Food Tech Full Summary HSC

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Food Tech FULL Summary HSC
Food Technology (Higher School Certificate (New South Wales))
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AUSTRALIAN FOOD INDUSTRY – TERM 1
 Sectors of the AFI

- The Agri-Food Chain
The Agri-Food chain refers to the production and supply of food for a customer,
with all links on the chain affecting either, therefore an issue in one sector
affects other sectors due to the flow on affect.
E.g. Sour and small strawberries > manufacturers must modify to accommodate
> caterers may have to substitute for a better tasting ingredient > retailers may
drop prices due to low sales, therefore affecting the income of all parties
involved in production.
The sectors of the agri-food chain include:

- Agriculture and Fisheries – beginning of chain
o Involves the cultivation of land to produce crops, of animals or
of cold-blooded aquatic species.
o Plays a large role in Australia’s economy and export market
o E.g. wheat, fruit, meat, fish, oysters
- Food processing and manufacture – altering raw materials
o Value adding – processing of goods to increase selling price >
enhances economic value of Australia’s food industry
o Value added foods increase employment opportunities and
increase revenue
o Processes have become mechanised to ensure no error and that
processes are economically viable
o E.g. Bread, cakes, muesli bars, yogurt
- Food retail – sale of foods
o One-stop shop supermarkets, stocking a large, diverse range,
according to consumer trends, are the most popular.
o Technological advancements such as online shopping, self-serve
and delivery assist in meeting consumer needs.
o Ready-to-eat meals meet the needs of the busy consumer
lifestyle
o E.g. Uber eats (delivery), Woolworths (supermarket store), Lite
n Easy (ready-to-eat)
- Food service and catering – commercial food production and service

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o Trends reveal Australians are eating 1 in 4 meals away from

home
o Foods available in institutions such as hospitals, prisons and
boarding schools are non-commercial meals.
o Commercial enterprises such as restaurants, clubs and take-
away shops make a profit from the sales of their food items.
o Catering is often used in a variety of social situations such as
functions and parties where food is prepared for them.
 Emerging Technologies in the AFI

Developments in the AFI are driven by technological advancements,
company growth, local and global events (e.g. war) and the everchanging
consumer demand.
- Genetically modified foods
o The process of modifying the genetic material of plants or
animals in order to improve the characteristics.
o Genetically engineering food is an ethical and controversial
issue, as concern has been expressed about its interference with
nature and animal rights.
o E.g. genetically engineered grapes used in winemaking are
able to be picked without drying and discolouration.
o Genomics is the science of gene mapping, which allows for
more specific and controlled breeding as gene maps can be used
to select partners.
o Transgenic meats are being developed, for example growth
hormones are inserted into pigs to make them leaner, which
reaches their market rate faster.
- Emerging technologies in packaging
o Technological advancements have meant packaging is
becoming more environmentally friendly and cost efficient.
o E.g. biodegradable packaging, compostable packaging
- Ecologically sustainable production methods
o Organic farming is agriculture that does not deplete natural
resources and does not use harmful, artificial substances that
cumulate in the environment.

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 Organically farmed foods are free from pesticides,

herbicides, growth hormones and fertilizers.
 During the processing foods are not treated with synthetic
chemicals and cannot be genetically modified.
 This often results in a lower yield, due to lack of pest
control, and a more expensive product, due to lower
productivity.
 There are strict standards in place to classify a product as
organic.
- Emerging technologies in food production
o Sensors
 Crop sensors – help distribute correct amounts of
fertilizer to areas of crop
 Optical crop sensors/drones – able to view crop health
(often using infrared light)
o Technological food
 Genetically designed foods – the formation of new strains
of food in order to better address biological and physical
needs
 In-Virto meat – A flesh product that genetically
engineered and has never been a part of a complete,
living animal. Made in a lab.
o Automation
 Agricultural robots – Automate processes like picking,
harvesting, ploughing, weeding etc.
 Precision Agriculture – Satellite imagery and advanced
sensors allow farmers to optimise returns and preserve
resources
o Engineering
 Vertical Farming – allows growth in suburban settings,
space conscious. Uses natural light and is energy
efficient, all year-round crop.
Emerging Risks Benefits

Technology
Sustainable packaging - May not offer the same - Disposable in a

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level of protection as sustainable manner

Food retail and Food plastic - Biodegradable packaging
Service and Catering - More expensive to use, returns nutrients to the soil
will drive up retail prices - Domestic or industry use
- Risk of food spoilage and - Can help reduce waste
disease due to level of management cost, carbon
protection footprint and greenhouse
emissions
Genetically Modified - Controversial > unethical - Better taste, look or feel
Foods - Little is known about long - Crops have better
term affects and safety as resistance to disease and
Agriculture and it is relatively new damage = larger yield
fisheries - Can trigger allergic - Enhanced nutrition
reactions
- Some researchers link
GMO foods to cancer
- Can cause a resistance to
some antibiotics in
humans
- Issues with outcrossing
 Operation of organisations within the AFI

- Levels of operation
Level Description Example
Household Home produced or Home grown fruit sold
manufactured products
Small Business Often family business or Local Bakery
partnership, often 20 staff
members or less
Large Business Operates across the state or Coles
country
Multinational Worldwide company McDonalds
- Research and Development

The process used to create new products, driven by the need to create to meet
consumer demands and win market share. CSIRO is involved in undertaking

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significant food research in cooperation with the government. Large or

multinational companies have teams devoted to R&D.
- Quality assurance
Quality assurance is the responsibility of every person involved with the
production of a food product. All foods are checked against a standard during
production to ensure safety. Quality control is measuring characteristics,
comparing to standards, and acting on any differences that occur. Quality
assurance (whole company) is the ultimate aim of quality control
(individual/part of company) – all parts of company working together to
maintain consistency of quality products.
HACCAP is Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points which is an international

approach to quality assurance.
- Consumer influences
The AFI is responding the everchanging needs of consumers with the
production of food which can be:
o Varied in cost, from generic to gourmet > Caters to people of
all socioeconomic status
o Single serve products > caters to single people or those living
alone
o Microwave meals > caters to those who are looking for a
premade meal or quick meal
o Ready to eat meals > Caters to busy lifestyles and those
wanting to eat on the go
o Nutritionally enhanced (functional foods) > Caters to consumer
health issues
The demand for increased convenience has led to more flexible shopping hours
and self-serve options.
- Impact on environment
The AFI has played a largely negative role in impacting the environment,
causing waterway pollution from chemical runoff, which can cause poisoning of
animals and other plants. Erosion, land exhaustion, food and water wastage,
packaging waste and salinity are all issues stemming from the AFI, along with
issues in the transport of food such as emissions and heavy use of fossil fuels.

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- Impact on economy
The AFI is the largest manufacturing industry in Australia, as well as the largest
employer in the country. Australia has a large presence in exporting, which is
beneficial to our economy in the money it brings into the country and the large
international presence it holds. Food accounts for nearly 50% of all retailing
turn over in Australia.
While the AFI employs a large percentage of Australians, the new and ever
improving presence of technology is slowly reducing jobs in the physically
demanding all sectors of the AFI. While also being a negative, technology is
opening up new doorways for new jobs in new areas, such as R&D, which can
be beneficial to the company’s and Australia’s economy.
- Impact on society
Food and food production influence the way we live, and vice versa. The
changing lifestyles of Aussies and societal behaviours affect food production
and food choices. Multiculturalism in Australia is growing, therefore enhancing
a more multicultural diet for all ethnicities and races. Lifestyle changes play a
major role in the foods we choose, a more active and faster paced lifestyle that
more Aussies choose convenience foods, like Up ‘n’ Go’s.
- Career opportunities and working conditions

An increase in technology, such as mechanisation, automation and
computerisation has led to less physical labour, creating safer jobs. Careers in
the AFI vary in a level from unskilled, like a fruit picker, to highly skilled, like a
food technologist. Equal employment opportunities are part of any employment
contract, which covers maternity/paternity leave, discrimination etc.
Working conditions vary due to the nature of the job, the level of employment
and level of operation. In a physical sense, you may be required to wear coats
and glasses in a lab, be exposed to cold working in a butcher shop or the
elements, like wind, sun or rain if working outdoors, such as a fruit picker.
 Policy and legislation

Policy the strategies put in place by governments to improve all aspects of
living, for example, Trade policy.

