Austria, Ian Nicolette

Final
0713 GenZoo Lab
1. The three mechanisms involved in frog respirations are cutaneous respiration,
buccal respiration and pulmonary respiration.

A. Cutaneous respiration
Some gas exchange in frogs is accounted for by cutaneous respiration.
Diffusion allows for the exchange of breathing gases, and is aided by a
comparatively thin coating of keratin and a plentiful supply of capillaries in the
blood. Gas exchange across the skin in water is hampered by the same physical
forces that limit exchange across other respiratory surfaces. Since the skin stays
exposed to air or water, movement is not needed in cutaneous respiration.
B. Buccal respiration
The buccal cavity's mucous lining is densely packed with blood capillaries
and is kept moist with mucus. Buccal respiration is accomplished by lowering and
lifting the floor of the buccal cavity, during which air is actively sucked into the
cavity and pulled out through the external and internal nares.During buccal
respiration, the glottis stays closed. It is achieved in such a way that no air enters
or exits the lungs through the buccal cavity. The mucus epithelial lining of the
buccal cavity is densely packed with blood capillaries, which absorb O2 from
the environment and expel CO2.
C. Pulmonary respiration
In frogs, pulmonary ventilation is an irregular operation, with single breaths
separated by intervals of breathholding.In the case of frogs, the lungs are
underdeveloped. As a result, the wet skin and buccal cavity complement the
inadequate intake of O2 received from the lungs.

References

Herpetology, Fourth Edition: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles

by Laurie J. Vitt (2013–06-19). (2021). Academic Press.

Karki, G. (2020, September 7). Respiratory system of Frog. Online Biology Notes.
https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/respiratory-system-of-frog/

2. The breakdown of amino acids in the liver results in the formation of urea. The
amino acids are then converted to ammonia, which is then converted into urea
by the liver cells. Urine is excreted in the form of urea, uric acid, waste water, and
mineral salts. If the perfusing fluid is oxygenated Ringer's fluid or urea or other
diuretics are present, the kidneys normally form urine; the urine is hypotonic to
the perfusing fluid; and whenever urine is produced, the perfusing fluid enters
 and traverses the glomeruli. It shows that urine is extracted solely from the
glomeruli, that sodium chloride is diluted when it flows down the tubules, and
that urine obtained from the ureters is therefore hypotonic to the perfusing fluid.
Because of the perfusion of the glomeruli, the volume of urine produced is
normally minimal. The organs concerned with urine excretion are the kidneys,
ureters, urinary bladder, cloaca and the vent. Urine flows from the kidneys to the
bladder through the ureters and then out of the cloaca. The cloaca, also known
as the vent, is an opening in amphibians' excretory, intestinal, and reproductive
tracts. When the bladder is full, urine exits the body through the cloaca.

References

Bainbridge, F. A., Menzies, J. A., & Collins, S. H. (1914). The formation of urine in
the frog. The Journal of Physiology, 48(4), 233–243.
https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.1914.sp001658

Gupta, M. (2016, August 30). Excretory System in Toad (With Diagram) | Zoology.
Biology Discussion.
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/toad/excretory-system-in-toad-with-di
agram-zoology/49230

Study.com | Take Online Courses. Earn College Credit. Research Schools,

Degrees & Careers. (n.d.). Study.Com.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/amphibians-excretory-system.html#:%
7E:text=The%20kidneys%20produce%20urine%20that,%2C%20urea%2C%20
or%20uric%20acid.&text=Arboreal%20species%20like%20tree%20frogs%20e
xcrete%20uric%20acid%20to%20conserve%20limited%20water.

