Cummins Technical Report

This document shall not be shared without permission from the Technical Area Leader
Title: Common Engine Wear Failure Mode Atlas
Revision: 0
Legacy Number:
Author(s): Jeffrey Cooper(fb145);Carl
Musolff(ii264);Joseph
Rennekamp(ca822);Terry Shaw(kk486)
Document Owner : Jeffrey Cooper(fb145)
Description : This document gives an overview of
different wear modes commonly experienced
in engines and what can be done to alleviate
them
Business Unit : Engine
Sub-Business Unit :
Site : CTC
Document Classification : Material/Chemistry
Technical Area : R&T - METALLURGICAL
ENGINEERING
Technical Area Leader : Yong-ching Chen(an283)
Security Expiration Date : 1/16/2010 12:00:00 PM
Review Date :
Publication Release Date 1/16/2008 12:00:00 PM
Revision Comments :
Reference to Document :

Cummins PROPRIETARY
This document (and the information shown thereon) is PROPRIETARY to Cummins Inc and shall not be disclosed to others in
hard copy or electronic form, reproduced by any means, or used for any purpose without consent of Cummins, Inc.
Coversheet last changed : Thu Jan 24 16:52:59 EST 2008
1.0 Introduction .....................................................................................................2
1.1 Pitting..............................................................................................................2
1.2 Spalling ...........................................................................................................2
1.3 Impact wear ....................................................................................................3
1.4 Fretting............................................................................................................3
1.5 Erosion............................................................................................................3
1.6 Adhesion .........................................................................................................3
1.7 Delamination ...................................................................................................3
1.8 Galling.............................................................................................................4
1.9 Seizure............................................................................................................4
1.10 Scuffing .........................................................................................................4
1.11 Scoring..........................................................................................................4
1.12 Introduction to lubrication regimes ................................................................4
2.0 Power Cylinder Wear ......................................................................................6
2.1 Piston Scuffing ................................................................................................6
2.2 Liner Pocketing ...............................................................................................8
2.3 Piston Land Scuffing .....................................................................................11
2.4 Piston Pin Seizures.......................................................................................13
2.5 Piston Ring Wear ..........................................................................................15
3.0 Bearing Wear ................................................................................................17
4.0 Main bearing caps.........................................................................................21
5.0 Overhead Wear.............................................................................................23
5.1 Valve stems ..................................................................................................23
5.2 Valve guide ...................................................................................................24
5.3 Valve Seats / Valve Seat Inserts..................................................................25
5.4 Rocker Lever / Crosshead Wear...................................................................26
5.5.1 Cam System Wear.....................................................................................28
5.5.2 Cam Follower Pin Wear .............................................................................32
6.0 Gear Wear ....................................................................................................35
1.0 Introduction
In order to create a “Wear Failure Mode Atlas” one must first define what “Wear” is.
There are numerous different words which fall into the category of wear and the failures
which are outlined here-in are in some form related to one or more of these subcategories.

Wear itself is defined as damage to a solid surface, generally involving progressive loss
of material due to relative motion between that surface and a contacting substance or
substances.

An empirical model of sliding wear can appear in the following form:

⎡K φ ⎤
W = F (α , β , ⎢ m ⎥, j , L,V , T , t )
⎣ H ⎦
W = Wear
α = Environmental effects
β = Geometric effects
H = Hardness
L = Load
V = Velocity
t = Time
T = Temperature
j = Lubrication film thickness
φ = Finish factor
Km = Wear coefficient

To simplify this a bit, an introduction to common wear modes is in order.

1.1 Pitting
Pitting can occur in a rolling type of contact. It appears as a subsurface crack which
eventually pulls out of the surface and finally releases a particle to become debris in the
system. Cam roller systems often see this type of wear.

1.2 Spalling
Spalling is very similar to pitting however it is more commonly associated with removal
of a coating from a substrate. The initiation location in this mechanism of wear is at the
interface of a substrate and a coating. Within Cummins this term is typically used to refer
to pitting damage on components which do not have coatings and can therefore in my
opinion be used interchangeably.
1.3 Impact wear
Impact wear is associated with the collision and subsequent material interactions of two
or more moving bodies. It is typically characterized by severe deformation of the
surface. Components which are commonly seen to have this type of wear include: valve
seats and valve seat inserts.