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Legislation is a law passed by government that describes what can and cannot
be done in specific situations. In the food industry, food legislation is on 3
government levels – local, state and federal. An example is the federal Trade
practices act 1974.
- Advisory groups
Governments are advised by independent organisations on the development of
policies and legislation. This can be in the form of business groups (Australian
Dairy Corporation), groups that advise specific issues (National Heart
Foundation), an independent body that is able to make and change laws relating
to food (FSANZ) and a group that protects local food supply against
contamination (AQIS)
- FSANZ
An independent legislative body established by Food Standards Australia and
New Zealand Act 1991, standardizes food laws.
o FSANZ:
 Develops standards for what is in our food
 Develop food labelling laws
 Set standards on food safety issues
 Develops risk assessment policies for imported food
o Australian food standard code

A tool used to publish approved standards, which outlines a general list of
standards food producers must follow. This includes:
 Labelling and advertising
 Use by dates
 Nutritional info, including food additives, allergens and foreign
objects
o Product recall
FSANZ has responsibility for product recall, each business within the
food industry must have an overall product recall management plan in
place. Recalls may happen because of toxic chemicals, foreign bodies or
harmful micro-organisms.
o Codes of practice

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FSANZ develops non-binding agreements that businesses in a certain sector are

encouraged to follow. This allows consumers to make informed choices via
nutrient claims on labels and ads, etc
- Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS)

Part of the Agriculture and fishery sector. AQIS is responsible for:
o Protecting Australian primary producers and the community
from exotic pests and disease
o Inspects legally imported plants and animals – sea and airports
o Negotiates national and international agreements
o Checks quarantine status of travellers – sea and airports
o Provide export certification so products can compete in global
markets.
 Government policies and legislation

- National health and nutrition policies
These policies provide strategic direction and coordinated action on
public health and nutrition issues. This includes:
o Prevention of overweight and obesity
o Increasing the consumption of fruit and vegetables
o Improving nutrition of vulnerable groups – ATSI
 National Aboriginal and Torres Straight Islander
Nutrition Strategy and Action Plan
- Trade Policy
The policy of free trade aims to remove trade barriers concerning imports
and exports. This is done by:
o Reducing tariffs
o Raising quotas
o Eliminating subsidies
o Establishing Free trade agreements with other countries
Imports – allow for greater competition in the marketplace and increased

variety for the consumer. An increase in imports often come because of
shortfall in local production. E.g. imported bananas after plantations are

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affected in cyclones. Australia’s multicultural society reflects the demand

for ethnic and specialty foods.
Exports – increases the global market share of profits that can come back
to Australia, beneficial to Australia’s economy.
- Legislation
FISHERIES MANAGEMENT IMPORTED FOOD CONTROL HACCAP
ACT 1991 ACT 1992
Conducts domestic and Ensures compliance of
foreign compliance in order TRADE PRACTICES ACT
imports with Australian food
to protect valuable - Restrictive trade practices
FSANZ standards
resources. This includes o Misuse of market
catch limits to avoid power
overfishing and regulations o Exclusive dealings
on fishing method to assure
sustainability
FEDERAL o Resale price
maintenance
o Price
EXPORT CONTROL ACT 1982 discrimination
Protects Australia’s animal, - Unreasonable conduct
GENE TECHNOLOGY ACT 2001
plant and human health - Consumer protection
The gene technology act regulates
status while maintaining - Compensation of
dealings with genetically modified
market access for exports of defective goods
foods, in order to protect the health
and safety of individuals, and also food and other products.
aims to protect the environment.
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HEALTH ACT
FERTILISERS ACT 1985 AND SAFTEY ACT 2000 Regulated by each state or
Ensures unsafe levels of heavy metals and other Protects the health, safety territory. Covers:
soil contaminants do not contaminate food. IT and welfare of people at - Personal hygiene
also covers protection of exported food work. Employers have to - General sanitary
products to comply with containment levels. follow a code of practice conditions
which helps reduce work- - Pest control
FOOD ACT 2003 related accidents. - Management of
Enforces food standards and hygiene infectious disease
regulations in the food industry. This - Storage, slaughter
CODES FOR INSPECTION OF FOOD AND
deals with areas such as false STATE
FOOD PREMISES
and sale of meat.
description, unlawful practices and false Local councils form their own codes for
advertising. inspection of food and food premises.ACTThe1997
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APPOINTEMNET OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

OFFICERS (EHOs)
An environmental health officer can be appointed as
food surveillance officer aligned with the Food Act.
The officer is responsible for routine inspection of all
food premises in the local area.
CODES FOR CONSTRUCTION AND ALTERATION OF FOOD PREMISES

Formed by individual councils. This covers:
- Building materials used in food premises
- Instillation guidelines for fixtures and equipment such as ovens and refrigerators, toilets, ventilation and
windows.

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- Legislative requirements for packaging and labelling

The Food Standards Code sets labelling standards to ensure consumers
are provide with corrects information and safe food through proper
packaging. Other acts include:
o The State Trade Measurement Act enforces correct labelling
of weight of food
o The Trade Practices Act ensures that imported foods have the
correct country of origin on the label and prohibits misleading
and deceptive conduct.
- National Packaging Covenant

Established in 1999. Designed to:
o Reduce environmental impacts stemming from the disposal of
used packaging
o Conserve resources through improved design and production
processes
o Facilitate the re-use and recycling of used packaging materials.
Producers must sign a covenant that demonstrates their undertaking.
- Food labelling
Food labelling focuses on 3 areas:
o Statements or words that must appear on a label
o Statements or words that must not appear on a label
o Statements or words that may appear on a label under certain
circumstances
Labelling legislation requires that:
o Labels must be of legible, of uniform size and in English
o Labels are accurate e.g. strawberry yogurt must actually contain
strawberries
o Labels must have manufacturers address
o Major allergens are identified
o A nutritional panel is required
o Food additives are to be listed by its class name followed by
specific name
o Ingredients must be in descending order
Restrictions on labels:

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o No misleading trade names

o No false nutritional claims or ones that don’t adhere to food
code guidelines
o No words, statements or designs which could be interpreted as
advice of medical nature
o ‘Health’ cannot be used in the name of any food
FOOD MANUFACTURE – TERM 2
Production and processing of food

 Quality and quantity control in the selection of raw materials for food
processing
Food manufacture is the process of converting raw materials into a final food
product by using physical and chemical processes.
Raw materials are broken into 4 areas:
 Ingredients e.g. flour and yeast
 Materials e.g. steam and water
 Additives e.g. colours and flavours
 Packaging e.g. plastic and paper
Food manufacturers spend a lot of money on raw materials and strict
specifications are put in place to avoid contamination and waste. This includes
descriptions of raw materials, sampling method for material, testing specified
characteristics and taking action, either accepting or rejecting the material based
on whether it meets the specifications.
 Role of food additives in the manufacturing process

Functions of food additives:
 Improve stability, shelf life and sensory characteristics
 Adapt foods to provide for special dietary needs
Examples:

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 Flavour – restore flavour and odours lost through processing

 Thickeners – make food thicker
 Vegetable gums – impart consistency and texture
 Antioxidants – prolong shelf life by preventing oxidation
FSANZ controls the use of additives, and additives must appear on the product
labels and numbers are used as a code if names are too long.
 Characteristics of equipment used in different types of production and the

factors influencing their selection
Systems are mainly automated, equipment may differ depending on scale, from
domestic
to industrial.
 Separation – can be chemical or physical.
o Sieving – shaking a product through mesh to separate larger
particles. E.g. stones from cereal grains, filtration systems and
sieves
o Sedimentation – passing a liquid through a filter so solid
particles are removed. E.g. cheese curd from water, centrifuge,
cheese cloth
o Centrifuging – product is separated into different weights using
a spinning bowl. E.g. pulp from orange juice, centrifuge
 Grinding and milling – used to reduce a product in size by grinding or
breaking up. Used to make raw materials easier to handle, more
suitable for the final product or to make a new product. E.g. grinding
peanuts to make peanut butter, mortar and pestle, computerised mills
 Mixing – used to evenly distribute a raw material throughout a
product. E.g. mixing flour using a wooden spoon, high pressure mixer
 Heating
o Conduction – direct contact with a hot surface e.g. frying
o Convection – the movement of hot liquid around the food e.g.
boiling
o Radiation – a heat source directly above it heats the food without
touching it e.g. baking

