Limestone - Wikipedia

19/07/2021 Limestone - Wikipedia
Limestone
Limestone is a common type of carbonate sedimentary rock. It
is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which Limestone

Sedimentary rock
are different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Limestone forms when these minerals precipitate out of water
containing dissolved calcium. This can take place through both
biological and nonbiological processes, though biological
processes have likely been more important for the last 540
million years.[1] Limestone often contains fossils, and these
provide scientists with information on ancient environments and
on the evolution of life.[2]
About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and

most of this is limestone.[3][2] The remaining carbonate rock is Limestone outcrop in the Torcal de
mostly dolomite, a closely related rock, which contains a high Antequera nature reserve of

percentage of the mineral dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2. Magnesian Málaga, Spain

limestone is an obsolete and poorly-defined term used variously Composition
for dolomite, for limestone containing significant dolomite
(dolomitic limestone), or for any other limestone containing a Calcium carbonate: inorganic
significant percentage of magnesium. [4] Most limestone was crystalline calcite or organic
formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental calcareous material
shelves or platforms, though smaller amounts were formed in
many other environments. Much dolomite is secondary dolomite,
formed by chemical alteration of limestone.[5][6] Limestone is exposed
over large regions of the Earth's surface, and because limestone is
slightly soluble in rainwater, these exposures often are eroded to become
karst landscapes. Most cave systems are found in limestone bedrock.
Limestone has numerous uses: as a building material, an essential

component of concrete (Portland cement), as aggregate for the base of
roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or
paints, as a chemical feedstock for the production of lime, as a soil
conditioner, and as a popular decorative addition to rock gardens.
Limestone formations contain about 30% of the world's petroleum
reservoirs.[2] La Zaplaz formations in the
Piatra Craiului Mountains,
Romania.
Contents
Description
Grains
Mud
Other characteristics
Classification
Folk classification
Dunham classification
Other descriptive terms
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone 1/21
Formation
Diagenesis
Occurrence
Limestone and living organisms
Micritic mud mounds
Organic reefs
Limestone landscape
Uses
Scarcity
Occupational safety and health
United States
Graffiti
Gallery
See also
References
Further reading
Description
Limestone is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms

of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and

siderite or other carbonate minerals are rare. However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few
percent of magnesium. Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium
calcite, with the dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium. High-magnesium calcite
retains the calcite mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite. Aragonite does not usually
contain significant magnesium.[7] Most limestone is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with clastic
sediments (mainly fine-grained quartz and clay minerals) making up less than 5%[8] to 10%[9] of the
composition. Organic matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds
1%.[10]
Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal
fragments (such as sponge spicules, diatoms, or radiolarians).[11] Fossils are also common in
limestone.[2]
Limestone is commonly white to gray in color. Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can
be almost black in color, while traces of iron or manganese can give limestone an off-white to yellow
to red color. The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest
limestone to 40% for chalk. The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm3. Although
relatively soft, with a Mohs hardness of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to
180 MPa.[12] For comparison, concrete typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa.[13]
Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in
texture.[14] However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix.
Because limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that is
deposited close to where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and
mud content.[8]
Grains
Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine

organisms such as coral or foraminifera.[15] These organisms
secrete structures made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these
structures behind when they die. Other carbonate grains
composing limestones are ooids, peloids, and limeclasts
(intraclasts and extraclasts).[16]
Skeletal grains have a composition reflecting the organisms that

produced them and the environment in which they were
produced.[17] Low-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical Ooids from a beach on Joulter's
of articulate brachiopods, planktonic (free-floating) foraminifera, Cay, The Bahamas
and coccoliths. High-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are
typical of benthic (bottom-dwelling) foraminifera, echinoderms,
and coralline algae. Aragonite skeletal grains are typical of
molluscs, calcareous green algae, stromatoporoids, corals, and
tube worms. The skeletal grains also reflect specific geological
periods and environments. For example, coral grains are more
common in high-energy environments (characterized by strong
currents and turbulence) while bryozoan grains are more
common in low-energy environments (characterized by quiet
water).[18]
Ooids in limestone of the Carmel
Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than
Formation (Middle Jurassic) of
2mm in diameter) consisting of one or more layers of calcite or southwestern Utah.
aragonite around a central quartz grain or carbonate mineral
fragment. These likely form by direct precipitation of calcium
carbonate onto the ooid. Pisoliths are similar to ooids, but they
are larger than 2mm in diameter and tend to be more irregular in
shape. Limestone composed mostly of ooids is called an oolite or
sometimes an oolitic limestone. Ooids form in high-energy
environments, such as the Bahama platform, and oolites typically
show crossbedding and other features associated with deposition
in strong currents.[19][20]
Oncoliths resemble ooids but show a radial rather than layered