1.4 Fretting
Fretting wear refers to a very low amplitude movement between two corresponding
surfaces. Fretting wear is usually closely associated with vibrations and in an
atmospheric operating environment it nearly always results in the formation of an oxide
with the mating materials. Components which commonly fret are: bolted joints, bushings
and rods, main bearing caps, head decks, mounting brackets, manifolds, and accessory
drive shafts to name a few.

1.5 Erosion
Erosion is the gradual wearing away of surface materials by the action of particles in a
fluid or the simple action of the fluid itself. Erosion wear is closely related to impact
wear. Common components which experience erosive wear are manifolds, cooling
systems.

1.6 Adhesion
Adhesive wear occurs when two solid surfaces slide over one another under pressure.
Surface projections, or asperities, are plastically deformed, and eventually are welded
together by the high local pressure. An example of this is found at the valve – valve
guide interface.

1.7 Delamination
Delamination wear can be characterized by the formation of sheet like laminar wear
particles where dislocations have built up at a certain finite distance below the sliding
surface and a localized piece of material disconnects from the surface. This is very
similar in appearance to pitting and spalling however it is not usually associated with
rolling contact failure.
1.8 Galling
Galling is a form of adhesive wear which causes chunks of material to be removed from
one or both mating surfaces. Components which are commonly thought of with regard to
galling failure include cams and rollers.

1.9 Seizure
Seizure is localized welding which occurs to the point that the interfacial shear stress
reaches and exceeds the shear strength of the material causing total failure. Components
commonly thought of for seizure are: piston pins, pistons and connecting rods. This is
the most destructive form of wear.

1.10 Scuffing
Scuffing is the localized surface damage associated with solid-state welding between
sliding surfaces. Components commonly associated with scuffing include pistons and
liners, and piston rings.

1.11 Scoring
Scoring is the localized solid-state welding between sliding surfaces but with the
appearance that there is scratching by abrasive particles. This is commonly seen is
between the cylinder liner and the piston skirt.

1.12 Introduction to lubrication regimes

Wear in an IC engine will usually only become an issue if the design or operating
conditions dictate that you are in boundary lubrication regime. The figure below shows
how the lubrication regime of a particular sliding interface changes under different
operating conditions defined by lubricant viscosity, relative velocity, and transmitted
load. The boundary lubrication region refers to a zone where there is direct contact
between two mating surfaces without a protective lubricant film. The second region is
the mixed lubrication regime where there is a combination of light surface contact and a
lubrication layer. The final lubrication regime is referred to as full film lubrication or
hydrodynamic lubrication. This occurs when the adjoining surfaces are kept completely
separate by a film of oil. Ideally, if every moving joint was always in the full film
lubrication regime, wear would not occur.
Figure 1: Sommerfeld number is the viscosity of the lubricant multiplied by the relative
surface velocity divided by the load being transmitted through the joint.
2.0 Power Cylinder Wear
The power cylinder system of an engine contains an absolute plethora of not only
wearing components, but also wear modes. In particular, the skirt, rings, liner interface is
one of the most difficult interface regions within the engine to design and optimize.
Numerous problems have arisen at these interfaces which were solved through numerous
different answers. I will try to address some of the more common ones here:

2.1 Piston Scuffing

Figure 2: Scuffing marks on the ID of the cylinder liner along with the OD of the piston
skirt.
What can cause this wear failure?
It was found that during cold start up the piston skirt was experiencing severe
interference with the liner. The operating condition where this was experienced occurred
when a cold engine (approximately -10F) was started and abruptly taken to 1000 rpm.
This caused an interference condition between the skirt and liner due in part to piston
secondary dynamics.

How was the wear failure diagnosed?

The power cylinder dynamics kit called PISDYN was used to determine the operating
conditions where this wear mode occurred. After the analysis was done, the failure was
reproduced on an engine test in order to confirm the analytical results.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

The piston skirt profile was changed along with the cold start procedure. The initial
operating temperature of these engines in cold environments is raised to 25 F prior to
running.
2.2 Liner Pocketing

Figure 3: A roundness trace at TDC on the piston which has been superimposed over an
ideal liner roundness trace.

