INTRODUCTION TO POULTRY SCIENCE

POULTRY

The term poultry is designated to those species of birds, which are economical and can reproduce
freely under human care. It includes chickens, ducks, turkeys, pheasants, pigeons, guinea fowl and
partridges etc.

POULTRY SCIENCE

Poultry science is the study of principles and practices involved in the production and marketing of
poultry and its products. It includes breeding, housing, incubation, brooding, rearing, feeding, disease
control and marketing but generally term “Poultry” is used only for chickens, which serve as most
economical source of animal protein food and zoologically are named as Gallus domesticus.

BROILER

Broilers are those fast growing poultry birds of young age which are kept and used only for meat
purpose and produce tender meat with soft pliable and flexible breast bone cartilage. They attain live
body weight of 1.5 kg or more by consuming 3-4 kg of feed in 6 weeks.

LAYER

Which lay table quality egg (for food of human consumption). Laying starts from 20-21 weeks
and may lay 150 to 300 eggs per year.

BREEDERS

Birds of both sexes which are kept for breeding purpose to obtain fertilized eggs for hatching to
get chicks i.e. broilers or layers.

IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY FARMING

1. It provides egg and meat, which are highly nutritive supplementing foods and have high
quality protein.
2. It provides source of income and opportunities of employment at poultry farms,
hatcheries, poultry processing units, equipments manufactures, meat and egg marketing
channels etc.
3. In rural areas, since less investment is required to start the enterprises, it has attained a
status of “Cottage Industry”.
4. Quick returns can be expected from the investment.
5. Poultry manure is extremely rich source of nitrogen and organic matter. It contains 1.0-
1.8% nitrogen. 1.4-1.8% P2O2 and 0.8-0.9% K2O hence is very good fertilizers.
6. In animal and medical research, birds are used as experimental unit.

1
PREFERENCE OF POULTRY FARMING OVER LIVESTOCK AND AGRICULTURAL
SECTION

The poultry farming is preferred over other sectors like livestock and agriculture due to following
reasons.

1. Size of bird is smaller than other larger animals.

2. Physiology of birds is simpler.
3. Birds have shorter maturity period.
4. Fertility rate is high.
5. Life span is short which can be extended in layers and breeders.
6. Balanced feed for birds can be easily managed.
7. They have simple digestive system.
8. Less land is required due to less space requirement per bird.
9. Poultry is quick and efficient converter of inputs into out puts.
10. Birds have the best feed conversion ratio (FCR) and feed efficiency.
11. Embryo development takes place outside rather than inside the body of dam through placenta.
12. Incubation period of chicken is shorter (21 days) while large animals have long gestation
period.
13. There is a continuous return of income while in case of land, seasons, labor, seeds etc.
required in fairly high amount and income return is based on yearly basis while, poultry
farming makes the least demand of land than crop production and give maximum yield per
unit area.
14. Dressing percentage is more (60%) in poultry as compared to large animals (50-55%).
15. Several crop by-products and agricultural wastes are used in poultry feeding.
16. Poultry farming is within the reach of small farmers and offer good opportunity for investors
with limited financial resources.

ADVANTAGES OF POULTRY FARMING

Essential food items

The poultry meat and eggs are essential foods. The demand of poultry meat and eggs is quite
permanent. The poultry meat is appetizing and popular food. The eggs are highly digestible, nutritious
and taste. In future the demand for high quality poultry meat and eggs seem to be very bright.

Quick return of high quality protein

There is a quick return of high quality protein. One and a half kilogram live-body weight broiler
can be produced in 6 weeks time. The layer chicks start laying eggs at about 20 weeks of age and lays
more than 270 eggs in a year.

Efficient source of high quality protein

Poultry farming is an efficient source getting good-quality food, rich in nutrition.

One and a half kilogram broiler can be produced by feeding 3 kilogram of feed. No other meat product
can be produced so efficiently on the farm. A dozen of eggs can be produced on 1.75 kilograms of feed.

Income throughout the year

The income from both broiler farms and layers flock is distributed throughout the year.
2
Quick turn-over of capital

There is quick turn-over of capital invested in poultry business. The capital invested in broiler
production returns in about two months and the capital invested in laying flock starts coming back in
about 20 weeks.

Part time as well as full time occupation

Poultry farming may be adopted as a large and small scale business. Broilers and layers may be
reared in the backyards in cities and small towns and on farms as a commercial enterprise.

The poultry farming on small farms and at home may be a part time job while the owner has other
employment or business. It may be a full time occupation on large commercial and specialized farms.

Managed by Ladies and Children

Poultry farming can be successfully managed by women, children and elderly men because the
work is not strenuous. It does not require high skill. These groups of people may be very successful in
poultry farming.