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o HTST – High temp, short time. Food is heated to a high temp

quickly in order to destroy pathogenic bacteria e.g. pasteurisation
of milk
o UHT – Ultra heat treatment. Used to make milk that doesn’t need
refrigerating, milk is heated to 140˚C to kill all heat resistant
bacteria.
 Cooling – reduction of temperature, slows down activity of
microorganisms and enzymes, therefore slows food spoilage. E.g.
blast chillers, refrigerator
 Freezing – used to change water content into ice, making it impossible
for microbial growth or enzyme activity.
o Air blast freezers – cold air at high velocities e.g. meats
o Plate freezers – food freezes with direct contact to plate e.g. fish
o Tunnel freezers – quick freezing, food is moved through a
tunnel and blast frozen. E.g. used on high volume products
o Immersion/snap freezing – bringing a product into contact with
a low temp refrigerant, like liquid nitrogen. E.g. berries
 Evaporation – changing the liquid in a food to a steam or vapour. E.g.
tomato juice into paste, oven, industrial, evaporator
 Dehydration – reduces the moisture content of a food which limits
microbial growth. Most fruits and vegetables are blanched prior to
preserve colour and deactivate surface enzymes.
o Cabinet drying – placing product on wooden trays in a confined
space with circulating hot air. Fruits, vegetables, herbs.
o Tunnel drying – product travels on an automated system that
dries the product. Fruits, vegetables, meats.
o Sun drying – food is left in the sun to dry, slow, labour intensive
process. E.g. tomatoes.
o Spray drying - liquid products are dried through an atomiser,
producing a powder or fine product, e.g. instant coffee
 Production systems used in the manufacture of food, e.g. small scale,

large scale, manual, automated, computerised
 Large scale – Used in large production operations, utilises a
production line which includes raw material inspections, storage and

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distribution and the actual process of making the product. This

produces large volumes in short times.
 Small scale – Used on a domestic level, less complex in operation.
Commonly a household or small business level.
 Manual – A worker is physically manipulating the product, more
common in small scale production as is time consuming and
unrealistic for large quantities and high chance of error in
production.
 Automated - Machines handle and control the processing, from raw
materials to the final product. An efficient, controlled process that
minimises error.
 Computerised – Sensors are used to undergo more complex
production systems, allows computers to respond to variations in
raw materials and conditions.
Flow Diagrams – A method of visually representing the food production

process. This allows the process to be analysed for effectiveness and CCP can
be identified.
: Operation – Operations are when raw materials are deliberately changed,

physically or chemically E.g. peeling an apple
Inspection – The product is compared to a standard. E.g. recording
pasteurization temperature
Transportation – Move materials from one place to another. E.g. fork-
lifting apple pallets
D Delay – conditions don’t allow next step of process to occur, or next
production step that doesn’t happen immediately. E.g. shortcomings in process
design, wait for yeast react
Storage – The product is kept under controlled conditions before selling.
E.g. canned beans on shelf
2 symbols are used when 2 operations are carried out at once. E.g. Inspect
the product while being baked
 Quality management considerations in industrial practices to achieve safe

foods for public consumption, e.g. hazard analysis and critical control
point (HACCP); work health and safety and hygiene

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Quality management – aims to control all aspects of production and produce a

quality food product.
Quality control – done individually/in parts in the company; measuring
characteristics, comparing them to standard, and act on any differences, to
satisfy consumers and their safety
Quality assurance – quality assurance aims to achieve quality control. This is
done by all parts of the company working together to maintain the quality of the
product.
Food safety is a major quality assurance issue, quality management strategies

and OHS techniques are used to ensure safety of food for consumers and work
conditions for workers.
HACCAP – a quality management technique that identifies potential hazards

1. Assess hazards – a hazard is any situation in which a food is
contaminated and may harm the consumer. Fresh poultry contains
salmonella bacteria so can’t store with vegetables
2. Identify critical control points (CCP) – a CCP is a point in the production
process where a hazard can be controlled or reduced. These points are
determined by drawing up a flow chart of every production step, storage,
packaging and dispatch, then identifying where potential hazards exist
3. Set standards for each CCP – the aim is to minimize hazard occurrences.
I.e. correct storage temperatures, time a product can be cooked at certain
temperature
4. Monitor CCP – all trained employees record measurements of the product
at the critical point, and compare them to standards to determine any
inconsistencies
5. Have clear procedures if standards are not met
6. Keep records to identify variations from a standard – records have to be
simple to complete and easy to access
7. Assess system – involves checking the records making any updates or
changes required. Often an outside inspector undertakes this verification.
OH&S – manufacturers need to be aware of potential accidents for workers,

which means by law, they must:
 Instruct or train about safety issues
 Provide well maintained equipment

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 Provide a safe environment, in line with the Occupational

Health and Safety act 2000. E.g. washrooms, lighting,
ventilation, first aid, etc.
Employees must comply with OH&S too:
 Take care of the health and safety of themselves and others
 Wear correct PPE
 Use equipment as instructed, in a safe manner
 Provide notification of accidents.
Preservation
 Reasons for preserving foods, e.g. safety, acceptability, nutritive value,
availability and economic viability
Food preservation is the process of treating and handling food to stop or slow
spoilage, therefore allowing food to last longer.
Reasons for preservations
Safety – Ensures food is safe and free from harmful microorganisms that can
cause illness
Availability – Makes perishable foods available all year round, greater diet
variety
Acceptability – Keeps food in an acceptable state for the consumer, reducing
food waste
Nutritional value – retains nutritional value
Economic viability – achieves economic viability for producers by reducing
seasonal fluctuations in availability.
 Causes of food deterioration and spoilage (MEE):
— Microbial contamination (mould, yeast and bacteria)
Yeasts, viruses, mould and bacteria can all cause food to spoil, may be
pathogenic which
means they have potential to make consumers ill, therefore need to be
controlled.
Microorganisms favour warm and moist conditions, when conditions are
optimal, they
multiply. E.g. mouldy bread, slimy meat.
— Environmental factors (infestation, oxygen, light and water)
Insects and rodents can cause infestations, therefore spoiling food via bacteria
transmission (rats in fresh produce). Contaminated water may also be a cause
of food

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spoilage (bacteria can transfer when washing produce), as is over exposure to

oxygen
(can cause enzymatic reactions). Light can also be another factor (light
exposure causes
chemical build-up on the skin of potatoes, they can begin to sprout)
— Enzymatic activity
Enzymes are found in fruits, vegetables and meats, it is a substance produced by
a living organism and don’t affect the safety of the food. In fruits and
vegetables, it causes over ripening and loss of turgor due to tissue
decomposition. E.g. apple turning brown
 Principles behind food preservation techniques, including temperature

control and restriction of moisture, exclusion of air and pH
Temperature control – Micro-organisms grow or produce toxins in specific
temperature ranges; therefore, the appropriate high or low temperatures are
used to preserve food. E.g. freeing, chilling, UHT, sterilisation
Restriction of moisture – the amount of water in a product will determine
whether an organism can grow. E.g. smoking, drying, salting, freeze-drying
Exclusion of air – most organisms need the presence of oxygen to grow and not
allowing food to come into contact with micro-organisms in aseptic
conditions. E.g. vacuum packaging, aseptic packaging.
PH – Most pathogenic microbes will not tolerate certain pH levels
(commonly below 4.2) e.g. adding acid, fermentation
 Preservation processes, including canning, drying, pasteurising, freezing

and fermenting
 Canning/bottling – aims to heat the food to the point where commercial
sterility is achieved but the food is still edible.
o Aseptic canning – foods are heated first then placed in sterile
container and closed, allows for more even heating.
o Conventional canning – foods are placed in the container, sealed
then heated.
 Blanching – immersing vegetables in boiling water to destroy enzyme
activity and pathogenic microorganisms.

