshaft

Service Training Malaga 3

Let's begin by looking at crankshaft nomenclature,

Service Training Malaga 4

Crankshafts perform six functions:

Materials Forged High/Medium Carbon Steel

Natural metal flow lines

Service Training Malaga 5

To perform these functions, Cat crankshafts are forged

Hardening Process Medium Carbon Steel

Furnace Heated and water quenched

Service Training Malaga 6

Rough forgings are first machined and then heat treated.

Hardening Process High Carbon Steel

Induction Hardened and water quenched

Service Training Malaga 7

Most other crankshafts are made from high carbon steel,

Hardening Process Medium Carbon Steel

Service Training Malaga 8

To minimize bearing friction and wear, crankshaft main

Service Training Malaga 9

In the process of converting reciprocating to rotational

Bending Loads Combustion Stroke

High tensile stresses rod fillets

Combustion loads push conrods against rod journals

Bending Loads End of Combustion Stroke

Low tensile stresses in main fillets

Service Training Malaga 11

As pistons complete the power stroke, they create low

Service Training Malaga 12

As pistons fire, each rod journal sees different loads,

Service Training Malaga 13

As power is taken from the shaft to drive gear trains,

Eight Steps of Applied Failure Analysis

1. State Problem Clearly & Concisely

Service Training Malaga 14

The safest way to proceed in analyzing crankshaft

Inspect All Surfaces

Service Training Malaga 15

Before beginning visual examination, all involved parts

Service Training Malaga 16

Crankshafts fail in bending or torsional fatigue.

Service Training Malaga 17

This is a rod journal and adjacent web from a D348

Service Training Malaga 18

When we have located the initiation site, we should look

Bending Fatigue Reverse Bending

Service Training Malaga 19

This is another D348 rod journal and web. What fracture

Service Training Malaga 20

Now let's look at torsional fatigue roadsigns. As with

Service Training Malaga 21

This rod journal from a 3208 crankshaft has undergone

Service Training Malaga 22

Some crankshaft fractures result from material flaws and

Material flaws such as inclusions, seams, pipe, flakes,

Material Flaws (Inclusion)

Service Training Malaga 24

This 3512 crankshaft was returned to Cat for failure