What is this wear failure?

Liner pocketing is a phenomenon where heavy wear occurs in an uneven pattern around
the circumference of a cylinder liner. In the case shown above the circumferential
locations showing the deepest pockets correspond directly with injector nozzle spray
holes.
 Liner

Liner

Coolant

Figure 4: Liner at top ring reversal and how the liner pocket appears with respect to the
initial shape of the liner ID.

What can cause this wear failure?

It was determined that the wear corresponded closely with elevated coolant temperatures
in the engine. Therefore, as the engine temperature increased there appeared to be a
“cliff” event at which liner wear began increasing rapidly. In one particular instance,
when the coolant temperature was changed from 160F to 250F the average pocket wear
from the same test increased from 6 microns to 26 microns. This testing was done on an
‘07 ISX and similar results were found on an ’07 ISL. It is thought that this “cliff” event
occurs stem from the corresponding increase in liner wall temperature along with a close
correspondence to injector nozzle spray hole orientation and angle. It is also believed
that oil evaporation from the wall of the liner is a contributing factor.

How was the wear failure diagnosed?

This failure mode is typically seen as a highly polished area after power cylinder
disassembly. Proper diagnosis can be done through a roundness measurement of the
TRR location on the ID of the liner. An axial liner measurement can also be performed
in numerous locations around the circumference of the liner in order to properly
characterize the shape and maximum depth experienced in these liner locations. During
engine testing, this wear mode may begin to rapidly affect blow by due to continuous
decrease in liner to piston ring contact pressure.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

There are numerous ways to help control this type of liner wear and an optimization
study must be done in order to determine the best design. The following is a list of the
parameters which may have a strong influence on this phenomenon:
• Piston ring tension
• Nozzle geometry
o Number of spray holes
o Spray angle
• Fuel metering
o Mass of pilot injection(s)
o Mass of post injection(s)
o Mass of main injection
• Oil ring tension
• Top ring distance from top of piston
• Liner geometry with respect to water jacket
• Coolant temperature
2.3 Piston Land Scuffing

Second Land
Scuffing

Figure 5: Example of piston second land scuffing and the resulting affect on the liner.

What is this wear failure?

Piston land scuffing is a wear mode typically characterized by complete breakdown of
hydrodynamic and mixed film lubrication and only light boundary lubrication is present
between the liner and piston.

What can cause this wear failure?

Piston land scuffing can occur when the combination of too much secondary piston
motion, and too little oil on the cylinder wall occur. The dynamics of the piston within
the cylinder are very complex and a good tool which can be used to help diagnose any
prospective problems is PISDYN. This wear mode is characterized by the piston land
breaking through the oil film and making hard contact with the cylinder liner during
engine operation.
What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?
An analysis of the piston itself was performed in order to determine the best ways to
prevent the lubrication layer breakthrough. It was determined that a slightly increased
tolerance, along with a more robust closed skirt piston design would provide much higher
design margin for piston operation.
2.4 Piston Pin Seizures

Figure 6: Remains of a power cylinder after a piston pin seizure.

Con rod small end bushing

material transfer

Figure 7: Post failure appearance of a piston pin with large amounts of material transfer
between the connecting rod small end bushing and the piston pin.

What is this wear failure?

Piston pin seizures are arguably the single most devastating failure which can happen to
an engine. The causes of piston pin seizures can be numerous however they all involve
the connecting rod small end and the piston pin bore “grabbing” the piston pin
simultaneously and not letting go while the engine continues to rotate. This lack of
articulation combined with the large amount of energy being translated through the joint
cause the destruction seen in the picture above. For a thorough overview of everything
Cummins Inc. has learned with respect to piston pin seizures refer to CES 98291.

What can cause this wear failure?