DEVELOPMENT OF POULTRY

Birds were used first not for the food purpose but for entertainment e.g. cockfighting. They had
got also religious importance. But now there is a gradual improvement in keeping these birds.

 Cock fighting banned due to cruelty.

 Birds were kept for exhibition purpose
 Specialized birds as food purpose.
 Small birds (Bantam) i.e. fancy birds
 Pure lines evolve.
American poultry Association started it's work in 1873 with an aim to maintain pure bred breeding
stock and before that people thought about the birds which were beautiful, having same body
confirmation, uniform in their type and plumage colour. In this way they introduced breeds and varieties.

CLASSIFICATION OF POULTRY

A group of standard breeds which have been develop in a certain region or geographical area.
There are four classes based on this definition:

1. Asiatic
2. English
3. American
4. Mediterranean

Breed

The group of birds belongs to same living place and having similar characteristics including body
shape, size and skin colour, e.g., Leghorn, Minorca.
3
Variety

Within a breed the group of birds differentiated (division) either by plumage colour or shape of
comb or feather pattern, e.g. Single comb WLH. Rose comb leghorn.

Strain

A specific chicken breeding flock bearing a given name and produced by a breeder through at
least five generations of closed flock mating and selected for certain characteristics e.g. Babcock

Classification based on regions

i. Asiatic Class

ii. Mediterranean class

iii. American Class

iv. English Class

These classes have following few distinguishing characteristics

Characteristic American English Mediterranean Asiatic

1. Body size Medium Medium Light Heavy

2. Purpose Dual Dual Egg Meat

3. Shell colour Brown Brown White Brown

4. Ear lobe colour Red Red White Red

5. Skin colour Yellow White Yellow Yellow

6. Feathers on Shank No No No Yes

Lyallpur Silver Black (LSB)

Lyallpur Silver Black breed is well adopted to our local conditions having good disease resistance and
produces about double the number of eggs in a year and 50% more meat than desi birds in 12 weeks. LSB
breed was evolved by crossing 4 breeds (WLH X Desi & White Cornish x New Hampshire) at University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad.

White leghorn breed was used to enhance the egg productive potential of Desi bird whereas White
Cornish and New Hampshire breeds were used to improve the meat production capacity of desi birds.

Production Parameters Desi LSB

Egg production/year 73 150

4
Egg weight (g) 45 54

Body weight (g) 950 1350

Age at maturity (days) 212 180

Heat tolerance (0C) 43.3 43.3

Livability (%) 90 90

Incubation:

The process during which in a period of three weeks microscopic germ is developed into a chick
capable of waling and eating etc. the period during which this process is completed is called incubation
period. Different species of birds have different incubation period e.g., chicken egg hatch in 21 days,
whereas the eggs of quails, ducks, pheasants have 17, 28-30 and 28 days incubation period, respectively.
During this period suitable conditions are provided to the hatching eggs for best hatching results. The
incubation is of two type, namely, natural incubation and ratification incubation.

1) Natural Incubation

This is commonly used for backyard poultry keeping in villages in most of the tropical countries
of the world. In this method eggs are incubated with the help of broody hens. It is a primitive method. But
it is most effective methods to get a high percentage of success. Natural hatching or hatching of eggs by
hen is still popular with small poultry keepers in remote rural areas in many part of our country. The most
important thing in this method is the selection of a broody hen. It should be of medium body size to
accommodate fair number of eggs and should be a good-sitter, quiet and free from ectoparasites. A nest
bedded with clean, dry and comfortable litter is prepared for this purpose. Usually the nest is a saucer like
shape where the hatching eggs are placed with brooder end slightly upside. The nest is usually placed in a
dark area of the house with minimum disturbance. During incubation hen should not be disturbed. The
hens should be taken out at least twice a day for about 30 minutes for feeding and watering. The hen
should be well taken care of and protected from predators.

Depending on the size of hen, 10-15 eggs can be placed under one bird. The best time of set hen
is at a night as at this time she is more likely to settle down to her job. Besides, when eggs are put under
the hens at night, the chicken are more likely to appear on the night of 21 st day and will have the whole
night to rest and gain strength.

2) Artificial Incubation:

In this method of incubation, the requirements of incubation are fulfilled by a machine called
incubator. This method uses high modern and sophisticated technology with automation for maximum
hatchability. This method of incubation has many advantages over natural incubation which are as under:

1. Large no. of eggs even up to lacs at a time can be incubated to meet high commercial demand
of chicks.
2. Incubation can be practiced throughout the year as there is no need for a broody hen for this
purpose.
3. The risk of disease transfer from hen to chicks is eliminated because of no contact of the hen
with eggs after laying.
5
 4. The essential incubation requirements are provided with their optimum levels to get
maximum hatchability with quality hygienic care and minimum chances of infections.
5. Automation of incubators saves time and labour.