Thin-section view of a Middle
internal structure, indicating that they were formed by algae in a
Jurassic limestone in southern Utah,
normal marine environment.[19]
U.S. The round grains are ooids; the
largest is 1.2 mm (0.05 in) in
Peloids are structureless grains of microcrystalline carbonate
diameter. This limestone is an
likely produced by a variety of processes.[21] Many are thought to
oosparite.
be fecal pellets produced by marine organisms. Others may be
produced by endolithic (boring) algae[22] or other
microorganisms[23] or through breakdown of mollusc shells.[24] They are difficult to see in a
limestone sample except in thin section and are less common in ancient limestones, possibly because
compaction of carbonate sediments disrupts them.[22]
Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediments. Intraclasts
are limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come
from outside the depositional area. Intraclasts include grapestone, which is clusters of peloids
cemented together by organic material or mineral cement. Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually
accompanied by other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as
part of a turbidity current.[25]
Mud
The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud. This is typically the
largest fraction of an ancient carbonate rock.[22] Mud consisting of individual crystals less than 5
microns in length is described as micrite.[26] In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small
aragonite needles, which may precipitate directly from seawater,[27] be secreted by algae,[28] or be
produced by abrasion of carbonate grains in a high-energy environment.[29] This is converted to
calcite within a few million years of deposition. Further recrystallization of micrite produces
microspar, with grains from 5 to 15 microns in diameter.[27]
Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm, that are
described as sparry calcite or sparite. Sparite is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over 20
microns and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent
crystals. Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its
characteristic crystal shapes. [30]
Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by
recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains. Sparite cement was likely deposited in pore space
between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud.
Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment.[30]
Other characteristics
Limestone outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a
Mohs hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles
vigorously when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. Dolomite is also soft but reacts
only feebly with dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown
color due to the presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers.[8]
Impurities (such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide, and other materials) will cause limestones
to exhibit different colors, especially with weathered surfaces.
The makeup of a carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with
dilute hydrochloric acid. This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or
dolomite grains. The latter can be identified by their rhombohedral shape.[8]
Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities (vugs) in the rock. Vugs are a
form of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by a change in environment that increases
the solubility of calcite.[31]
Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as "marble". For example, the famous Portoro
"marble" of Italy is actually a dense black limestone.[32] True marble is produced by recrystallization
of limestone during regional metamorphism that accompanies the mountain building process
(orogeny). It is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and the formation
of distinctive minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone.[33]
Classification
Two major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham, are used for identifying the types of
carbonate rocks collectively known as limestone.
Folk classification
Robert L. Folk developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed
composition of grains and interstitial material in carbonate rocks.[34] Based on composition, there
are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The
Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the

grains and the second to the cement. For example, a
limestone consisting mainly of ooids, with a crystalline
matrix, would be termed an oosparite. It is helpful to
have a petrographic microscope when using the Folk
scheme, because it is easier to determine the
components present in each sample.[35]
Dunham classification
Travertine limestone terraces of Pamukkale,
Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in
Turkey.
1962. It focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate
rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups
based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles,
based on criteria such as whether the grains were originally in
mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the
rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal
mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original
porosity of the rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand
samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the
sample.[36]
A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds

The White Cliffs of Dover are
some diagenetic patterns to the classification scheme.[37]
composed of chalk.
Other descriptive terms
Travertine is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits

formed in freshwater environments, particularly hot springs.
Such deposits are typically massive, dense, and banded. When
the deposits are highly porous, so that they have a spongelike
texture, they are typically described as tufa. Secondary calcite
deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater) in
caves is also sometimes described as travertine. This produces
speleothems, such as stalagmites and stalactites.[38]
Reflecting lake in the Luray Caverns
Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of abraded of the northern Shenandoah Valley
pieces of coral, shells, or other fossil debris. When better
consolidated, it is described as coquinite.[39]
Chalk is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms
such as foraminifera, while
marl is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments.[39]
Formation
Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium,
which can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes.[40] The solubility of
calcium carbonate (CaCO
3) is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO
2) in
the water. This is summarized in the reaction:

−
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca2+ + 2HCO3

Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved CO2 and

precipitate CaCO3. Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of CaCO3, by several orders of
magnitude for fresh water versus seawater.
[41]