The investigation of this joint has been extensive throughout the history of Cummins Inc,
and as such, there have been many different methods found which can turn piston pin
seizures on and off. Some of the methods which have been discovered in the past include
the following:
• Piston pin
o Pin OD waviness
o Pin cylindricity
o Pin ID axial profile
o Pin OD axial profile
o Pin OD quality i.e. scratches, gouges etc.
• Piston pin bore
o Surface finish measurement
o Pin bore ID waviness
o Pin bore cylindricity
o Pin bore profile
o Pin bore quality
o Pin bore alignment
o Pin bore material/coating
• Connecting rod small end
o Connecting rod small end material
o Connecting rod small end axial profile
o Connecting rod small end contact pressure
o Connecting rod small end bushing back contact
o Connecting rod small end surface metrology parameters
• Oil quality
• Debris effects
o debris composition
o debris size
o debris geometry
o assembly clearances

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

The previous list of parameters is a majority of the parameters to look at when dealing
with a pin joint seizure issue however it may not necessarily be all of the parameters. A
list of issues which have been determined to cause piston pin seizures can be found
within CES 98291.
2.5 Piston Ring Wear

Figure 8: Ring Face wear with Cr coating chipping

Figure 9: Wear step created due to “dust out” wear mechanism. Failure occurs when
debris is ingested into the power cylinder typically due to poor maintenance practices
with regard to air filtration.
What is this wear failure?
Piston ring wear can occur due to numerous different reasons but can be a cylinder
disabling failure if not kept in check. Piston ring wear occurs when either the liner
contacting face or the top or bottom of the ring begin to wear out. While the causes of
piston ring wear may be numerous the symptoms are typically found in the form of high
blow by or eventually cylinder disablement.

What can cause this wear failure?

There are many different engine parameters which can and will influence the wear rate of
piston rings, some of which can be influenced by design, while others are mainly
controlled by maintenance practices. Some of the design control factors available to
combat piston ring wear are
• Ring end gap
• Ring tension
• Ring carrier groove width
• Ring material
• Ring coating
• Liner material
• Ring geometry

Maintenance practices can often influence ring wear as well. In the cross section of the
top ring seen above one can see a “step” worn in the lower surface of the ring. If debris
is found to be present (typically Al2O3 or SiO2) then one can typically assign the wear to
poor air filtration maintenance practices or design. In the case of the figure seen above,
the intake air contained small abrasive particles which contributed to the wear of this
ring. Ring front face wear can be attributed to poor oil change practices. With poor oil
change practices the oil itself can become more abrasive (particularly in EGR engines)
and without regular changes it can begin to wear the front face of the piston rings.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

The best ways to combat this type of wear mode during the design phase are to design for
maximum hydrodynamic lubrication throughout the stroke (particularly at TRR and
BRR) and limit the amount of ring dynamics which can cause impact type wear of the
lower surface of the ring.

Resource: Power Cylinder Database, MCWO database

3.0 Bearing Wear
Bearing wear can be a more difficult issue to detect than many power cylinder wear
modes. In theory a well designed bearing system should only experience wear during the
start up and shut down phases of the engine use cycle. Bearing wear can be estimated
through Oil quality analysis and some historic limits for bearing material content in oil
analysis have been jointly realized through a concerted effort between the Chemical
technologies group and the service organizations. The following table should not be
thought of as absolute limits but more of a good estimation of what may be seen in an
engine oil analysis if there happens to be a bearing wear issue. See CES 98082 for more
bearing information.

Table 1: Used oil analysis wear metals limits

Trimetal bearing wear
Trimetal bearings are those which consist of steel backing layer, a supplier dependent
bearing material, and a supplier dependant overlay. The composition of each of these
layers varies between suppliers, but the terminology remains consistent across the
industry. Wear in trimetal bearings is typically much more easily diagnosed than it is in
bimetal variety bearings (bearings consisting of only a steel backing and a supplier
dependent bearing layer).

Figure 10: Uneven overlay wear on an angle fracture split rod bearing. This type of wear
may or may not be detrimental to the bearing performance depending on the running
characteristics of the bearing substrate layer. Excessive wear can eventually cause
premature fatigue of the bearing.

Figure 11: Uneven overlay wear on a lower main bearing due to edge loading on either a
distorted crankshaft or main bearing cap. This type of wear may or may not be
detrimental to the bearing performance depending on the running characteristics of the
bearing substrate layer. Excessive wear can eventually cause premature fatigue of the
bearing.
Bimetal Bearings

Figure 12: Excessive edge wear on a bimetal bearing

Figure 13: Bearing back fretting

Figure 14: Visual appearance of the Bearing ID caused by fretting on the bearing back
Figures 15: Scuffing damage of bimetal bearings

For further information regarding bearing reuse guidelines and appearance refer to
bearing reuse guidelines (Service Bulletin 3810303).
4.0 Main bearing caps

Figure 16: Tested main bearing cap which passed testing

Figure 17: CES 98081 appendix D regarding the grading method for main bearing cap
fretting. Note the areas of high polish at the 3 and 7 o’clock positions
Figure 18: An extreme failure of a main bearing cap. At this point there has been
extreme material loss along with a loss of bolt load compression on the crank / bearing /
block assembly.