Types of Incubators

Principally there are two types of incubators viz. Small or still air incubators and Mammoth or
forced draft incubators. The mammoth incubators can have setters and Hatcher separately, whereas the
small incubators are usually a small combined like. In case of chicken eggs setters are used to incubate
eggs for first 18 days while chicks actively hatch out for final 3 days in hatchers. A brief discussion about
the incubators is as under.

1. Small or still air incubators:

It is usually of small capacity, from 50 to 500 eggs, with only single layer incubation, where the
eggs lying flat in the machine. These incubators are heated by kerosene oil or electricity. Ventilation is
affected by changes of internal temperature. These are also called still air incubators because the air inside
the incubator circulates under natural way of circulation without any mechanical devices for air
circulation. In these incubators, the eggs are placed in the egg tray in natural position. The turning of the
eggs is manual and individual, twice or thrice daily.

2. Cabinet Type (mammoth or forced draft) incubators:

The incubators are very capacious and generally cabinet like in shape. It enables the breeder to
incubate several thousand eggs with greater economy to develop his business by selling baby chicks.
These incubators are usually run by electricity. Eggs are placed in the egg trays with broader end up, from
the top to be bottom in the machine. The eggs are turned either manually but collectively with the help of
a handle, or automatically with a time-controlled motor where the position of all the eggs can be changed
collectively. The temperature is evenly distributed in the entire machine by either pads or fans which also
control the ventilation process hence the name give ‘forced draft machine’. Moister is usual provided
from flat trays which have large evaporating surfaces or by some farm of water spray injection arranged
in conjunction with the ventilation system or by injection of stream he incubator may be of a shape in
which setting and hatching is done in the same compartment or it may have separate setting or hatching
compartments. These incubators have been further improved by various companies as detailed below.

a) Walk-in Incubators:

A walk-in incubator is infect a room into which it is possible to walk or to wheel trolleys and in
which staff can work. It may be cabinet type construction and capable of being erected and operated in an
existing building or it may be of a built-in type in which the shell of the incubator room forms an integral
part of the hatchery structure and walls of the room have to bear loads over and above their functional
requirements of rigidity and insulation. In both types, the arrangements of setting, turning and hatching
equipment are similar to those of the large cabinet incubators, but the heating and ventilation are much
more fully automatic than cabinet type incubator. These type of incubators provide grate economy of

6
floor space and consequent reduction in capital costs, and in time and labour for maintenance and
oppression of the hatchery.

b) Drive in Incubator:

Some walk-in machine involves the transfer of eggs from the trolleys to setting racks and trays
may be set in blocks or alternately. Other machines allow the eggs to be wheeled into the incubator or in
and trolley, with the same trolley remaining in the machines as the frame holding the trays of eggs during
incubation. In the latter methods eggs are obviously in blocks according to stage of development and
different manufactures of incubators have the trolleys positioned in different ways. As opposed to walk-in
these machines may be described as drive-in incubators.

INCUBATION REQUIREMENTS

For best hatchability results, each of the following environmental conditions must be controlled
and kept within definite limits.

1. Temperature: it is the most critical factor for the successful hatching of the chicks because
developing chicks are very sentience to the temperature of the environment. Low temperature slows down
the development process and therefore results in late hatching with low hatchability. A continuous high
incubation temperature results in early in hatching results due to an increase in crippled and deformed
chicks and mortality of chicks. Therefore, the suitable temperature should be maintained as under:

A. Small Incubators:

First week 102.5 – 103 °F

2nd and 3rd week 102°F

18th day to end of hatch 100 – 101 °F

B. Mammoth Incubator:

Setter : 99.5°F (For 1st 18 days)

Hatcher : 99.0°F (For the last 3 days)

2. Relative humidity: Hatchability of eggs is definitely affected by moisture conditions inside the
incubators. The relative humidity for best hatching results should be 55-60% during first 18 days and
should be increased 5-10% after that up to hatching of chicks. High relative humidity results in the
production of wet chicks and abnormal growth of the embryo. Whereas, low humidity causes stickiness of
the chicks with the shell membrane resulting into poor hatching results. It also increases the production of
deformed and weak chicks. Normally 11 to 13% inherent water content may be lost during incubation
without harmful results.