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 Pasteurisation - Kills most heat sensitive microorganisms. They heat

food to 72 degrees C. for 15 seconds (HTST). Anymore/less will alter the
taste. Products include milk, juice, beer, wine.
 UHT (ultra-heat treated) - Gives longer life. Food products are heated
to 140 degrees C. for a 3-5 seconds to kill ALL heat resistant bacteria.
The taste changes but does not require refrigeration. Products include
milk, gravy, custard, stock
 Fermentation - Uses alcohol or acid to cease microorganism growth.
E.g. cheese, soy sauce, yoghurt, wine, beer, spirits
 Chilling - The most common form of preservation. Chilling SLOWS the
growth of microorganisms and enzyme activity – it does not have an
effect on the number of bacteria present. Bacteria will be reactivated
when the food is back to room temperature or will slow even more when
at lower temperatures.
 Freezing - Slow freezing kills up to 80% of microorganisms. Upon
thawing, the remaining 20% reactivate. The taste is altered slightly. In a
frozen state the microorganisms are in a solid block and do not move. To
ensure minimum activity temperature should be at least -18 degrees.
Sometimes blanching is used to limit enzymatic activity in vegetables
 Chemical Preservatives - These are food additives. Chemicals depend
on food type. Results microorganisms not growing or ‘retarding’, or if
concentration high enough they will die. Important to use correct amount
and type to achieve desired effect
 Drying - Is any method that decreases the amount of water in a food
product, such as evaporating water. Only 5-6% of water remains. Bacteria
need more than 25% to survive and reproduce. Adding salt and sugar
draws water away from the flesh of the food product. E.g. pasta, 2-minute
noodles, dried fruits
 Freeze Drying - Expensive process, but it produces a quality product.
The food also changes slightly. Product is quickly frozen, then placed on
shallow trays, ice crystals then sublimate in vacuum and gently heated
environment, leaving dehydrated particles. E.g. coffee, tea, soup, dried
milk
Packaging, storage and distribution

 Functions of packaging and types of materials available
Functions of Packaging

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 Contains the product – important in distribution and storage

 Protects the product – consumers unlikely to accept tampered product.
Horizontal and vertical impacts are dangerous. Packaging must protect
against all damage (stacking, environmental)
 Preserves the product – packaging must decrease risk of contamination
of product, i.e. moisture
 Informs the consumer and markets product – identifies product,
product’s features, etc.
 Provides convenience and handling – e.g. microwavable containers
Types of packaging
 Cans – are cheap and the most common material in food industry. Good
protection and prevents undesirable moisture gains/losses. Easy to handle,
stacked easily, long shelf life, impact resistant
o Steel cans for solid and semi-solid foods, aluminium for drinks.
o Thin layer of tin acts as a barrier between steel and food in most
foods. Lacquer or plastic sometimes need to prevent reactions
between food and tin coating. Dented cans may have microscopic
holes therefore air/microbes can enter, or damaged lacquer may
cause metal to react with food, causing food deterioration
 Glass – has become lightweight and thinner over the years. It’s an inert
material and does not chemically react with the food. It’s very strong but
fragile, impermeable and non-porous, transparent therefore can see what’s
inside, can be shaped. Easily breakable in the production process and
once with the consumer
 Paper and Cardboard – E.g. paper bags, moulded cartons, paperboard
bricks, composite containers, folding cartons. Can be made into a variety
of shapes and thicknesses. Can be placed with additional materials. E.g.
plastic and aluminium. Greaseproof papers are barrier to unwanted
odours and moisture; waxed papers are non-toxic, inert and tasteless
 Rigid Plastic – PVC and PETP. E.g. oil, cordial, soft drink containers.
Lightweight and strong containers, high impact resistance, lots of shapes
and sizes, relatively cheap, transparent
 Flexible Plastic – e.g. snack food containers, cereal bags, meat and
vegetable coverings, cling wrap. They are flexible and are lightweight,
making it suitable for specific products

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 Aluminium Foils – foil is less than 0.15mm thick so it’s quite fragile and
needs to be joined to another material for strength (lamination). It’s very
flexible by itself, light, adds to product value
 Current developments in packaging, including active packaging; modified

atmosphere packaging; sous vide
 Active packaging – the use of sachets or films either to remove or add
gasses to the package headspace, reducing microbial reactions and
keeping food fresher for longer.
 Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) - produces a gas mix that
maximizes shelf life. First form of packaging is where the headspace is
filled with gas/gases required to maintain the product’s shelf life. E.g.
nitrogen in chip packets. Second form is where packaging film allows
movement of gases and water in and out of package. E.g. ‘breathing’
broccoli to Japan where oxygen is let in and carbon dioxide out
 Sous vide (vacuum cooking/packaging) - perishable food cooked, then
rapidly chilled, vacuum packed, stored at low temperature. New materials
are being used, such as nylon, to further extend shelf life when frozen
 Storage conditions and distribution systems at various stages of food

manufacture
Storage - the action of storing a food item for further use
Distribution – the transport, handling and storage of food products from the
manufacturing facility to the point of sale
During manufacture storage takes place:
 After raw materials arrive e.g. controlled atmosphere storage of fruits
and vegetables
 When a product is held while it changes e.g. bread rising
 Awaiting distribution
Dry storage – below 24˚C with controlled humidity
Cold storage – 0˚C to 5˚C – raw materials or manufactured product
Freezer storage – -18˚C to -30˚C

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FOOD PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT– TERM 2

Factors which impact on food product development
 External factors (macro-environment) that impact on food product
development, including the:
 economic environment
Economy can heavily impact FPD. New products work best when consumers
have high income and when the economy is successful.
 Recession - Occurs when the economy of a country declines, resulting
in less disposable income, lower capacity to pay for goods and
services, and decreased employment. Consumers purchase less foods,
opt for cheaper fast-food outlets, less willing to try new foods, therefore
product development declines, running costs increase and profits decline,
which is bad for business.
 Expansion - Occurs when the economy grows in terms of production,
employment opportunities and introduction of new products.
Decrease in unemployment, levels of prosperity increase, consumer
spending increase.
 Boom - Occurs when consumers spend more money, eat at better
restaurants and try more new products. It is when a country’s
economy grows too fast. Companies are more confident in their
expansion, new businesses appear, low unemployment, interest rates may
raise.
 Contraction - Occurs in the economic cycle with effects similar to,
however, less severe than those during a recession. Disposable income,
consumer spending, business, spending and new product development are
all affected.
 political environment
Manufacturers, producers and distributors are all subject to regulations and
laws by
local, state and federal gov, prominently by the federal body FSANZ which
controls food
regulation. Pressures from overseas can affect domestic manufacturers, like
tariff
barriers, trade restrictions and factors relating to food inspection, food
quality.
 ecological environment

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Concerns about pollution, land degradation and waste disposal. This causes
consumer concerns about recycling, biodegradability of packaging,
atmospheric and waterway pollution and use of pesticides and waste
disposal. Companies use ecological concerns as marketing strategies in
order to increase marketability.
 technological environment
Changes in science and technology affect the development of products. This
includes using UHT, MAP, genetic engineering, food additives, fat and
sugar replacements and GM foods.
 Internal factors (micro-environment) that impact on food product

development, including:
 personnel expertise
Personnel may include:
 production staff
 financial staff
 marketing staff
 management staff
 product testing and quality assurance testing
 R&D staff
Staff need to be multi-skilled, which means that staff can work in multiple
areas and
greater flexibility within operations. Staff should have more specialised
knowledge,
experience and training in a specific area but have a wider knowledge in
other general
areas. Examples include:
 Production workers need to be able to work with technology to
manufacture new products
 Marketing staff must have versatility to be able to promote different
products to different people
 Quality assurance staff need to develop specifications for new raw
materials and quality standards for new products
 production facilities
Production facilities vary in size, scale and technologies based on the scale of
the business, and large companies usually combine a mix of production

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technologies, primarily automated. Bigger the production facilities > more

produce > more profit.
 Mass production – simple procedures, usually the assembly of premade
components and uses advanced technology.
 Continuous production – 24/7 production. Used by multinational
companies
 Batch production – smaller quantities, small/household scale. Low
production volumes, low efficiency and relatively high costs
 One-off production – commissioned pieces, usually small/home
business.
 financial position
Affects the machinery and equipment that can be bought, as well as the
company’s
ability to compete in the marketplace. Financial includes assets, cash flow,
market share,
interest rates, product range etc. Having a strong financial position is a
massive
advantage.
 company image
Public perception of the company is important in ensuring consumers engage
with
products. This can be enhanced through marketing, campaigns, partnerships,
labelling,
market availability etc. Companies should consider consequences before
changing its
image, for example a home brand company entering the luxury market is
unlikely to do
well and have a poor perception.
Reasons for and types of food product development

 drivers of the development of food products:
Trends are a big driver. Current trends include:
 Australia’s ageing population
 Eating outside the home more
 Multicultural society

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 More environmental awareness

 More home delivered meals
 Awareness of health and health issues increasing
Market segment – a categorisation of Australian consumers into different groups
by criteria
including age, economic status and cultural tradition.
 market concerns such as health, dietary considerations and the

environment
Health and dietary considerations – functional foods are increasing, promote
various aspects of consumer health and better cater to allergies and
intolerances. E.g. gluten free alternatives, vitamin enriched juice.
Environment – manufacturers change packaging in response to environmental
concerns about pollution, recyclables, biodegradability etc. E.g. mount
franklin water – 100% recycled plastic.
 consumer demands such as convenience foods and cost