What is this wear failure?

Main bearing cap fretting is a very small (on the order of microns) relative motion
between main bearing cap and mating block face. It causes a release of main bolt load
which therefore causes an increase in crank clearance and can ultimately cause bearing
failures and subsequent failures associated with failed main bearings.

What can cause this wear failure?

Main bearing cap fretting occurs when the loads experienced by the main bearing cap due
to the transmission of forces through the crankshaft are too great for the main bolts to
hold the cap in full contact with the block. These are typically driven by increasing the
cylinder pressure or the displacement of the engine.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

This wear mode can be combated by increasing the bolt load on the main bearing caps, or
decreasing the crush height of the main bearings. If it is chosen to decrease the crush
height of the main bearing one must be cautious of creating a design which would
potentially allow the bearings to spin out of position.
5.0 Overhead Wear

5.1 Valve stems

Figure 19: Valve stem wear likely due to misalignment of the valve stem and the valve
guide.

What is this wear failure?

Valve stem scuffing.

What can cause this wear failure (Note that this may not necessarily be considered a
failure)?
This type of wear is fairly common on valve stems and can usually be linked to a slight
misalignment of the axis of the valve stem and the valve guide creating a localized area
of high contact pressure. Referring back to the Stribeck curve will show that with an
increasing load your lubrication regime migrates toward the boundary lubrication
conditions and therefore surface to surface contact.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

Ways to combat this failure mode include better alignment in the overhead system, better
introduction of lubricant to the valve stem, or modifying the clearance between the valve
guide and valve stem. Note that all of these modifications will influence the design of
other components and should therefore be carefully analyzed.

5.2 Valve guide

Figure 20: Normal valve guide on left and excessively worn valve guide on right. This
was caused by a blocked oil passage from an incorrect rebuild practice.

What is this wear failure?

This wear mode is characterized by severe material loss in the valve guide which can also
affect the valve stem.

What can cause this wear failure?

This particular failure was due to an incorrectly installed rocker lever shaft bushing
which completely blocked the oil supply feed drilling. The lack of lubrication supply
caused the oil which was present to heavily oxidize and trap the wear particles within the
grease-like remains of the oil eventually causing abrasive wear of the ID of the guide.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

Proper lubricant supply can remedy this situation.
5.3 Valve Seats / Valve Seat Inserts

Figure 21: New insert (left) and severely worn insert (right) on a QSK19 Gas engine.
Also note the valve seat is wearing along with the insert.

What is this wear failure?

Valve seat insert wear.

What can cause this wear failure?

This type of failure is usually due to improper material combination, improper seat angle,
or excessive seating velocities.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

This failure mode can be combated by decreasing the valve seating velocity, modifying
the seat angle, finding a better material combination and/or improving the surface finish.
5.4 Rocker Lever / Crosshead Wear

Figure 22: Rocker lever end wear due to poor lubrication

Figure 23: Wear caused by poor lubrication of the crosshead

What is this wear failure?

The previous figures show severe wear of the rocker lever nose and polishing/wear of
crosshead wear pad.

What can cause this wear failure?

This failure is typically caused by poor oil quality or too much lash in the system.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

This can be combated by improving the feed oil quality, creating a more compatible
material combination or by properly setting the lash. This wear mode can also be
combated by adopting an elephant foot design.
5.5.1 Cam System Wear
Table 2: Cam damage grading scale

Asperity Level
Level Edge distress (E) Galling (G) Spalling (A) Macrospalling (M) Frosting (F) Debris damage (D)*
0 No damage
1 Light yielding along Possible galling Very light “speckles” Small elliptical spall Possible frosting Few defined SB,
one or both edges streaks, but can’t be along some of the and/or small surface streaks, but can’t be random DD or MF, or
certain without SEM grinding lines. Need high cracks. certain without SEM CD in distinct locations
analysis. No obvious magnification to confirm. analysis. No obvious
evidence on the roller. evidence on the roller.