3. Ventilation: Incoming of the fresh air into incubator and outgoing of the foul air from the
incubator is also a key to the success of hatching results. Because the chick embryos being living
organism require oxygen for their development and give off carbon dioxide. Therefore optimum level of
oxygen (21%) and carbon dioxide (0.4%) are very much essential for good hatching results. If the amount

7
of carbon dioxide exceeds 1.0% limit the hatching results will be adversely affected whereas, the increase
in carbon dioxide upto 2% will cause drastic reduction in hatchability. When carbon dioxide
concentration in the incubator reaches upto 5% level, the hatching results would be zero. Therefore, for
successful optimum level of oxygen and carbon dioxide are required in the incubator. Still air machine
need more ventilation near the end of the hatch, while there is no such problem in forced draft incubators
normally.

4. Position of the Hatching Eggs and Turning:

Eggs are normally incubated broader end up or by placing in the natural position. Under these
conditions, the head of the embryo develops within the broader and near the air-cell. However, when the
eggs are incubated small and up the majority of the embryos develop with their head in the small end of
the egg and frequently these embryos do not hatch.

Frequent turning of eggs is essential for movement of embryo in the eggs during first phase of
incubation to avoid sticking and setting of embryos to the shell. Turning also facilities uniform heating of
the egg content in auto-operated incubators. Usually, the eggs are turned through an angle of 40-45° on
both sides for 5 or 7 times a day in the setter, leading to maximum hatchability. Whereas turning is not
required in hatcher. However, if the eggs are left in a single position throughout the incubation period the
hatching results ill be very poor. Turning must be gentle and on both sides.

8
BROODING:

Special care and management during first 5 to 6 weeks of a chick’s life until they do not required
artificial heat is termed as brooding.

Types of Brooders:

Brooders are different types:

1) Drum type 2) Coal burning 3) Wood burning

4) Electric brooder 5) Gas brooder

1) Drum Type

Heat is radiated from drum towards chicks on floor. Temperature is controlled by thermostat that
regulates flow of oil to brooder.

2) Coal Burning

Commonly used where fuel (coal) is comparatively cheaper. Temperature is controlled by

thermostat.

3) Wood Burning

Wood burning brooders are commonly used in Pakistan especially where wood is in plenty and
available at cheaper rate.

4) Electric Brooders

Mostly used in cold and mild weather. They have advantages

i) Temperature can be accurately controlled.

ii) They require little attention.

iii) Thermostat control is possible.

iv) Electric brooder relatively easier to run.

5) Gas Brooder

Similar to electric brooders it also requires little attention. Gas brooders are more economical &
dependable than electric brooders because chance of breakdown of supply is very rare.

DIFFERENT MANAGEMENTAL PRACTICES DURING BROODING

The following are the materials/practices, which are required during brooding.

1. Litter materials

2. Chick Guard

3. Proper floor space

4. Sanitation

9
 5. Flushing

6. Feeding

7. Broad spectrum antibiotics

8. Vaccination

9. Debeaking

10. Avoid predators and pilfering

1. Litter Materials

Type and condition of litter material is very important during brooding. Many types of litter
material such as sawdust, rice hulls, wood shaving is being used Sawdust makes a good litter material
because of its high absorbing property. Softwood saw dust is preferred over the hard wood sawdust
because of lower tannin contents.

Properties of Good Litter Material

1. More absorbent
2. Light in weight
3. Medium size particles
4. Inexpensive
A litter that has been treated with an insecticide, herbicide or other chemicals may not be used.
Paper is spread on the litter for early 2-3 days to reduce picking by birds.

2. Brooder Guards

Brooder guards are necessary to confine day-old chicks to the heated area and to concentrate the
feeders and waters within small areas. They are also helpful to keep out draft and cold air. A guard made
of cardboard, wood or metal sheet with 15 to 18 inches height should be placed around the hover. The
distance of guard from the stove should be about 30 inches (76 cm) in winter and 36 inches (91 cm) is
summer.

Once the chicks learn the source of supplementary heat, the guard must be expanded to allow a
greater area inside them. Guards could be used for 6 to 9 days.

3. Floor Space Requirement

Growth and feed conversion are related to floor space per requirement bird, over crowding due
to less floor space results decreased feed consumption, growth rate and feed efficiency and it increases
the chances of cannibalism and mortality. The amount of floor space necessary for each chick during the
first 5 or 6 weeks of its life is given in table.

Types of bird Floor space per bird

ft2 M2 Birds/m2

Broiler 0.50 0.05 20.0

Leghorn egg type pullet 0.758 0.070 14.3

10
Leghorn egg breeder pullet 0.85 0.079 12.7

Leghorn egg type cockerels 0.00 0.093 10.8

Meat type breeder pullet 1.00 0.093 10.8

Meat type breeder cockerels 1.25 0.116 8.6

4. Sanitation

During brooding care should be taken regarding sanitation because chicks are very sensitive to
diseases. A brooder house should be thoroughly cleaned and well disinfected at least one week before the
arrival of chicks. Spray formalin 40% (1:12 i.e. formalin : water) to the brooding room. Keep separate
attendants in the brooder houses and do not allow them to move in other sheds. Keep visitors away from
the brooder house and take care of your address when you visit the brooder house.