Near-surface water of the earth's oceans are oversaturated with CaCO3 by a factor of more than

six.[42] The failure of CaCO3 to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by
dissolved magnesium ions with nucleation of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation.
Precipitation of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic
phosphates in the water. Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of

CaCO3 precipitation in the oceans is the result of biological activity.[43] Much of this takes place on
carbonate platforms.
The origin of carbonate mud,[29] and the processes by which it is

converted to micrite,[44] continue to be a subject of research.
Modern carbonate mud is composed mostly of aragonite needles
around 5 microns in length. Needles of this shape and
composition are produced by calcareous algae such as Penicillus,
making this a plausible source of mud.[45] Another possibility is
direct precipitation from the water. A phenomenon known as
whitings occurs in shallow waters, in which white streaks
containing dispersed micrite appear on the surface of the water. An aerial view of a whiting event
It is uncertain whether this is freshly precipitated aragonite or precipitation cloud in Lake Ontario.
simply material stirred up from the bottom, but there is some
evidence that whitings are caused by biological precipitation of
aragonite as part of a bloom of cyanobacteria or microalgae.[46] However, stable isotope ratios in
modern carbonate mud appear to be inconsistent with either of these mechanisms, and abrasion of
carbonate grains in high-energy environments has been put forward as a third possibility.[29]
Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the
Phanerozoic, the last 540 million years of the Earth's history. Limestone may have been deposited by
microorganisms in the Precambrian, prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were
probably more important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium
carbonate than the modern ocean.[47]
Diagenesis
Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock. During
diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place. For example,
aragonite is converted to low-magnesium calcite. Diagenesis is the likely origin of pisoliths,
concentrically layered particles ranging from 1 to 10 millimeters (0.039 to 0.394 in) in diameter
found in some limestones. Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign
matter, fit together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the
sediments.[48]
Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature, and contributes to fossil
preservation. Silicification takes place through the reaction:

−

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 + H4SiO4 → SiO2 + Ca2+ + 2HCO3 + 2 H2O
Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert.[49]
Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically

within less than a million years of deposition. Some cementing
occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming
hardgrounds. Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea
from the depositional environment, as rainwater infiltrates the
sediment beds, often within just a few thousand years. As
rainwater mixes with groundwater, aragonite and high-
magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite.
Cementing of thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may
commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can
Akcakoca chert nodules within soft
infiltrate over 100 kilometers (60 mi) into sediments beneath the limestone
continental shelf.[50]
As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under

younger sediments, chemical and mechanical compaction of
the sediments increases. Chemical compaction takes place by
pressure solution of the sediments. This process dissolves
minerals from points of contact between grains and
redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the
limestone from an initial high value of 40% to 80% to less
than 10%.[51] Pressure solution produces distinctive styolites,
irregular surfaces within the limestone at which silica-rich
sediments accumulate. These may reflect dissolution and
loss of a considerable fraction of the limestone bed. At
Macrostylolites in a limestone.
depths greater than 1 kilometer (0.62 mi), burial
cementation completes the lithification process. Burial
cementation does not produce styolites.[52]
When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis
takes place. This produces secondary porosity as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater
infiltrating the beds. This may include the formation of vugs, which are crystal-lined cavities within
the limestone.[52]
Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is

considerable evidence of replacement of limestone by dolomite, including sharp replacement
boundaries that cut across bedding.[53] The process of dolomitization remains an area of active
research,[54] but possible mechanisms include exposure to concentrated brines in hot environments
(evaporative reflux) or exposure to diluted seawater in delta or estuary environments (Dorag
dolomitization).[55] However, Dorag dolomitization has fallen into disfavor as a mechanism for
dolomitization,[56] with one 2004 review paper describing it bluntly as "a myth".[54] Ordinary
seawater is capable of converting calcite to dolomite, if the seawater is regularly flushed through the
rock, as by the ebb and flow of tides (tidal pumping).[53] Once dolomitization begins, it proceeds
rapidly, so that there is very little carbonate rock containing mixed calcite and dolomite. Carbonate
rock tends to be either almost all calcite/aragonite or almost all dolomite.[55]
Occurrence
About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock,[2] and most of this is limestone.[16][2]
Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years.[57] However, the
compositions of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record. About
95% of modern carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite.[58] The aragonite
needles in carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within a few million years, as this
is the most stable form of calcium carbonate.[27] Ancient carbonate formations of the Precambrian
and Paleozoic contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Modern dolomite is quite rare. There is evidence that, while the modern
ocean favors precipitation of aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic
favored precipitation of calcite. This may indicate a lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those
times.[59] This magnesium depletion may be a consequence of more rapid sea floor spreading, which
removes magnesium from ocean water. The modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been
described as "aragonite seas".[60]
Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or
platforms. Such environments form only about 5% of the ocean basins, but limestone is rarely
preserved in continental slope and deep sea environments. The best environments for deposition are
warm waters, which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium
carbonate due to lower concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Modern limestone deposits are
almost always in areas with very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in the relative purity of
most limestones. Reef organisms are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains
are ground down by much harder silicate grains.[61] Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is
produced almost entirely from sediments originating at or near the place of deposition.[62]
Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness.

