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Wear Failure Atlas
Wear Failure Atlas
This document shall not be shared without permission from the Technical Area Leader
Title: Common Engine Wear Failure Mode Atlas
Revision: 0
Legacy Number:
Author(s): Jeffrey Cooper(fb145);Carl
Musolff(ii264);Joseph
Rennekamp(ca822);Terry Shaw(kk486)
Document Owner : Jeffrey Cooper(fb145)
Description : This document gives an overview of
different wear modes commonly experienced
in engines and what can be done to alleviate
them
Business Unit : Engine
Sub-Business Unit :
Site : CTC
Document Classification : Material/Chemistry
Technical Area : R&T - METALLURGICAL
ENGINEERING
Technical Area Leader : Yong-ching Chen(an283)
Security Expiration Date : 1/16/2010 12:00:00 PM
Review Date :
Publication Release Date 1/16/2008 12:00:00 PM
Revision Comments :
Reference to Document :
Cummins PROPRIETARY
This document (and the information shown thereon) is PROPRIETARY to Cummins Inc and shall not be disclosed to others in
hard copy or electronic form, reproduced by any means, or used for any purpose without consent of Cummins, Inc.
Coversheet last changed : Thu Jan 24 16:52:59 EST 2008
1.0 Introduction .....................................................................................................2
1.1 Pitting..............................................................................................................2
1.2 Spalling ...........................................................................................................2
1.3 Impact wear ....................................................................................................3
1.4 Fretting............................................................................................................3
1.5 Erosion............................................................................................................3
1.6 Adhesion .........................................................................................................3
1.7 Delamination ...................................................................................................3
1.8 Galling.............................................................................................................4
1.9 Seizure............................................................................................................4
1.10 Scuffing .........................................................................................................4
1.11 Scoring..........................................................................................................4
1.12 Introduction to lubrication regimes ................................................................4
2.0 Power Cylinder Wear ......................................................................................6
2.1 Piston Scuffing ................................................................................................6
2.2 Liner Pocketing ...............................................................................................8
2.3 Piston Land Scuffing .....................................................................................11
2.4 Piston Pin Seizures.......................................................................................13
2.5 Piston Ring Wear ..........................................................................................15
3.0 Bearing Wear ................................................................................................17
4.0 Main bearing caps.........................................................................................21
5.0 Overhead Wear.............................................................................................23
5.1 Valve stems ..................................................................................................23
5.2 Valve guide ...................................................................................................24
5.3 Valve Seats / Valve Seat Inserts..................................................................25
5.4 Rocker Lever / Crosshead Wear...................................................................26
5.5.1 Cam System Wear.....................................................................................28
5.5.2 Cam Follower Pin Wear .............................................................................32
6.0 Gear Wear ....................................................................................................35
1.0 Introduction
In order to create a “Wear Failure Mode Atlas” one must first define what “Wear” is.
There are numerous different words which fall into the category of wear and the failures
which are outlined here-in are in some form related to one or more of these subcategories.
Wear itself is defined as damage to a solid surface, generally involving progressive loss
of material due to relative motion between that surface and a contacting substance or
substances.
⎡K φ ⎤
W = F (α , β , ⎢ m ⎥, j , L,V , T , t )
⎣ H ⎦
W = Wear
α = Environmental effects
β = Geometric effects
H = Hardness
L = Load
V = Velocity
t = Time
T = Temperature
j = Lubrication film thickness
φ = Finish factor
Km = Wear coefficient
1.1 Pitting
Pitting can occur in a rolling type of contact. It appears as a subsurface crack which
eventually pulls out of the surface and finally releases a particle to become debris in the
system. Cam roller systems often see this type of wear.
1.2 Spalling
Spalling is very similar to pitting however it is more commonly associated with removal
of a coating from a substrate. The initiation location in this mechanism of wear is at the
interface of a substrate and a coating. Within Cummins this term is typically used to refer
to pitting damage on components which do not have coatings and can therefore in my
opinion be used interchangeably.
1.3 Impact wear
Impact wear is associated with the collision and subsequent material interactions of two
or more moving bodies. It is typically characterized by severe deformation of the
surface. Components which are commonly seen to have this type of wear include: valve
seats and valve seat inserts.
1.4 Fretting
Fretting wear refers to a very low amplitude movement between two corresponding
surfaces. Fretting wear is usually closely associated with vibrations and in an
atmospheric operating environment it nearly always results in the formation of an oxide
with the mating materials. Components which commonly fret are: bolted joints, bushings
and rods, main bearing caps, head decks, mounting brackets, manifolds, and accessory
drive shafts to name a few.
1.5 Erosion
Erosion is the gradual wearing away of surface materials by the action of particles in a
fluid or the simple action of the fluid itself. Erosion wear is closely related to impact
wear. Common components which experience erosive wear are manifolds, cooling
systems.
1.6 Adhesion
Adhesive wear occurs when two solid surfaces slide over one another under pressure.