Damp litter and sick birds cause the spreading of disease; keep the litter dry of frequent stirring of
litter. Using super phosphate on litter not only acts as absorbent but also act as preservative for making a
good fertilizer after mixing with droppings. Frequent change of waterers place will help to keep the litter
dry.

Sick birds should be isolated and treated properly. Dead birds should be disposed off by using
disposal pit or burning. Adult birds should not be mixed with young chicks.

5. Flushing

Flushing with 3% sucrose solution is done to provide readily available source of energy to the
bird. This practices also clears the digestive tract chicks.

6. Feeding

First feeding should be done 4-5 hours after flushing. Pure good quality ground maize should be
given first day alone then for 2-3 days as a part of feed. It provides good source of energy and it contains
high fibre contents which prevent pasting.

1st day ----------- Pure Ground maize

2nd daynn ----------- 50% GM + 50% Feed

3rd day ----------- 25% GM + 75% Feed

4th day ----------- 100% Feed

Ground maize due to higher fibre contents prevents pasting.

7. Broad Spectrum Antibiotics

During 1st week, using any of the following broad-spectrum antibiotic may helps in reducing the
chances of infections.

 Furazolidone 15-20 g/bag feed for seven days

 Furazole 80 g/bag for seven days
 Furasole 1 teaspoon/gallon water
 Tribersin 1 cc/gallon water
 Trimodin 1 teaspoon/gallon water

11
  Erythro FZ 1 teaspoon/litre water
In winter medicine is used usually through feed and in summer mostly through water.

8. Vaccination

To reduce chances of disease outbreaks following vaccines must be used in addition to other
vaccines.

From 7-10 days ND eye drops

From 10-14 days Gumboro eye drops

From 22-25 days ND 1/2 CC (sub-cut)

From 30-32 days Gumboro in drinking water

From 6-8 weeks Fowl pox (wing web)

9. Debeaking

Debeaking not only prevents cannibalism, toe picking, vent picking and feather picking, it also
increase the feed efficiency of the birds. Besides it make the flock uniform and improve the live ability.
Debeaking is doen at the age of 10-15 days, it involves cutting of 1/3 of the upper beak by an electric
debeaker.

10. Avoid Predators and Pilfering

Predators like the mice, managoose, dog and cat etc. can be controlled by traps and using
chemicals. Their control is necessary because they can waste the feed and transmit many diseases.
Pilfering at the farm could be avoided by sudden visits and through checking the record.

POULTRY HOUSING

Poultry housing permits the organization and concentration of the flock into a manageable unit
and it provides a physical environment conductive to optimal egg, or poultry meat production. Some of
the important considerations in poultry house construction are given below.

1. The site of the farm should be marshy, water logged or flood affected.
2. Farm should away from man city but approachable.
3. Water supply, gas and electricity should be available at the site.
4. Construction should be well managed according to the type of the birds that are planned to be
reared.
5. Direction of the shed should be east to west.
6. Length of the shed may vary from 100 to 300ft.
7. Width of the shed should be 30ft. in open side house and it may very up to 50ft. in case of
environment control house.
8. Height of the shed may vary from 10-12 ft.
9. Shed to shed distance should be 50ft.
10. Farm to farm distance should be 1 to 3 km.

HOUSING REQUIREMENTS

1. Length

12
100 ft of one shed, if 300-400 ft. then partition after each 100 ft.

2. Width

Normally 30 ft. if more than 30ft. there is ventilation problem. In environmental control house it may be
40-50 ft.

3. Height

In hot areas 12-14 ft. but in cold areas 8-10 ft.

4. Distance

It should be 50fl. between two poultry sheds. 100 ft. from road. 1km.between two farms and for breeder
forms it should be 3km.

5. Floor Space

1 sq ft area =1 broiler, 1.5 sq ft area =1 layer, 2 sq ft area = 1 breeder (egg type), 3.5 sq ft area= I breeder
(meat type).

6. Ventilation

Proper ventilation (not drought) to carry in fresh air is needed. It also maintains normal humidity. More
the distance between inlets and outlets more will be ventilation.

7. Humidity

For hatching purpose 70-80% and for poultry house it should be 60-65%. Low humidity causes dry, dusty
litter, respiratory problems and poor hatching, where as very high humidity causes growth of fungus,
mould and parasitic infections. For proper humidity level provide adequate ventilation.

8. Temperature

For storage of eggs 55°F, for hatching (eggs) 99.25-99.75°F. For brooding of day old chicks 95 °F at start
and for poultry house 70-75°F.