Consumers want convenient foods at a low price, therefore opting for on-the-
go foods, like Up & Go or Belvita breakfast biscuits instead of a meal at
home. This reflects trends in Australia. Other consumer demands include
dietary preferences (vegan, vego), organically grown foods and local
grown foods.
 societal changes including increasing ageing population, single person

households and longer working hours
 Ageing population > more foods being designed to cater to older people
e.g. easy to open packaging, softer, easier to chew foods.
 Longer working hours > people are looking for quick and easy meals to
prepare at home (microwave meals, meal kits) and foods to eat on the go
(snack bars and pre-cut fruit cups)
 Single person households > increase in single serve meals, heat and eat
options.
 technological developments such as processing equipment and packaging

materials
Advancements can be:

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 Novel ingredients – using fat and sugar replacements or fibre

supplements e.g. stevia, and indigenous or bush foods, e.g. emu,
crocodile
 Processing equipment – UHT, HTST. Extend shelf life, making products
more marketable.
 Packaging – active packaging, modified atmospheric packaging (MAP).
Allows for greater shelf life, more convenience, extended quality of
product.
Examples – GMO, organic farming, hydroponics, free range eggs
 company profitability such as increasing market share

In order for a company to become more profitable and increase market share,
they must:
 Develop new products
 Become more automated
 Use cheaper ingredients
 Utilise aggressive marketing
 Find new markets for existing products
 types of food product development:

 line extensions
Line Extensions are food products which are changed in some way. For
example; new flavour, package size, package features, colour, health and diet-
related variations.
Why do companies bring in line extensions?
 Market share is declining
 Consumer demands
 New market segments
 Increases product lifecycle – keeps company relevant
 New technology and ingredients
Example – vegemite, vegemite shapes, cheeseymite, vegemite chocolate (not
always a positive response)
 me toos
Copy of an existing product.
Type 1 – manufacturer creates a me too in order to compete with the original
product. This relies heavily on advertising, e.g. Pepsi and coke

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Type 2 – manufacturer creates a cheaper or more generic version of a

company’s product. E.g. Coles or Woolworths home brand.
 new to world
Completely new and different to pre-existing products, hasn’t been on the
market
before. Often derived from new ingredients (indigenous foods, food
additives) and new
technologies (GM foods, domestic appliances).
Example – meat free meat products
Steps in food product development

 design brief based on project aims and development criteria:
Design Brief identifies what consumers want and how much they’re willing to pay, and
constraints on the producer when developing the new product (such as financial,
processing, product, marketing).
 idea generation and screening
 Brainstorming, even the most ridiculous ones
 Ideas come from market research or any employee
 Ideas based on intuition, culinary knowledge, artistic expression. Not
technology
 Screening is selecting the best idea, based on how it fits into company’s
constraints
 Screening check lists include ability to achieve goals, potential for profit,
enough money to cover all expenses, ability to meet specific requirements
(e.g. shelf life for military)
 market research
 Asking consumers their needs/wants, asking what they already like. They
draw conclusions from data received
 Data from research includes collection of internal data, market
intelligence, market research, and assessment of current operations
 Market research on a particular market segment provides info on market
size, demographics, geographic location, reasons for buying, shopping
times, shopping method, product popularity, brand loyalty
 Research conducted through face to face or telephone surveys, discussion
groups/focus groups, field reports (observing sales, competitor strategies,
competitor shares). This is primary research

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 Research can also be from published research (secondary research), e.g.

other organisations, universities
 product specifications
 Accurate, comprehensive description of what manufacture plans to
deliver in product
 It’s a benchmark/standard for consumers, listing raw materials and
ingredients, quantity of each for specific batch size, source of raw
materials, and raw material constraints under Aussie Food Standards
 Also describes packaging dimensions, materials, labelling, storage
conditions
 feasibility study
 Establishes whether idea is profitable
 Financial feasibility
o Determines if company will achieve a break-even point (when
sales balance expenses)
o Market research reduces chance of being too
optimistic/underestimating sales
 Technical feasibility
o Ability of company to make new product using existing resources:
raw materials, workspace, human resources, equipment
o It includes: Availability of ingredients (ingredients at good price,
steady supply, correct quality), any new processes and new
machinery, time and money obtaining ingredient approval,
processes ensuring microbiological safety
 production process development

 Converting factory to make new product, may be slightly altering or
complete change
 Factory layout must meet health and safety obligations, while ensuring
productivity
 Companies should always expect problems in any situation and react
accordingly through quality control (checking to detect variations,
ensuring everything follows plan)
 Refer to production process flow charts and diagrams

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 development of a prototype
 Trial product
 Extensive experiments carried out for safety, which ensures consistent
production, and to assess variables that may affect finished product. E.g.
packaging materials that need to withstand production process
 After food technologists’ experiment to produce ‘best’ product, recipe is
batch sized
 testing product prototype, e.g. sensory evaluation, consumer testing,

packaging tests, storage trials
 Few products make it to final testing stage, it’s tested in the labs
 The new product needs to be tested to determine if it satisfies food
standards
 Packaging tests determine shelf life under various storage conditions,
package strength, and other characteristics specific to the product. E.g.
carton boxes should withstand physical stress and temperature effects
 Consumer Tests with focus groups often prompt changes to the product.
Tests can also be public for a limited time to determine sales
Marketing plans
 product planning
Introduction is the most intense and costly,
requiring
lots of marketing and promotion, growth is
where sales
grow rapidly, in maturity the market share
becomes
stable, growth may slow down and the
competition is
more intense, and in decline, sales decline and income
decreases, causing companies to make radical changes
and new developments in order to stay relevant.
Reasons for product failure:

 Wrong market – e.g. hard candies for old people

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 Bad timing of launch – e.g. global pandemic

 No point of difference between existing products – e.g. making two of the
same products just with different packaging
 Poor product positioning – e.g. an unauthentic, copy-cat, pre-existing
product that isn’t useful, marketed as something that is the opposite as all
the above.
What to do with a failed product:

 Sell it to another company
 Discontinue the product
 Revise marketing strategies
 Decrease manufacture and distribution.
Examples of failed products: Vegemite chocolate, Coke life, Heinz e.g. squirt
ketchup
 price structure
The product price depends on what the target market is prepared to pay. Certain
characteristics of a target market include; age, gender, socioeconomic level,
family size and education.
It is assumed the lower the price, the higher the demand. To encourage more
people to buy the product, the product price must be lower than the
competitors.
Penetration Pricing: The product price is below that of competitors for long
enough to
obtain a foothold (secure position) in the market.
When is it used?
When a company enters a new market segment for the first time, when a me-too
product is
being launched or when it is hoped that the product will be around for long
time.
Price Skimming: A product is sold at a relatively high price at first, and the
price falls over

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time.
When is it used?
 New-to-the world or line extension that has no other competition.
 The only one on the market and without a substitute.
 ‘Positioned’ as an exclusive, high-status brand. Consumers assume that a
high price means high quality.
 Not expected to have a long-life cycle.
Competitive Pricing (aka status quo pricing): The price is set to match that of
the
competition.
When is it used?
Used by market leaders (a company selling the largest quantity of a particular
product) and at places like Paddy’s Market where all the fruit and vegetable
sellers charge much the same price for their goods.
 place and distribution system

Place refers to where the product will be sold geographically and to the kinds of
outlet in which it will be sold.
Intensive distribution: Products are available at every possible outlet. E.g.
chocolate bars – servos, grocery stores, online, vending machines etc.
Selective distribution: Wide, but not intensive distribution – E.g. cheeses
available at delis, but not Coles and Woolworths
Exclusive distribution: Limited supply is sold in specific outlets, usually
expensive – E.g. handmade chocolates at a boutique
Distribution refers to the process of moving the product from the producer to
the
consumer.
1. Warehousing: Depending on the location of customers, warehouses can
be located
at one central place or in different parts of the State and/or country.
2. Materials Handling: This refers to the forklifts, conveyor belts and other
methods