Surface projections, or asperities, are plastically deformed, and eventually are welded
together by the high local pressure. An example of this is found at the valve – valve
guide interface.
1.7 Delamination
Delamination wear can be characterized by the formation of sheet like laminar wear
particles where dislocations have built up at a certain finite distance below the sliding
surface and a localized piece of material disconnects from the surface. This is very
similar in appearance to pitting and spalling however it is not usually associated with
rolling contact failure.
1.8 Galling
Galling is a form of adhesive wear which causes chunks of material to be removed from
one or both mating surfaces. Components which are commonly thought of with regard to
galling failure include cams and rollers.
1.9 Seizure
Seizure is localized welding which occurs to the point that the interfacial shear stress
reaches and exceeds the shear strength of the material causing total failure. Components
commonly thought of for seizure are: piston pins, pistons and connecting rods. This is
the most destructive form of wear.
1.10 Scuffing
Scuffing is the localized surface damage associated with solid-state welding between
sliding surfaces. Components commonly associated with scuffing include pistons and
liners, and piston rings.
1.11 Scoring
Scoring is the localized solid-state welding between sliding surfaces but with the
appearance that there is scratching by abrasive particles. This is commonly seen is
between the cylinder liner and the piston skirt.
Figure 2: Scuffing marks on the ID of the cylinder liner along with the OD of the piston
skirt.
What can cause this wear failure?
It was found that during cold start up the piston skirt was experiencing severe
interference with the liner. The operating condition where this was experienced occurred
when a cold engine (approximately -10F) was started and abruptly taken to 1000 rpm.
This caused an interference condition between the skirt and liner due in part to piston
secondary dynamics.
Figure 3: A roundness trace at TDC on the piston which has been superimposed over an
ideal liner roundness trace.
Liner
Coolant
Figure 4: Liner at top ring reversal and how the liner pocket appears with respect to the
initial shape of the liner ID.
Second Land
Scuffing
Figure 5: Example of piston second land scuffing and the resulting affect on the liner.
Figure 7: Post failure appearance of a piston pin with large amounts of material transfer
between the connecting rod small end bushing and the piston pin.
Figure 9: Wear step created due to “dust out” wear mechanism. Failure occurs when
debris is ingested into the power cylinder typically due to poor maintenance practices
with regard to air filtration.
What is this wear failure?
Piston ring wear can occur due to numerous different reasons but can be a cylinder
disabling failure if not kept in check. Piston ring wear occurs when either the liner
contacting face or the top or bottom of the ring begin to wear out. While the causes of
piston ring wear may be numerous the symptoms are typically found in the form of high
blow by or eventually cylinder disablement.
Maintenance practices can often influence ring wear as well. In the cross section of the
top ring seen above one can see a “step” worn in the lower surface of the ring. If debris
is found to be present (typically Al2O3 or SiO2) then one can typically assign the wear to
poor air filtration maintenance practices or design. In the case of the figure seen above,
the intake air contained small abrasive particles which contributed to the wear of this
ring. Ring front face wear can be attributed to poor oil change practices. With poor oil
change practices the oil itself can become more abrasive (particularly in EGR engines)
and without regular changes it can begin to wear the front face of the piston rings.
Figure 10: Uneven overlay wear on an angle fracture split rod bearing. This type of wear
may or may not be detrimental to the bearing performance depending on the running
characteristics of the bearing substrate layer. Excessive wear can eventually cause
premature fatigue of the bearing.
Figure 11: Uneven overlay wear on a lower main bearing due to edge loading on either a
distorted crankshaft or main bearing cap. This type of wear may or may not be
detrimental to the bearing performance depending on the running characteristics of the
bearing substrate layer. Excessive wear can eventually cause premature fatigue of the
bearing.
Bimetal Bearings
Figure 14: Visual appearance of the Bearing ID caused by fretting on the bearing back
Figures 15: Scuffing damage of bimetal bearings
For further information regarding bearing reuse guidelines and appearance refer to
bearing reuse guidelines (Service Bulletin 3810303).
4.0 Main bearing caps
Figure 17: CES 98081 appendix D regarding the grading method for main bearing cap
fretting. Note the areas of high polish at the 3 and 7 o’clock positions
Figure 18: An extreme failure of a main bearing cap. At this point there has been
extreme material loss along with a loss of bolt load compression on the crank / bearing /
block assembly.
Figure 19: Valve stem wear likely due to misalignment of the valve stem and the valve
guide.
What can cause this wear failure (Note that this may not necessarily be considered a
failure)?
This type of wear is fairly common on valve stems and can usually be linked to a slight
misalignment of the axis of the valve stem and the valve guide creating a localized area
of high contact pressure. Referring back to the Stribeck curve will show that with an
increasing load your lubrication regime migrates toward the boundary lubrication
conditions and therefore surface to surface contact.