9. Sunshine

In cold climate, raising curtains from side walls brings spring like conditions by exposing poultry house
to more and more sunshine. In hot areas, curtains from front are raised to have good ventilation and
sunshine and down when temperature starts to rise than normal.

10. Dryness

Dampness causes discomfort to birds and also give rise to problems like colds, pneumonia etc. Dampness
in poultry house is caused by moisture rinsing through leaky floors or walls, rain or snow entering
through windows and leaky water container of birds and from bird’s droppings, so proper ventilation to
keep proper dryness is required. Use good quality litter, which have more adsorption of moisture.

EQUIPMENTS

Equipments Capacity Required Unit Cost Total Cost

13
 (Rs.) (R*.)

(A) Equipments 1, 000 Broilers

for

Brooder l/500 Chicks 2 500 1000

Chick Guard 1/250 Chicks 4 200 800

Litter Bags 15 Bags/500 Chicks 30 60/Bag 1800

Paper 1 kg/200 5kg 20/kg 100

Feeders

Trough feeder (in) 1/40 Birds 25 35 875

Tube feeder (38cm) 1/32 Birds 31 50 1550

Automatic drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Round Waterer (5L) 1/30 Birds 33 65 2145

(B) Equipments for 1000 Layers

Brooding Period

Brooder l/500Chicks 2 500 1000

Chick Guard 1/250 Chicks 4 200 800

14
Tube feeder 1/50 Chicks 20 50 1000

Trough feeder 1/50 Chicks 20 35 700

Drinker (2L) 1/25 Chicks 40 20 800

Paper 1 kg/200 Chicks 5kg 20 100

Rearing Period

Tube feeder (38cm) 1/40 Birds 25 50 1250

Automatic drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Waterer 1/25 Birds 40 65 2600

Laying Period

Tube feeder 1/30 Birds 11 50 1650

Waterer 1/25 Birds 40 65 2600

Automatic Drinker 1/100 Birds 10 300 3000

Nests 1/5 Hens 17 Units 1 500 25500

GLOSSARY LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY

Addled egg: An egg which has begun to go bad.

15
Ark: A small house with ridged roof, often used for grazing for a small number of poultry or rabbits.

Baffles: Pieces of material, usually wood or plastic, which are placed in an air vent to prevent direct
draught without impeding the air flow.

Bantam: Strictly speaking, a naturally occurring, small-sized fowl which has not large counterpart, but
as there has been so much selective breeding to scale down standard-sized birds, the term is
generally taken to mean any small-sized fowl.

Blocky A horse with blocky foot has a noticeably more upright slope to the hoof than is normal.

Bran mash: A feed prepared by pouring boiling water over bran and then covering the bucket with a sack
of half an hour. It is fed whilst still warm.

Breast collar: An alternative to a neck collar for a house. The breast collar is a wide horizontal strap around
the lower part or the neck to which traces are attached for traction.

Breech: Presentation of a foetus at birth with hindquarters foremost.

Breeching: A strap similar to the breast collar which is hung around the gorse’s hindquarters. It is attached
by straps or chains to the shafts and prevents the vehicle over-running the horse.

Broiler: A young bird specifically raised for meat.

Broken mouth: A condition where a sheep has lost one or mote teeth.

Brooding: Raising newly-hatched chicks in a protected environment.

Broody: A bird manifesting a desire to sit on a clutch of egg.

Buck: Male goat over two years of age.

Buckling: Male goat between one and two years of age.

Bulling: Presenting signs of being ready for mating (heifers and cows).

Cage battery: System of keeping livestock in cages in a controlled environment.

Calf nuts: Nutritive food mixture supplied by merchants in pellet form.

Candling: Examination an egg against a bright light in order to see the internal structure.

Capon: A neutered cockerel.

Cell count: A laboratory method of examining milk for health protection. Normal milk contains a number
of cells from the cow’s tissues. If the cell count increases above normal levels, that is an
indication of disease and the farmer is informed.

Cloaca: End section of a hen’s food canal, from which waste matter is ejected.

Closed Breed: A breed where registration is restricted to progeny of animals themselves registered in that
breed.

Coccidiostat: An additive sometimes added to proprietary food as a means of protecting livestock against the
disease coccidiosis.

16
Cock: A male bird that has completed one breading season (American rooster).

Cockerel. A male bird in its first breeding season.

Colostrum: The milk secreted by the udder for forty-eight hours after birth of the young. It contains a
concentration of antibodies which are passed to the young and act as a valuable protection
against a number of infectious conditions. The young animal can only absorb these antibodies
for a matter of hours (possibly only twenty-four) so it is crucial that it should suckle colostrums
from its mother frequently during that short period.