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that move the cartons of product from the storage area to pallets ready for
shipping.
3. Inventory Control: Relates to checking stock. This is essential because it
ensures the
quality of the product and quick filling of orders. Holding too much stock is
expensive.
4. Order Processing: This involves the handling and filling of orders,
processing of
accounts and collection of credit payments. When stock is low, it is
automatically re-
ordered.
5. Transportation: The type of transportation used - air, water, rail, road -
depends
on the type of product, the distances to be covered and the nature of the product.
 promotional program
Promotion includes advertising, personal selling, publicity and public relations,
sales promotions (sales, in store tasting, product giveaways)
Advertising can take the form of magazines, newspapers, radio, tv, signage,
social media, point of purchase signage and packaging.
Sales promotions and demos include coupons, free samples, contests, cash back
offers. Gondola ends are located at the ends of isles in hotspots, often with sale
products. Off locations displays are also sales promotion, e.g. meat seasonings
and sauces displayed next to cuts of meats.
Promotional activities include a salesperson assisting a person to choose one

product over another (personal selling), using media and influencers to promote
a product (publicity) and sponsorships of teams, schools, charities as a way to
create a positive public image (public relations)
CONTEMPORARY NUTRITION ISSUES – TERM 3

Diet and health in Australia
 physical effects and economic costs of malnutrition (under and over
nutrition) and diet related disorders

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Malnutrition – where one or more nutrients are not supplied to the body in
correct amounts
Over nutrition – Diet contains an excess of one or more nutrients, including
fat, carbohydrates and protein. Conditions linked to this include obesity, dental
caries, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, CVD.
Condition Causes Physical Effects Economic Effect

Obesity - ○ Hormones, which ○ Excess energy is stored in ○ Cost of hospita
When one’s change how the body adipose tissue (fat) treatment
energy intake stores or burns energy ○ Extra workload for the ○ Surgery
is greater than ○ Genetic factors heart ○ Medicine
their affecting how the body ○ Fatigue as the body ○ Toll on ability
expenditure. stores or burns energy requires more energy to do work
63% of adults ○ Individual’s activity simple tasks ○ Absenteeism
are overweight, level. ○ Joint mobility issues
25% of ○ Psychological factors ○ Can increase risk of
children. such as the comfort developing diabetes (2), gall
food brings bladder disease, CVD,
○ Environmental respiratory disease.
factors such as
geographical location
and financial abilities
will also be a factor in
obesity.
Hypertension – ○ Excess sodium can ○ Heart failure ○ Cost of hospita
High blood cause an imbalance of ○ Stroke treatment
pressure. 32% water in body cells, so ○ Kidney disease ○ Surgery
of adults have the body retains water, ○ Aneurysm ○ Medicine
this causing the heart to ○ Brain Haemorrhage ○ Toll on ability
pump blood under work
pressure. Blood ○ Absenteeism
circulation becomes
less efficient.
Dental Caries – ○ Poor dental practices ○ Bad breath ○ Cost of dental
tooth decay. ○ Diet high in sugar ○ Toothaches treatment e.g. fili
○ Acids caused by ○ Tooth loss crowns
sugar reacting with ○ Difficulty chewing ○ Cost of medica
bacteria cause tooth

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enamel to dissolve.
Cardiovascular ○ Hardening of the ○ Heart attack – caused by ○ Most expensive
Disease arteries restricted oxygen supply to terms of amount
(arteriosclerosis) is the heart people suffering
caused by a collection ○ Stroke – can occur if associated costs
of fat (cholesterol) blockage to the brain ○ Extensive time
along artery walls, work
restricting blood flow to ○ Expensive surg
the heart. and medications
Under nutrition - One or more nutrients are lacking in the diet, e.g.
carbohydrates containing fibre, minerals or water. Conditions linked to this
include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, diverticulitis, anaemia, osteoporosis.
Condition Cause Physical Effects Economic Effects
Anorexia Psychological disorder ○ Muscle wastage ○ Expensive
Nervosa that involves extreme ○ Abnormally low body rehabilitation cent
self-induced weight loss weight ○ Counselling
through restricted eating ○ Absence of consecutive ○ Medication
and excessive exercise. menstrual cycle ○ Hospitalisation
Can be caused by: ○ Low blood pressure
○ Peer/media influence ○ Anaemia
○ Low self-esteem ○ Fainting
○ Existing mental health ○ Nutritional deficiency
issues
Bulimia Psychological disorder ○ Side effects from frequent ○ Expensive
Nervosa that involves binge vomiting: rehabilitation cent
eating, commonly - tooth decay ○ Counselling
followed by self-induced - burns from stomach acid to ○ Medication
vomiting, misuse of throat, gums and mouth ○ Hospitalisation
laxatives or excessive ○ Nutritional deficiency
exercise. Can be caused
by:
○ Peer/media influence
○ Low self-esteem
○ Existing mental health
issues
Osteoporosis ○ Long term deficiency ○ Weakened bones – more ○ Medical care

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of calcium susceptible to fractures and ○ Supplementation

○ Insufficient intake of breaks ○ Physical
calcium ○ Reduction of bone mass therapy/exercise
○ Physical inactivity ○ Poor posture specialist
○ Menopause
○ Poor bone structure
While there are many individual costs, the costs for society include:
 Strain on the health system: Increased need for hospital beds, private beds,
psychological services, rehab services and community services
 Workplaces: Loss of productivity when workers have to take time off sick
 Educational costs: Increased costs to educate about diseases and disorders
 Downstream costs: more money is being directed downstream, instead of
upstream on prevention.
 Government allowances: More people will rely on government allowances
and subsidies.
 nutritional considerations for specific groups

Specific groups:
- Adolescent girls – protein, iron, calcium, high energy diet
- Elderly – calcium, low energy diet, higher water intake, high fibre
- Aboriginal and Torres strait islanders – social disadvantage – better
education needed, better health and nutritional outcomes in all areas
- Diabetics – low sugar, low GI,
- Athletes – high protein, high carb, supplementation
- Vegetarians and vegans – protein, supplementation
 the role of the individual, community groups, the food industry,

government organisations and private agencies in promoting health
Government – Poor food choices not only harm the individual, but the health
care system, therefore it is more cost effective to promote healthy eating than
deal with the consequences financially. This may look like:
 Writing policies and strategic plans outlining priorities – e.g.
Australian dietary guidelines, Nutrition strategy and action plan
 Implementing health promotion campaigns – e.g. Australian guide to
healthy eating

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 Developing and funding preventative programs, such as addressing

high cost of fresh food in remote areas
 Liaising with other govt. organisations – FSANZ, the national Health
& Medical Research Council, Aust. Institute of Health & Welfare
Health NSW - “We support the executive and statutory roles of the NSW
Minister for Health and Medical Research and monitor the performance of the
NSW public health system, known as NSW Health. Our vision is for everyone
in NSW Health to work together to achieve “Healthy People - now and in the
future”.
Our goals are to:
 keep people healthy
 provide the health care that people need
 deliver high quality services and
 manage health services well.”
Food Industry – There is increasing competition for market share, therefore

companies will only manufacture healthy foods if consumers want them. Food
regulations assist in the control of labelling, food safety and use of particular
processes or ingredients that affect the health of consumers. Food retailers may
be involved in marketing to help inform their customers about heathy eating.
Community groups and private agencies – Community group example: The

Heart Foundation
They are dedicated to reducing the impact of CVD, with key focus areas
including helping Australians to achieve a healthy weight, to identify warning
signs of heart attack and help Australians to have improved access to prevention
and treatments. Their tick of approval on certain foods help guide shoppers to
healthier foods.
Private agencies and community groups shape consumer perception and guide
the food industry. They watch manufacturers’ products and claims then publish
the information to the public, e.g. Australian Consumers Association uses
Choice Magazine. Public voice is also spread to companies, e.g. genetic
engineering, healthy foods.
Individual – Consumers have the ultimate responsibility over their choices,

regardless of the advisory from the government and the food industry. Their
own education, geography, SES and the availability of products will have