3. Fertilization accomplishes a number of goals. For starters, it helps the egg to

complete the second meiotic division, resulting in a haploid pronucleus. The
diploid zygotic nucleus is formed where the egg pronucleus and the sperm
pronucleus intersect in the egg cytoplasm. Second, fertilization allows the
cytoplasm of the embryo to shift, causing various portions of the cytoplasm to
appear in new places. Third, fertilization initiates the cleavage and development
of cells by activating the molecules required for cell cleavage and
development. Unless fertilization occurs, the sperm and egg die rapidly.
Fertilization occurs externally in the majority of frog species. When the female
frog drops the larvae, the male frog grabs her back and fertilizes them. A female
frog lays eggs that are fertilized by sperm from a male frog. The resulting zygote
develops from embryonic growth into a free-living tadpole, and then
metamorphoses into an adult frog—for example, through sacrificing its tail due to
programmed cell death .
 Reference

The Frog Life Cycle. (n.d.). NCBI. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10035/

4. A. Forebrain
It is made up of two olfactory lobes, two cerebral halves, and a
diencephalon. The olfactory lobes are the two most lateral, narrow and circular
lobes. Each lobe sends a small olfactory nerve to its side's nasal chamber. The
two lobes are joined, but each has its own small cavity. The olfactory ventricle,
also known as the rhinocoel, is the name given to this cavity. Olfactory lobes are
obsessed with scent, which is underdeveloped in frogs.

B. Midbrain
It consists of a shallow canal known as the iter or Sylvius aqueduct, which
is continuous with the III ventricle in front and the IV ventricle behind. Under
resting conditions, inputs from the rostral half of the midbrain have a net effect of
increasing fictive breathing frequency, while inputs from the caudal half of the
midbrain have no net effect on fictive breathing frequency but tend to function
on the medullary central rhythm generator to generate episodic breathing.
Optic lobes suppress spinal reflexes, and each lobe regulates the opposite side
of the body.

C. Hindbrain
It is located at the back of the brain and is divided into two parts which
are the cerebellum and medulla oblongata. The cerebellum is a small transverse
band on the dorsal side of the brain, just below the optic lobes. It has a very
narrow cerebellar ventricle, known as a metacoel.The medulla oblongata has
matured. It is marginally wider at the front end. It enters the spinal cord
posteriorly with no external line of demarcation. It protects the triangular fourth
ventricle, also known as the myelocoel. The latter connects with the spinal cord's
central canal from behind. It is used to keep the frog's muscles coordinated and
balance.

References

Karki, G. (2020a, September 7). Nervous system of frog. Online Biology Notes.
https://www.onlinebiologynotes.com/nervous-system-of-frog/

Gargaglioni, L. H., Meier, J. T., Branco, L. G. S., & Milsom, W. K. (2007). Role of
midbrain in the control of breathing in anuran amphibians. American
Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative
Physiology, 293(1), R447–R457. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.00793.2006
5. Feedback loops are important for living organisms to sustain homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the process that allows one to maintain a relatively stable internal
state – not too hot or cold, not too hungry or exhausted. The amount of energy
required by an organism to sustain homeostasis depends on the form of the
organism as well as the environment in which it lives. Amphibian fluid and
electrolyte homeostasis is maintained by a delicate equilibrium of action in the
kidneys, urinary bladder, and skin. The kidneys of these species contain copious
amounts of dilute urine, and the bladder mostly acts as a source of water during
terrestrial activity. Amphibian skin's unusual properties of high permeability to
water and electrolytes cause this tissue to contribute to osmoregulation as well
as electrolyte and fluid homeostasis. The stratum corneum, or outermost layer of
frog tissue, is made up of a thin layer of keratinized cells that has relatively little
resistance to water transport between internal and external environments. As a
result, evaporative dehydration causes water depletion in terrestrial and semi
terrestrial frogs. Frogs do not drink for the intention of quenching their appetite or
rehydrating themselves. Instead, the primary route for water intake is through the
ventral skin, especially the highly vascularized pelvic patch.

References
Frog skin epithelium: electrolyte transport and chytridiomycosis. (n.d.). NCBI.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3288393/
Team, T. A. (2020, June 1). Positive and Negative Feedback Loops in Biology.
Albert Resources.
https://www.albert.io/blog/positive-negative-feedback-loops-biology/