Concentrates: Highly nutritious cereal food, fed in order to maintain milk or meat production at a profitable
level.

Conformation: The shape of an animal’s frame which only varies with growth, as distinct from its general
condition (i.e. whether it is fat or thin).

Convection Downwards movement of cold air in a building caused by warm air rising by convection and
downdraught: being cooled by contact with un-insulated surfaces.

Creep: Area where young piglets spend most of their time, and which has opening to small to allow
the sow to enter.

Crop: Portion of the hen’s food canal where food is stored until it is ready for moving on into the
stomach.

Cross-bred: Progeny resulting from the mating of two different breeds.

Cuddling: Chewing over the small portions of food that have been regurgitated from the cow’s rumen.
(See rumination).

Culling: Killing any surplus or diseased stock; maintaining good health or productivity in a herd by
killing such animals.

Deadweight: The weight of an animal after slaughter and when all the offal has been removed (virtually the
weight of all the saleable meat).

Deep-litter: Floor covering in indoor poultry houses, made up of a build-up of successive layers.

Dewlap: A loose pouch of skin on a duck’s throat.

Dip bath. A bath containing insecticide in which sheep are dipped to kill external parasites.

Doe A mature female goat.

Drafting race: A race through which sheep can be driven in order to divide them into two or three groups.

Draining pen: Pen is which sheep dry off after being dipped.

Drench: Liquid medication poured down the throat from a bottle.

Drying-off: The gradual cessation of milk production by the mother after her young have been weaned.

Elastrator: Implement used to apply rubber rings for castrating lambs.

Entropion: A condition where the eyelids are turned in, usually at birth.

17
Feed Conversion The amount of feed consumed in order to produce a given body weight.
ratio:

Feed hopper: A container which allows food to drop down gradually as more is consumed.

Fetlock: The obvious joint between a horse’s knee (or hock) and foot.

Finishing: The last few weeks before an animal goes to slaughter, during which period it is given the best
attention so that it will arrive for slaughter in the peak of condition.

Flushing: Improving the condition of ewes before mating:

Fold unit: A small house, complete with covered-in run, for the controlled grazing of poultry.

Forage: Feed that is growing (e.g. grass, leaves, kale, etc.) as opposed to manufactured feed (e.g. meal).

Fore-milk cup: A metal cup fitted with a dark shelf. The first milk at each milking is drawn into the cup. If
there is udder trouble (mastitis) clots of milk will be seen on the dark shelf.

Free-marten: A female calf that was twin to a male calf. In the majority of cases, the shared pregnancy so
affects here that she is unable to conceive.

Free-range: Traditional method of allowing birds to graze over a wide area of land.

Gander: Adult male goose.

Gizzard: A strong, muscular bag within the hen’s digestive system, for grinding up food.

Goatling: Female goat between one and two years of age that has not borne a kid.

Grading up: The process where, by the successive use of pedigree sires, the ultimate progeny of
unregistered stock become eligible for registration in an open breed.

Green hide: Skin that has been cleaned, scraped and dried, but has not yet been permanently tanned
(rabbits).

Heat: The period when the female is ovulating and is ready to receive the male. It is the only time
that she can become pregnant.

Heavy breed: Bird which has a high meat to bone ration and is therefore suitable for the table.

Heifer: A young female cow that has not yet produced a calf.

Hinny: The offspring of a horse father and a donkey mother.

Hock: The large joint half way down the hind leg of a horse.

Hogg: A young yearling sheep before shearing.

Holding pen: A large pen in which sheep are held prior to being handled.

Hybrid: Offspring produced by breeding from tow or more distinct lines.

Hypochlorite: Sodium hypochlorite solution used for sterilizing milking equipment by release of free
chlorine.

18
Immunoglobulin: Protein-like materials produced in the body which inactivate or destroy antigens.

Inbreeding: Mating of closely related animals.

Incubation: The process of development of a fertile poultry egg within the shell.

Jack: An entire male donkey.

Keet: Young guinea fowl.

Kibbled grain: Grain that has been chopped into pieces rather than ground.

Kid: A male or female goat from birth to one year of age.

Killing-out- The percentage of saleable or edible carcass after slaughter and butchering. This varies
percentage: between 70-77% of the liveweight.

Kindling: Giving birth to young (rabbits)

Lactation: The period of milk production after the female has given birth.

Lamb bar: Apparatus for communal feeding of lambs and kids consisting of a container for milk with
several teats set into it.

Lambing The number of lambs produced per 100 ewes.

percentage:

Let-down: Release of milk from the udder.

Light breed: A hen which is less suitable for the table, but usually has a tendency to lay more eggs, then a
heavy breed.