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significant influence over the foods bought. It is up to the consumer to interpret

food labels/advertising etc with care as they may be misleading.
 the production/manufacture of nutritionally modified foods to meet

consumer demand including a range of functional foods such as fortified
foods
Nutritionally modified foods are foods that have been altered in a relatively
simple way to improve their nutritional characteristics. This may look like
adding fibre, protein or other beneficial nutrients, or removing fat, sodium or
sugar. E.g. low-fat yogurt, high protein bread, added fibre cereals.
Functional foods are foods that have benefits beyond those provided by the
basic nutrients in foods, weather naturally occurring or added during
manufacture. E.g. Yakult – a probiotic yogurt containing beneficial bacteria.
Categories of NMF and FF:
1. Simple or more basic, where essential nutrients (such as vitamins or
minerals) have been added, or something has been removed (fat, sodium)
2. Foods with added active non nutrients e.g. probiotics, fibre
3. Foods that naturally contain beneficial substances other than the essential
nutrients, e.g. dietary fibre or antioxidants.
Companies respond to the everchanging consumer demand as ultimately the

consumers are the ones buying the product, so if what they want is there, they
will buy it, and the company makes money and gains market share. More
commonly, NMF and FF are becoming a part of consumer demands because of
their positive influence on health. Some examples of consumer demands
include:
 Low fat milk
 Vitamin/mineral enriched juices (e.g. calcium added to OJ)
 Fibre enriched cereals
 Protein enriched breads
 Reduced sugar in sweets – e.g. cakes and lollies with lower levels of
fat/sugar
 FF and NMF foods that meet the dietary concerns of consumers – vegan,
vego, halal, kosher etc.
 Leaner meat cuts

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 the role of ‘active non-nutrients’ in the diet, e.g. phytochemicals,

probiotics and fibre
Active non-nutrients – not essential for life but can enhance the functioning of
the body or contribute to the promotion of good health.
 Fibre - Fibre is found only in plant foods and includes a variety of gels,
gums and indigestible carbs that swell and absorb moisture in your gut,
making for softer faecal matter. Keeps the gut healthy by stimulating the
muscle contractions (peristalsis) that keep the gut contents moving
effectively. The contents of your body moves through quicker, reducing
the time that toxins are in contact with gut cells. May reduce cell damage
and protect against some types of cancers. Fibre acts as fuel for
beneficial bacteria to multiply, protecting against infection and producing
substances that the body can use, such as vitamin K and some B group
vitamins.
o Soluble fibre – the type that dissolves in the gut, digested by
bacteria in the colon. Helps aid the feelings of satiety, slowing the
rate that the stomach empties. Can help to reduce cholesterol
levels. Found in peas, oats, apples, citrus fruits, beans, barley.
o Insoluble fibre – remains mostly unchanged in the gut, it is the
main promoter of movement through the gut and helps protect
cells from damage. Found in beans, whole wheat products, nuts,
cauliflower
 Antioxidants – Antioxidants are phytochemicals. There are at least 8000
different naturally occurring antioxidants in fruits, vegetables and other
plant sources. The most significant are vitamin E, vitamin C, beta-
carotene and other carotenoids. Antioxidants are widely used as
ingredients in dietary supplements for health purposes, i.e. neutralizing
free radical action thus preventing cancers, controlling cholesterol levels,
improving cardiovascular health
o Flavonoids and carotenoids – the colour compounds found in fruit
and veg
o Vitamin E – the most involved in controlling blood cholesterol
levels. Acts to stop low density-lipoproteins from breaking apart
and depositing cholesterol along blood vessels. e.g. nuts, seeds,
vegetable oils, leafy greens.
 Phyto-oestrogens – Category of phytochemicals, a substance converted
by bacteria in the gut to a hormone-like compound which can mimic

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oestrogen. Many benefits, especially for women in menopause as it can

reduce symptoms. Improved CV health as they can stop the oxidisation
of LDL, assist in the reduction of cancer risks stimulated by sex
hormones (breast, prostate cancer). The most significant sources are
isoflavonoids – found in fruit, nuts, seeds and vegetables, with the most
powerful source being soybeans and lignans – found in grains and seeds,
the most prominent source is linseeds.
 Omega-3 Fatty acids - Omega-3 fatty acids can be converted to
hormone-like substances called prostaglandins that are directly involved
with the correct functioning of the cardiovascular system. The
prostaglandins that are in omega-3 have anti-inflammatory properties,
helping to reduce CVD by reducing the formation of clots in the blood
stream, protecting against rhythm disorders, helping correct blood vessel
function. Important in brain function. Fish and fish oils are the best
sources, comprised of DHA and EPA (docosahexaenoic acid and
eicosapentaenoic acid), while plant sources mostly provide ALA (alpha
linolenic acid), such as canola oil, sunflower seed oil and flaxseed oil.
 Probiotics – The name for beneficial gut flora that help us maintain good
health and contributes to the nutrition of gut cells. Probiotics are added to
foods to promote good health, as normal gut flora cannot be used as
probiotics as it wouldn’t survive the journey to the colon. Sources of
probiotics include yogurt and Yakult.
 the role of supplements in the diet

Come in a variety of forms – tablets, gels, capsules, powders and in foods
such as bars or balls. Supplementation has increased due to busier
lifestyles, greater disposable incomes and an increase in health
consciousness.
The use of supplementation is heavily debated, as often people don’t
actually need them.
 Vitamin supplements – Vitamin deficiencies are rare in Australia,
which calls us to question the use of these supplements. Water
soluble vitamins (C and B complex) when consumed in excess are
excreted through urine with little effect, whereas fat soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, K) can be stored in body fat and build up to
toxic levels. Very few people need vitamin supplements, the most
prominent being pregnant women, who need to increase their

lOMoARcPSD|9001303
intake of iron to avoid neural tube defects. scientific evidence

suggests there is no benefit to taking vitamin E, vitamin C or beta-
carotene supplements.
 Mineral supplements - There is some evidence of mineral
deficiency in Australia, such as iron, iodine and calcium. Mineral
supplementation can be dangerous as the body stores most minerals
and requires small amounts for day to day processes. Excess
consumption may cause constipation/diarrhoea. Iron
supplementation may be necessary for those who cannot consume
the recommended amount of iron - common in women, athletes
and non-meat eaters, who are most at risk of anaemia. Those with a
dairy allergy, are lactose intolerant or the elderly, who are at a
heightened risk of osteoporosis/fragile bones may need calcium
supplementation.
Cons of supplementation Pros of supplementation

 Many supplements aren’t necessary  Can bring positive feelings – placebo
if you are consuming a balanced diet affect
 Self-diagnosis regarding the need for  Good for those with a deficiency or
supplements can be dangerous, e.g. requirement for specific
excess fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamins/minerals – anaemics (iron),
vitamin A can be toxic and prevent dairy allergy (calcium), elderly
calcium absorption (calcium), pregnant women (folate)
 Excessive intake of protein can cause  Assists in meeting nutritional needs
weight gain rather than muscle if regarding lifestyle choices, non-meat
consumed in excess or not used in eaters (iron) etc.
conjunction with exercise  Monitored by FSANZ to ensure
 Expensive products are safe
 Lack of research into long term
effects
Influence on nutritional status

 health and the role of diet in the development of conditions, including
obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, food
sensitivity/intolerance/allergies

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 Food sensitivity – Some people experience adverse reactions after

consuming a specific food product. This may be either a food allergy or a
food intolerance.
 Food allergy – When the body responds to a specific protein (allergen)

and incorrectly identifies it as a dangerous foreign protein. Antibodies are
then produced to fight this ‘dangerous’ protein, causing a reaction that is
anything between mild and life threatening. Common allergies include –
peanuts, shellfish, tree nuts, gluten, dairy, eggs, wheat and soy. Symptoms
may look like wheezing, coughing, swelling of the airways, rash, stomach
pain. Skin prick testing is used to confirm an allergy, a controlled amount
of a certain substance thought to trigger the reaction is used in a skin
prick to test the reaction. If this fails, a food challenge can commence,
where the individual consumes the suspected allergen in a controlled
environment and the reaction is observed. FSANZ requires all products to
outline allergens or possible traces to ensure safety for consumers.
 Food intolerance – different to an allergy as the response does not

involve the immune system and the body is not reacting to a single
protein, but to other chemicals found widely in a variety of foods,
sometimes requiring a large amount to trigger a reaction. It occurs when a
person has difficulty digesting a particular food. Sometimes a food
intolerance may be triggered by food chemicals.
o Salicylates - Group of chemicals found in all plant foods - many
fruits and vegetables, spices, herbs, nuts, tea, coffee. Also used as
an additive in foods and used in eucalyptus and peppermint
flavoured products.
o Amines - Group of chemicals that are found in cheeses, processed
meats, beer and wines. Also found in some fruit, vegetables
(bananas, tomatoes, avocadoes) and also in chocolate.
o Glutamate - One of the amino acids. Found naturally in plants and
animals. It provides part of the savoury flavour in foods such as;
mushrooms, tomatoes and tomato products, cheeses, soy sauce and
meat extracts. Also used as monosodium glutamate (MSG) and
used as a flavour enhancer in many snack foods and in Asian
cooking.