2 Light cracking or Definite galling Distinct lines of damage. Multiple small Definite frosting Multiple individual or
spalling along one or damage with streaks Appear as spalls at higher individual or over- damage with streaks overlapping SB, DD, or
both edges. that can be seen by magnification. lapping spalls and/or that can be seen at low MF; CD covering large
eye or at low more extensive magnification up to and area
magnification. surface cracks including full width
(Arrow head shape coverage of the lobe
that points in the surface.
direction of cam
rotation.)
3 Advanced spalling Extensive galling Partial width damage no Large spalls or Initial surface cracking Full width DD or CD,
along one or both damage across much longer confined to lines. extensive surface and/or small spalls. or initial surface
edges, with the of the lobe surface or Starting to see larger cracking. (Arrow head shape that cracking or spalling
spalling starting to galling streaks that spalls at low points in the direction initiating at debris
extend into the lobe have started to spall. magnification. opposite to cam damage
contact width rotation.)
4 Full (>75%) width Full (>75%) width Full (>75%) width loss of Full (>75%) width Large spalls or Extensive spalling,
spalling that appears loss of material or material or cracking and loss of material or extensive surface surface cracking, or
to be initiated at an cracking and chunking out. chunking out. cracking. Full (>75%) chunking out initiating
edge chunking out width loss of material from debris damage.
or extensive surface
cracking and chunking
out.

* SB = stippled bands (“scratches”) -- Large numbers of tiny dents that appear to form a solid band. At high mag. the dents will all be of the same size and
shape. DD = debris dents – Dents of varying sizes and shapes with defined edges randomly located; MF = multi-fragment dents -- Denting caused by the
crushing of brittle debris, generally consisting of many sharp-faceted impressions clustered and overlapping.; CD = contaminant denting -- Profuse denting with
a faceted or matte appearance on the lobe caused by fine loose debris.
PB = Polishing Band, FB = Frosted Band
L
E
V Edge Distress (E) Galling (G) Asperity Level Macrospalling (M) Frosting (F) Debris Damage (D)
E Spalling (A)
L

1x 1x 1x 1x 1x 1x

1x 5x 1x 1x 1x 5x

1x 2x 1x 2x 1x 1x

1x 1x 1x 1.5x 2x 5x

1x 0.25x 0.5 0.5x 1x 1x

Courtesy of Charlie Murphy and Carl Musolff
What is this wear failure?
What can cause this wear failure?
What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

Answers to the three above questions can be found in the below excerpt from Carl Musolff’s guide to designing a durable cam system

The following guidelines for designing and manufacturing a durable camshaft and cam follower system are based on Cummins experience and on the
standards developed by the rolling element bearing industry. Rolling element bearings operate under similar conditions and experience similar failure
modes, so their technologies are commonly applied to roller follower cam systems. However, there are enough differences in the two types of systems that
bearing industry knowledge needs to be applied “intelligently”, and may not be applicable in all situations. Also, there is still a great deal to learn about
what is required to provide a truly durable camshaft and cam follower. As more is understood, additional requirements will likely be applied, and some of
the current standards will likely be modified. The final decisions on how to design and manufacture these components will be driven by what is shown to
work in a specific engine, not by theory or the experience with other engines.

Note that, when failures occur, the camshaft is often the component that exhibits the most obvious damage. However, the root cause of this damage may
be a problem with some other component in the cam - cam follower system, so the whole system needs to be included in any failure analysis, and in the
product improvement process.