Litter: Any material used as flooring, e.g. straw, woodshavings.

Mash feed: Food, such as bran and boiled barley, mixed with hot water.

Meconium: Brown black material passed from an animal’s bowel shortly after birth.

Mite: Minute parasite related to the spider.

Musk glands: Glands which secrete an odour as a secondary sexual characteristic, and in the male goat are
mainly situated just in front of the horns.

Mule: The offspring of a donkey father and horse mother.

Notifiable Any disease that must be reported to the government health authorities.
(reportable)
disease:

Nursling: A calf that is still suckling the cow.

Oestrus: The period during which the female shows desire for the male.

Open breed: A breed in which entry is not restricted to progeny of animals registered in that breed (i.e.
opposite of closed breed).

19
Overshot jaw: A condition where the lower jaw protrudes beyond the upper one.

Oviduct: Passage from the hen’s ovary to the vent.

Pastern: A small join in a horse’s leg between the fetlock and the foot.

Pelt: Skin.

Pipping: The process of breaking the egg shell by a chick before hatching.

Point of Lay: Age at which pullets begin to lay, usually between 20 and 200 weeks.

Polled: Naturally hornless.

Poult: Young turkey.

Poultice: A hot, wet dressing applied to an injury or swelling for its softening and soothing properties.

Primary feathers: Main flight feathers.

Pullet: A young hen which has not started to lay.

Raddle: The colouring smeared on the chest of a ram to mark ewes when they are mated.

Rearer or grower Mash formulated for young stock where rapid growth for the table is required.
ration:

Ridge ventilation Gaps left at the apex of the roof to assist ventilation.

Rooster: American equivalent of cock.

Rumination: The process of digestion in cattle whereby food is swallowed to the first stomach, the rumen.
Later it is regurgitated into the mouth and chewed over again to be swallowed for further
processing by the second, third and fourth stomachs.

Running through: Lactation extended beyond 365 days.

Scouring: Diarrhea.

Separator: Mechanical device for separating cream from milk by centrifugal force.

Service: The act of mating.

Shearling: A sheep after being shorn for the first time.

Shelly: Fine-boned and thin fleshed (of sheep).

Shelter belt: A small plantation sited to provide shelter from the prevailing wind.

Silage: An alternative to hay as a means of preserving summer food for winter use. It is made from
grass and other green crops such as clover, kale, peas and green corn, which are cut while
young and are compacted in airtight concrete towers (soils), or in stacks, or pits covered with
plastic sheeting, so that they undergo a controlled fermentation to a readily digestible and
nutritious feed.

Sitting breed: A breed of poultry which retains the natural tendency to become broody once or twice a year.
20
Slurry: The thick liquid formed by the mixing of dung and urine.

Solids-not-fat: The solids dissolved or suspended in milk other than butterfat, composed principally of protein
(casein) lactose and minerals.

Space-boarding: Narrow gaps left between vertical boards on the sides of a building to assist ventilation.

Sport: A random mutation.

Springing: Applied to a heifer or cow showing sings of approaching calving.

Squab. Young pigeon raised for meat.

Stag: Adult male turkey (Britain).

Stall-feeding: A system of management where animals are housed more or less continuously (except for
exercise) and forager crops are cut and carried to them.

Staring coat: Hairs standing on end indicative of illness or poor condition.

Starter crumbs: Mash formulated for young poultry and made into a crumb structure.

Steaming up: Increased feeding, particularly of concentrates during the latter part of pregnancy.

Steer: Castrated male cattle being reared for beef.

Store: An animal not yet ready for slaughter.

Strain: Type of stock which will produce the same characteristics from one generation to another.

Stratification: A method of cross-breeding sheep of different types.

Stripping out: Removing the final amount of milk from the udder.

Thriftiness: The capacity to make good use of food.

Tom: Adult male turkey (USA).

Tongue-and-groove Boarding where the panels interlock with each other.

boarding:

Traces: Two straps, chains or ropes, one on each side of the horse, attached to the collar in front and
the vehicle behind, by which the horse draws the vehicle.

Trocar and An instrument used to relieve cattle suffering from indigestion with accumulations of wind
Cannula: (gas)

Tubbing: Standing horse’s foot in a bucket of hot water with washing soda dissolved in it to soften the
hoof.

Urinari calculi: Stones or concretions containing salts found in the urinary system.

Veal: Calf meat.

21
Vermifuge: Drug or other preparation for killing parasitic worms.

Wattle hurdle: Hurdle constructed of woven, split hazel.

Weanling: A calf weaned from suckling.

Wether: Castrated sheep.

Wool blindness: A condition where wool on the face impedes the vision.

Yearling: A calf between one and two years of age.

22