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Symptoms include hives, rashes, sinus pain, abdominal cramping, nausea,

flatulence, constipation, headaches, dizziness, diarrhoea. To manage this,
individuals are placed on an elimination diet, where they consume bland
foods that do not contain substances likely to create a reaction, then a
food challenge is done to identify the cause. Management involves
reducing the consumption of the offending product.
Lactose intolerance – difficulty digesting lactose, the main carbohydrate
in milk. It is a disaccharide that is broken into monosaccharides in the
gut.
 Diabetes - Type 1 diabetes is an incurable auto-immune disease where

the body’s immune system destroys cells within the pancreas, the organ in
which insulin is created. There is no known cause for type 1 diabetes nor
is it a reflection of lifestyle choices, but there is a strong link to it being
hereditary. Type 2 diabetes is reflective of poor lifestyle and food choices,
along with being hereditary. This condition develops over a longer period
of time, insulin resistance starts, causing an inability manage blood
glucose levels. There is no cure for diabetes, but can be effectively
managed through lifestyle modifications, such as more frequent exercise,
diet changes and stopping smoking, along with medications. If not
managed correctly, complications can arise, which is when this condition
can become life threatening. Both conditions present with similar
symptoms; excessive thirst, frequent urination, blurred vision, frequent
feelings of lethargy, mood swings, headaches and frequent hunger. The
management of diabetes is through insulin monitoring, frequent exercise,
diet changes – not consuming foods high in sugar, high-GI foods (cause
blood sugar spike), eating fresh foods etc.
 lifestyle and the effect of cultural and social practices on nutritional status
Lifestyle choices play a critical role in an individual’s health.
 Exercise – energy intake must be balanced with energy expenditure. An
excessive energy intake/inadequate expenditure will result in the body
storing excess energy as fat. Improvements in technology have led to
more passive recreation, contributing to Australia’s largely sedentary
lifestyle. On the other end of the scale, excessive exercise can be
extremely damaging, potentially causing damage to skeletal joints,

lOMoARcPSD|9001303
depletion of iron stores, increased cancer risk and extreme weight

loss/nutritional deficiencies.
 Alcohol - Alcohol is toxicity to body tissues, damaging the liver, pancreas
and brain. Over-consumption of alcohol contributes to weight gain due to
its high energy content, and metabolising the alcohol depletes the body of
important nutrients. Over-consumption of alcohol can also be associated
with aggression, violent crime and relationship problems, proving to be
detrimental to more than physical health.
 Culture and religion - Australia is a multicultural society, therefore the
dietary patterns of individuals may be vastly different depending on
cultural background.
Christianit Avoid eating meat on Good Friday
y
Jewish Orthodox Jewish people avoid eating dairy and meat in the same meal, don’t
drink alcohol, adhere to cultural dietary law – kosher. Only eat cow, goat, sheep,
chicken, turkey, duck and only will consume if slaughtered as per kosher
requirements and the removal of animal blood through salting or roasting.
Muslim Abstain from food and drink during the day during the holy month of Ramadan,
then celebrate the end of Ramadan with a feast. Avoid consuming pork and pig,
do not drink alcohol.
Many of the social practices of today’s society revolve around food, sharing
food is a symbol of harmony and friendliness. The choice of menu will
determine the nutritional value of the meal, e.g. at a children’s party there will
be lots of lollies, cakes and other ‘junk’ foods, whereas a dinner with work
friends may be a specific cuisine, such as Asian, or may involve healthier
choices. The type and place of social environment determines the nutritional
status of food available.
 media and ethical issues related to advertising practices on food

consumption such as the promotion of ‘health’ foods and ‘fast’ foods
The food industry uses the media for many reasons:
- increase brand awareness
- shape consumer perceptions of their needs/wants
- guide consumer product choices and buying patterns.
Ethical issues – Continual debate about the impact of junk food advertising on
childhood and adult obesity. The greatest concern is the affect it has over
children, who are less educated on how to make sound nutritional decisions.

lOMoARcPSD|9001303
Advertisers make use of happy characters, bright and fun colours, etc to appeal
kids. Misleading messages may be included, such as advertising ice-cream as
‘high in calcium’, which it is, but it is also high in sugars and saturated fats.
McDonald’s promotes their children’s meals with a bag of apples, but purposely
doesn’t address the saturated fats, sugars and salt content of their meals.
The Advertising Standards Board (ASB) is an Australian organisation in place

to monitor to and respond to inappropriate advertising. On August 1st, 2009,
they launched a new initiative that established stricter rules for fast-food
advertising.
Fast food companies; Can no longer advertise free toy offers and can no longer
use their licensed characters unless the meal they are advertising met specific
nutrition
criteria.
Cross-Promotion: A company will advertise a product through association with

another non-food-related product, such as; TV show, film sporting event.
Product Placement: Food advertising can be strategically placed in TV shows
and films, promoting the product simply by its presence and association with
the show.
Ultimately it is up to the individual - or, in the case of a young child, their

parent or guardian to make sensible choices concerning their food and diet.
Advertisers have the responsibility to be honest about the product, and to be
clear about the nutritional advantages and disadvantages of a product. It is
unethical for advertisers to lie, which is why advertisements will often highlight
the positive points about a product and avoid addressing the negatives.
Promotion of health foods - Companies used fortified foods as a way of

making their products more competitive. Many companies are creating line
extensions in the form of functional foods to meet the demands of consumers.
Defining ‘health food’ is difficult because there are no legal requirements on the
use of the word ‘health’, ‘healthy’ or ‘natural’ in food labelling. Consumers are
left to interpret these terms in their own way.
FSANZ also permits food companies to include statements about their
nutritional value of their products. Companies cannot make any reference to
how the product can cure or prevent disease. For example; a company claim that

lOMoARcPSD|9001303
their bottle of milk contains calcium, however, cannot say it will prevent
osteoporosis.
Promotion of fast foods - Australians eat, on average, 4 meals per week that
have been prepared outside the home. Many of these meals consist of fast foods.
The major multinational fast food companies devote a large part of their huge
annual promotional budget to advertising in the mass media. McDonalds
Australia spends $55 mil on advertising a year.
Positive impact of media Negative impact of media

Promotion of health foods and Heavy advertising on energy-dense fast
subsequently good health foods
Promotion of healthy programs – ADG, Misleading or purposefully confusing
milo cricket information
Increased awareness of health issues Promotion of snack foods contributing to a
grazing lifestyle
Use of slim or photoshopped models
contributes to the misrepresentation of
health – skinny isn’t healthy, healthy is
healthy.

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Food Tech FULL Summary HSC

Food Technology (Higher School Certificate (New South Wales))

StuDocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

AUSTRALIAN FOOD INDUSTRY – TERM 1

 Sectors of the AFI

The sectors of the agri-food chain include:

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o Trends reveal Australians are eating 1 in 4 meals away from

 Emerging Technologies in the AFI

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 Organically farmed foods are free from pesticides,

Emerging Risks Benefits

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level of protection as sustainable manner

 Operation of organisations within the AFI

- Research and Development

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significant food research in cooperation with the government. Large or

HACCAP is Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points which is an international

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- Career opportunities and working conditions

 Policy and legislation

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o Australian food standard code

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FSANZ develops non-binding agreements that businesses in a certain sector are

- Australian Quarantine Inspection Service (AQIS)

 Government policies and legislation

Imports – allow for greater competition in the marketplace and increased

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affected in cyclones. Australia’s multicultural society reflects the demand

APPOINTEMNET OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH

CODES FOR CONSTRUCTION AND ALTERATION OF FOOD PREMISES

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- Legislative requirements for packaging and labelling

- National Packaging Covenant

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o No misleading trade names

FOOD MANUFACTURE – TERM 2

Production and processing of food

 Role of food additives in the manufacturing process

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 Flavour – restore flavour and odours lost through processing

 Characteristics of equipment used in different types of production and the

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o HTST – High temp, short time. Food is heated to a high temp

 Production systems used in the manufacture of food, e.g. small scale,

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distribution and the actual process of making the product. This

Flow Diagrams – A method of visually representing the food production

: Operation – Operations are when raw materials are deliberately changed,

 Quality management considerations in industrial practices to achieve safe

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Quality management – aims to control all aspects of production and produce a

Food safety is a major quality assurance issue, quality management strategies

HACCAP – a quality management technique that identifies potential hazards

OH&S – manufacturers need to be aware of potential accidents for workers,

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 Provide a safe environment, in line with the Occupational

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spoilage (bacteria can transfer when washing produce), as is over exposure to