Lesson 10: DATA COLLECTION STRATEGIES II: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

What is Qualitative Research?

    Qualitative research is aimed at gaining a deep understanding of a

specific organization or event, rather a than surface description of a large
sample of a population. It aims to provide an explicit rendering of the
structure, order, and broad patterns found among a group of participants. It is
also called ethnomethodology or field research. It generates data about human
groups in social settings.

    Qualitative research does not introduce treatments or manipulate

variables, or impose the researcher's operational definitions of variables on the
participants. Rather, it lets the meaning emerge from the participants. It is
more flexible in that it can adjust to the setting. Concepts, data collection tools,
and data collection methods can be adjusted as the research progresses.

    Qualitative research aims to get a better understanding through first

hand experience, truthful reporting, and quotations of actual conversations. It
aims to understand how the participants derive meaning from their
surroundings, and how their meaning influences their behavior.

    Qualitative research uses observation as the data collection method.

Observation is the selection and recording of behaviors of people in their
environment. Observation is useful for generating in-depth descriptions of
organizations or events, for obtaining information that is otherwise
inaccessible, and for conducting research when other methods are inadequate.
Observation is used extensively in studies by psychologists, anthropologists,
sociologists, and program evaluators. Direct observation reduces distortion
between the observer and what is observed that can be produced by an
instrument (e.g., questionnaire). It occurs in a natural setting, not a laboratory
or controlled experiment. The context or background of behavior is included in
observations of both people and their environment. And it can be used with
inarticulate subjects, such as children or others unwilling to express
themselves.
 

Participant Observation

    Participant observation is a period of intensive social interaction between

the researcher and the subjects, in the latter's environment. It becomes the
full-time occupation of the researcher. Participant observers are trained in
techniques of observation, which distinguishes them from regular participants.
Examples of participant observation include:
Street corner society
Cancer patient wards
USAF training program
UFO group
Mental hospital
Alcoholics anonymous

    For the participant observer, everything is noted as if it were happening

for the first time, and everything is subject to inquiry. Nothing is taken for
granted. It is an attempt to see the world from the other person's point of view.
It assumes that what people say and do is a product of how they see and
interpret the world.

    Participant observation is founded on the theory of symbolic

interactionism. This assumes that people are constantly in a process of
interpretation and definition as they move through various situations that are
more or less familiar to them. This is how situations obtain their meaning.
People develop shared perspectives through social interaction. Objective
frameworks, rules, goals, norms, values, rewards, organizational structures
may set conditions and fix consequences for actions, but they do not determine
what people will do. People act in terms of the meaning of these structures for
them.

    Methods of observation vary with the position of the researcher, but can
vary from covert to overt. On the one hand, the researcher may begin as an
overt observer only and slowly become an observer-participant. However, this
creates problems of reactivity to the influence or intervention of the researcher.
On the other hand, the researcher may begin as a covert participant only, and
move toward being a participant-observer. However, this creates a problem of
ethics.

    Observation consists of taking field notes on the participants, the setting,
the purpose, the social behavior, and the frequency and duration of
phenomena. Observations may be made of non-verbal behavior, verbal
behavior, and physical phenomena. Other sources of data may include archival
records, private records, anecdotes, erosion or accretion, etc. Problems include
sampling, reliability and validity, as well as observer influence and memory
distortion.
 

To qualify as research, observation:

1) serves a formulated research purpose;
2) relates to existing literature or theories;
3) is systematically planned
4) is recorded systematically
 5) is refined into general propositions or hypotheses
6) is subject to checks and controls on validity and reliability

Stages in Participatory Observation

1. Selection of a site and definition of problems, concepts, and indicators.

    The researcher tentatively identifies the problem or phenomenon of

interest, and tries to discern what will yield the greatest understanding of that
problem or phenomenon. The researcher then identifies preliminary concepts
and what data will be gathered as indicators of those concepts.

2. The researcher chooses a strategy to move into the research setting.

    The researcher has to get past the "gatekeepers." This may involve an
overt or a covert role for the researcher. Issues may include how to record
observations (written notes, tape recordings, video tape, two-way mirrors, or
trained observers) as well as ethical issues (privacy, anonymity, confidentiality,
etc.).

    Strategies include: adopting a passive role at first, learning the ropes;
don't seek data aggressively until later; be a researcher, not a therapist; answer
questions but don't be an expert on anything; be frank and truthful; don't be
forced into a particular role; and don't become closely identified with any one
person or subgroup until you are sure it will not cost you information in the
long run; be non-partisan.

3. Selecting people and events to observe.

    The researcher may identify primary sources of information, known as

"key informants." These people may be relied upon in the beginning to help the
researcher get acculturated to the situation. The statements of key informants
can be taken as evidence, even if their statements are somewhat self-serving.
The researcher must also be aware of possible differences between the validity
and intention of volunteered statements versus statements that are made in
response to the researcher's questions.

4. Develop relationships with the participants.

    Researchers must have the trust and confidence of the informants.
Researchers must speak their "language" and have the ability to understand
their "world." Researchers must also be conscious of interpersonal and
psychological dynamics. Behavior may be different between the researcher and
one informant alone, compared to the researcher and the informant within the
informant's group. The researcher can note the differences, rather than accept
one and reject the other. The researcher must determine whether certain
things are not being said because of his or her role as "researcher" or whether
they can use their position as "neutral outsider" to gain more information.

5. Analyzing observations.

    The researcher can check whether none, all, or some proportion of
behaviors or events occur under distinct circumstances. The researcher can
generate a preliminary model to explain the data collected. Explanations place
particular social facts in reference to their environment. Further observations
are then collected which can strengthen or weaken the researcher's preliminary
model.

6. Final analysis and interpretation.

    Models are checked against the evidence (field notes). Advanced concepts
and evidence for their support and/or refutation are checked. The major
problem is how to present the data in a brief but meaningful form.
 

Differences between quantitative and qualitative research:

    In quantitative studies, the research methods are set before observation
begins and specify the methods of observation which may be used and the type
of data which may be collected. Observations are collected before analysis
begins. After analysis is complete, no more observations are taken.
 
Observation Analysis
s
 

    In qualitative studies, research methods are set up which suggest the
type of methods of observation which may be used and the type of data which
may be collected. Analysis begins as soon as data begin to be collected.
Analysis and data collection proceed in a cyclical fashion, where preliminary
analysis informs subsequent data collection and so forth.
 

Observations Analysis Observation Analysis Observatio Analysis

s n
 

Problems with qualitative studies include:

 more time consuming
masses of data to transcribe
more difficult to code data
not applicable to widely dispersed social settings
generally only a case study with limited applicability to other situations
usually gives only nominal level data, difficult to quantify
difficult to control for researcher bias
 

Comparison of Different "Field" Methods of Obtaining Information

 

Type of Mail or In-person Participant

Information Telephone Interviews Observation
Desired Surveys
Frequency Best Form Less adequate Neither efficient
Distributions nor adequate
Generally known Adequate but Best Form Good for non-
rules and status inefficient verbal behavior
In-depth Neither adequate May be adequate Best form
description of nor efficient and efficient
events