Figure 20: Normal valve guide on left and excessively worn valve guide on right. This
was caused by a blocked oil passage from an incorrect rebuild practice.
Figure 21: New insert (left) and severely worn insert (right) on a QSK19 Gas engine.
Also note the valve seat is wearing along with the insert.
Asperity Level
Level Edge distress (E) Galling (G) Spalling (A) Macrospalling (M) Frosting (F) Debris damage (D)*
0 No damage
1 Light yielding along Possible galling Very light “speckles” Small elliptical spall Possible frosting Few defined SB,
one or both edges streaks, but can’t be along some of the and/or small surface streaks, but can’t be random DD or MF, or
certain without SEM grinding lines. Need high cracks. certain without SEM CD in distinct locations
analysis. No obvious magnification to confirm. analysis. No obvious
evidence on the roller. evidence on the roller.
2 Light cracking or Definite galling Distinct lines of damage. Multiple small Definite frosting Multiple individual or
spalling along one or damage with streaks Appear as spalls at higher individual or over- damage with streaks overlapping SB, DD, or
both edges. that can be seen by magnification. lapping spalls and/or that can be seen at low MF; CD covering large
eye or at low more extensive magnification up to and area
magnification. surface cracks including full width
(Arrow head shape coverage of the lobe
that points in the surface.
direction of cam
rotation.)
3 Advanced spalling Extensive galling Partial width damage no Large spalls or Initial surface cracking Full width DD or CD,
along one or both damage across much longer confined to lines. extensive surface and/or small spalls. or initial surface
edges, with the of the lobe surface or Starting to see larger cracking. (Arrow head shape that cracking or spalling
spalling starting to galling streaks that spalls at low points in the direction initiating at debris
extend into the lobe have started to spall. magnification. opposite to cam damage
contact width rotation.)
4 Full (>75%) width Full (>75%) width Full (>75%) width loss of Full (>75%) width Large spalls or Extensive spalling,
spalling that appears loss of material or material or cracking and loss of material or extensive surface surface cracking, or
to be initiated at an cracking and chunking out. chunking out. cracking. Full (>75%) chunking out initiating
edge chunking out width loss of material from debris damage.
or extensive surface
cracking and chunking
out.
* SB = stippled bands (“scratches”) -- Large numbers of tiny dents that appear to form a solid band. At high mag. the dents will all be of the same size and
shape. DD = debris dents – Dents of varying sizes and shapes with defined edges randomly located; MF = multi-fragment dents -- Denting caused by the
crushing of brittle debris, generally consisting of many sharp-faceted impressions clustered and overlapping.; CD = contaminant denting -- Profuse denting with
a faceted or matte appearance on the lobe caused by fine loose debris.
PB = Polishing Band, FB = Frosted Band
L
E
V Edge Distress (E) Galling (G) Asperity Level Macrospalling (M) Frosting (F) Debris Damage (D)
E Spalling (A)
L
1x 1x 1x 1x 1x 1x
1x 5x 1x 1x 1x 5x
1x 2x 1x 2x 1x 1x
1x 1x 1x 1.5x 2x 5x
Answers to the three above questions can be found in the below excerpt from Carl Musolff’s guide to designing a durable cam system
The following guidelines for designing and manufacturing a durable camshaft and cam follower system are based on Cummins experience and on the
standards developed by the rolling element bearing industry. Rolling element bearings operate under similar conditions and experience similar failure
modes, so their technologies are commonly applied to roller follower cam systems. However, there are enough differences in the two types of systems that
bearing industry knowledge needs to be applied “intelligently”, and may not be applicable in all situations. Also, there is still a great deal to learn about
what is required to provide a truly durable camshaft and cam follower. As more is understood, additional requirements will likely be applied, and some of
the current standards will likely be modified. The final decisions on how to design and manufacture these components will be driven by what is shown to
work in a specific engine, not by theory or the experience with other engines.
Note that, when failures occur, the camshaft is often the component that exhibits the most obvious damage. However, the root cause of this damage may
be a problem with some other component in the cam - cam follower system, so the whole system needs to be included in any failure analysis, and in the
product improvement process.
List of guidelines:
NW = Non wear area. WA = Wear area. PE = Locator pin end. NPE = Non locator pin end.
*WD = Wide – wear pattern wider in one area.
**WD = Wide – score mark has two visible edges and a valley or bottom. N = Narrow – score mark appears like a single line with no
easily visible valley or bottom. AX = Axial
Debris Damage (D) or
Wear (W) Embedded Debris (ED) Scoring (S)* Pitting (PT) Non Corrosion (C) Manufacturing (M)&
Corrosive Assembly
2.5x 3x 2.5x
2.5x 4x 3x
No Picture
4 Available
2.5x 4x 3x 2.5x
**Note that roller damage scale has not been fully documented
6.0 Gear Wear
Figure 24: Wear on a helical gear due to poor surface finish. Wear of this nature can be
reduced or eliminated by improving the gear tooth surface finish.