List of guidelines:

I) Camshaft and roller metallurgical and mechanical properties:

A) Clean steel. There appears to be no good way to specify this other than to require clean steel-making practices. .
B) Adequate surface hardness. Use the bearing industry guideline of 58 HRC minimum. Cummins specifies a cam hardness of 59 – 63 HRC and a
roller hardness of 61 – 64 HRC, and actual components are typically 60 HRC (cam) and 63 HRC (roller).
C) Adequate case depth. The bearing industry rule-of-thumb is that the effective case depth (to 50 HRC) should be at least 3.5 times the depth to the
maximum Hertzian contact shear stress.
D) Martensitic case microstructure without any massive second phase particles.
E) Compressive residual stresses at the surface.
II) Cam and roller axial form and alignment:
A) The optimum axial form appears to be a crown in the axial profile of both the cam lobe and the roller, with the radii of the crowns determined by
the loads and other geometries of the system. Minimal waviness on both surfaces. Although this attribute is not as important as the crown profile,
it can still affect the local stresses, and possibly influence the sensitivity to galling, asperity level spalling, and other types of damage.
B) Proper alignment between the cam and roller.
1) Parallelism of the cam bore in the block or head to the shaft centerline of the cam follower. For a tappet system, the critical parameter is the
perpendicularity of the tappet bore in the head or block to the cam bore.
2) Parallelism of the roller OD to the ID, specifically the surface of the ID (where it contacts the follower pin or axle).
3) Parallelism of the cam lobe profile to the cam centerline.
4) Parallelism between the centerlines of the cam follower shaft bore and the follower pin (or axle) bore
 III) Cam, roller (ID and OD), and pin surface finish characteristics:
A) Proper balance between the elastohydrodynamic oil film between the cam and roller and the surface roughness on those surfaces.
B) When running against a relatively soft pin material, the ID of the roller should be smooth and have a lay as close as possible to circumferential.
C) The pin surface finish should be one that minimizes pin – roller friction.
IV) Pin material:
A) Wear resistance: Maintaining the original geometry of the pin is essential to having a durable system. Small amounts of run-in wear are
acceptable, and can lower the friction between the pin and roller, but large amounts of wear can drastically increase the pin – roller friction,
resulting in slip or skidding of the roller and consequent cam damage. Wear on the order of 50 to 100 microns has been proven to be detrimental in
Cummins engines.
B) Low coefficient of friction
C) Adequate mechanical properties. These include the bending fatigue strength, the shear strength, and the compressive yield strength.
D) Appropriate thermal expansion coefficient.
E) Reasonably good embeddability to accommodate the normal levels of debris arising from wear and external contamination.
V) Pin – roller interface:
A) Clearance
B) Roller axial form
C) Pin diameter:
VI) System cleanliness:
A) It is essential to keep machining, assembly, and operational debris out of the pin – roller interface.
B) Some level of debris bruising or denting of the cam and roller OD surfaces is often seen in Cummins engines, and has not been shown to be
detrimental to the cam durability.
VII) Lubricating oil supply:
A) Cam – roller interface: Adequate oil must be available to support the creation of the EHD oil film and to cool the running surfaces.
B) Pin – roller interface: Adequate oil must be available to form the hydrodynamic oil film. It must also be delivered quickly enough after the engine
starts to avoid prolonged periods of operation without fresh oil.
C) Pin oiling features can affect how easily the roller turns, especially under light load conditions. This may be important in minimizing the loss of
roller rotational velocity during the unloaded part of each cam rotation.
VIII) Miscellaneous requirements
A) An acceptable level of contact stress between the cam and roller. Values less than 2070 Mpa (300 ksi) at the center of the contact appear to be
reasonably safe for the Cummins systems.
B) Minimizing roller mass to minimize the angular acceleration forces.
C) No grinding damage on the cam or roller surfaces.
D) Features to minimize traction between the sides of the roller and the cam follower lever or tappet legs.
1) A relatively smooth surface on the inside of the lever or tappet leg.
2) A relatively small diameter thrust surface on the sides of the roller so that any roller – tappet traction is experienced at a small radius and
produces minimal torque.
3) A smooth surface on the roller thrust surface.
**Note that the above list has been shortened. Excerpt from Carl Musolff’s guide to creating a durable cam follower system.
5.5.2 Cam Follower Pin Wear
Table 3: Cam Follower Pin damage grading scale
Debris Damage (D) or
Level Wear (W)* Embedded Debris (ED) Scoring (S)** Pitting (PT) Non Corrosion (C) Manufacturing (M)*
Corrosive
0 No Damage
1 Light wear (less than Few defined random Initial scoring Initial pitting or A dull look or Axial scoring damage,
10 microns of material debris dents and/or damage, 5 or less pitting related damage discoloration and wear 5 or less score marks
removal). possible embedded score marks that do in the loaded region, totaling <10 microns that do not overlap.
debris. May require not overlap. May or May require high in the loaded region. May or may not be
high magnification may not be noticeable magnification May require high noticeable to the
(>100X) to confirm to the touch. (>100X) to confirm. magnification touch.
embedded debris. (>100X) to confirm.
Note discoloration on
the end of the pin does
not always confirm
corrosion.
2 Moderate wear (10 to Multiple individual or Moderate scoring Visible pitting in Loss of material from Moderate axial
25 microns of material overlapping debris visible, 5 to 10 score patches or bands in corrosion and wear scoring visible, 5 to
removal). dents. Embedded marks. May be the loaded region. totaling 10 to 25 10 score marks that
debris easily visible. noticeable to the microns in the loaded may overlap. May be
touch. region. noticeable to the touch
3 Heavy wear (25 to 50 Extensive overlapping Extensive scoring Wide spread pitting or Loss of material from Extensive axial
microns of material debris denting and/or visible, 10 to 25 score pitting related damage corrosion and wear scoring visible
removal). embedded debris. marks. Damage easily (<75%) n the loaded totaling 25 to 50 individual or
felt. region. microns in the loaded overlapping, 10 to 25
region. score marks. Damage
easily felt.
4 Severe wear (more Severe debris dents Extreme scoring with Severe pitting or Severe loss of Pin assembled out of
than 50 microns of and/or debris more than 25 score pitting related damage material on both the rotation blocking the
material removal). embeddment covering marks. Surface rough over > 75% of the loaded and unloaded oil flow. Severe axial
Wear may intersect > 75% of the wear to the touch. loaded region. sides of the pin. scoring with
the oiling feature of area. Material loss in overlapping multiple
some pin designs. loaded region > 50 score marks in the
microns. wear area.

NW = Non wear area. WA = Wear area. PE = Locator pin end. NPE = Non locator pin end.
*WD = Wide – wear pattern wider in one area.
**WD = Wide – score mark has two visible edges and a valley or bottom. N = Narrow – score mark appears like a single line with no
easily visible valley or bottom. AX = Axial
 Debris Damage (D) or
Wear (W) Embedded Debris (ED) Scoring (S)* Pitting (PT) Non Corrosion (C) Manufacturing (M)&
Corrosive Assembly

1.5x 1.5x 1.5x 1.5x 1.5x 1.5x

1.5x
6x
No Picture No Picture No Picture
1 Available Available Available

2.5x 3x 2.5x

2.5x 4x 3x 2.5x 2.5x 1x

No Picture No Picture No Picture

3 Available Available Available

2.5x 4x 3x

No Picture
4 Available

2.5x 4x 3x 2.5x

Data courtesy of Charlie Murphy and Carl Musolff

What is this wear failure?
See comments in the damage guides above.
What can cause this wear failure?
See comments in the damage guides above.
What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?
See comments in the Cam System wear from Carl Musolff’s excerpt on designing a durable cam system.

**Note that roller damage scale has not been fully documented
6.0 Gear Wear

Figure 24: Wear on a helical gear due to poor surface finish. Wear of this nature can be
reduced or eliminated by improving the gear tooth surface finish.

What is this wear failure?

This failure is surface spallation due to high asperity contact stresses. This will slowly
wear off the surface material leaving behind a surface which will be extremely rough and
prone to fatigue.

What can cause this wear failure?

This failure can be caused by poor surface finish of gear teeth. A similar appearance can
occur from misalignment of the gears as well as an excessive lash setting.

What can be done to improve this wear failure mode?

Improving the surface finish of the teeth by around 50% can cause a substantial
improvement in rolling contact fatigue life.

7.0 Other Wearing Components

• Head deck to block mating face (especially when using an Al head)
• Manifolds: The mounting plates can fret against the block or head during thermal
cycling
• Seals: heavy seal wear will inevitably cause leaks
• Brackets: Fretting is commonly found on mounting faces which can sometimes
become heavy enough to create areas of stress concentration and then failure
• Gasket joints: Thermal gradients and shearing across gasket joints can cause
fretting of gasket and mating surface sometimes causing bolt load loss or leaks