Large moundlike features in a limestone formation are
interpreted as ancient reefs, which when they appear in the
geologic record are called bioherms. Many are rich in fossils, but
most lack any connected organic framework like that seen in
modern reefs. The fossil remains are present as separate
fragments embedded in ample mud matrix. Much of the
sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the intertidal or
supratidal zones, suggesting sediments rapidly fill available
accommodation space in the shelf or platform.[63] Deposition is
El Capitan, an ancient limestone
also favored on the seaward margin of shelves and platforms,
reef
where there is upwelling deep ocean water rich in nutrients that
increase organic productivity. Reefs are common here, but when
lacking, ooid shoals are found instead. Finer sediments are
deposited close to shore.[64]
The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid subduction of oceanic crust, but is more a
result of dissolution of calcium carbonate at depth. The solubility of calcium carbonate increases with
pressure and even more with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide, which is produced by decaying
organic matter settling into the deep ocean that is not removed by photosynthesis in the dark depths.
As a result, there is a fairly sharp transition from water saturated with calcium carbonate to water
unsaturated with calcium carbonate, the lysocline, which occurs at the calcite compensation depth of
4,000 to 7,000 meters (13,000 to 23,000 ft). Below this depth, foraminifera tests and other skeletal
particles rapidly dissolve, and the sediments of the ocean floor abruptly transition from carbonate
ooze rich in formanifera and coccolith remains (Globigerina ooze) to silicic mud lacking
carbonates.[65]
In rare cases, turbidites or other silica-rich sediments bury and preserve benthic (deep ocean)
carbonate deposits. Ancient benthic limestones are microcrystalline and are identified by their
tectonic setting. Fossils typically are foraminifera and coccoliths. No pre-Jurassic benthic limesones
are known, probably because carbonate-shelled plankton had not yet evolved.[66]
Limestones also form in freshwater environments.[67] These limestones are not unlike marine
limestone, but have a lower diversity of organisms and a greater fraction of silica and clay minerals
characteristic of marls. The Green River Formation is an example of a prominent freshwater
sedimentary formation containing numerous limestone beds.[68] Freshwater limestone is typically
micritic. Fossils of charophyte (stonewort), a form of freshwater green algae, are characteristic of
these environments, where the charophytes produce and trap carbonates.[69]
Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional

environments.[70][71] Calcite is one of the first minerals to
precipitate in marine evaporites.[72]
Limestone and living organisms
Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms

near reefs, but the organisms responsible for reef formation have
This is a limestone mine in
changed over geologic time. For example, stromatolites are
Denmark.
mound-shaped structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as
colonies of cyanobacteria that accumulated carbonate sediments,
but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones.[73] Organisms
precipitate limestone both directly as part of their skeletons, and
indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from the water by
photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium
carbonate.[69]
Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures

found in other sedimentary rocks. However, finer structures,
such as lamination, are often destroyed by the burrowing
activities of organisms (bioturbation). Fine lamination is
Coral reef at Nusa Lembongan, Bali,
characteristic of limestone formed in playa lakes, which lack the
Indonesia
burrowing organisms.[74] Limestones also show distinctive
features such as geopetal structures, which form when curved
shells settle to the bottom with the concave face downwards. This
traps a void space that can later be filled by sparite. Geologists use geopetal structures to determine
which direction was up at the time of deposition, which is not always obvious with highly deformed
limestone formations.[75]
The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the green alga Eugamantia
sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa.[76]
Micritic mud mounds
Micricitic mud mounds are subcircular domes of micritic calcite that lacks internal structure. Modern
examples are up to several hundred meters thick and a kilometer across, and have steep slopes (with
slope angles of around 50 degrees). They may be composed of peloids swept together by currents and
stabilized by Thallasia grass or mangroves. Bryozoa may also contribute to mound formation by
helping to trap sediments.[77]
Mud mounds are found throughout the geologic record, and prior to the early Ordovician, they were
the dominant reef type in both deep and shallow water. These mud mounds likely are microbial in
origin. Following the appearance of frame-building reef organisms, mud mounds were restricted
mainly to deeper water.[78]
Organic reefs
Organic reefs form at low latitudes in shallow water, not more than a few meters deep. They are
complex, diverse structures found throughout the fossil record. The frame-building organisms
responsible for organic reef formation are characteristic of different geologic time periods:
Archaeocyathids appeared in the early Cambrian; these gave way to sponges by the late Cambrian;
later successions included stromatoporoids, corals, algae, bryozoa, and rudists (a form of bivalve
mollusc).[79][80][81] The extent of organic reefs has varied over geologic time, and they were likely
most extensive in the middle Devonian, when they covered an area estimated at 5,000,000 square
kilometers (1,900,000 sq mi). This is roughly ten times the extent of modern reefs. The Devonian
reefs were constructed largely by stromatoporoids and tabulate corals, which were devastated by the
late Devonian extinction.[82]
Organic reefs typically have a complex internal structure. Whole body fossils are usually abundant,
but ooids and interclasts are rare within the reef. The core of a reef is typically massive and
unbedded, and is surrounded by a talus that is greater in volume than the core. The talus contains
abundant intraclasts and is usually either floatstone, with 10% or more of grains over 2mm in size
embedded in abundant matrix, or rudstone, which is mostly large grains with sparse matrix. The
talus grades to planktonic fine-grained carbonate mud, then noncarbonate mud away from the
reef.[79]
Limestone landscape
Limestone is partially soluble, especially in
acid, and therefore forms many erosional
landforms. These include limestone
pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and
gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known
as karsts. Limestone is less resistant to
erosion than most igneous rocks, but more
resistant than most other sedimentary
rocks. It is therefore usually associated
with hills and downland, and occurs in
regions with other sedimentary rocks,
typically clays.[83][84]
The Cudgel of Hercules, a The Samulá cenote in
Karst regions overlying limestone bedrock
tall limestone rock in Poland Valladolid, Yucatán, Mexico
(Pieskowa Skała Castle in tend to have fewer visible above-ground
the background) sources (ponds and streams), as surface
water easily drains downward through joints in the limestone. While
draining, water and organic acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or
millions of years) enlarges these cracks, dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in
solution. Most cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Cooling groundwater or mixing of
different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.[83]
Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This
process is known as bioerosion. It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the
fossil record.[85]
Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands.
Examples include the Rock of Gibraltar,[86] the Burren in County Clare, Ireland;[87] Malham Cove in
North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight,[88] England; the Great Orme in Wales;[89] on Fårö near the
Swedish island of Gotland,[90] the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United States;[91] Notch Peak in
Utah;[92] the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam;[93] and the hills around the Lijiang River and
Guilin city in China.[94]
The Florida Keys, islands off the south coast of Florida, are composed mainly of oolitic limestone (the
Lower Keys) and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs (the Upper Keys), which thrived in the area
during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present.[95]
Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles.
The largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Öland, Sweden.[96] Another
area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden.[97] Huge quarries in
northwestern Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more
than a hundred kilometers.[98]
Uses
Limestone is a raw material that is used globally in a variety of
different ways including construction, agriculture and as
industrial materials.[100] Limestone is very common in
architecture, especially in Europe and North America. Many
landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its
associated complex in Giza, Egypt, were made of limestone. So
many buildings in Kingston, Ontario, Canada were, and continue
to be, constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone
City'.[101] Limestone, metamorphosed by heat and pressure The Megalithic Temples of Malta
such as Ħaġar Qim are built entirely
produces marble, which has been used for many statues,
of limestone. They are among the
buildings and stone tabletops.[102] On the island of Malta, a
oldest freestanding structures in
variety of limestone called Globigerina limestone was, for a long
existence.[99]
time, the only building material available, and is still very
frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures.[103]
Limestone can be processed into many various forms such as brick, cement, powdered/crushed, or as
a filler.[104] Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate
carving.[99] Ancient American sculptors valued limestone because it was easy to work and good for
fine detail. Going back to the Late Preclassic period (by 200–100 BCE), the Maya civilization
(Ancient Mexico) created refined sculpture using limestone because of these excellent carving
properties. The Maya would decorate the ceilings of their sacred buildings (known as lintels) and
cover the walls with carved limestone panels. Carved on these sculptures were political and social
stories, and this helped communicate messages of the king to his people.[105] Limestone is long-
lasting and stands up well to exposure, which explains why many limestone ruins survive. However, it
is very heavy (density 2.6[106]), making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a
building material.
Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that
era were normally made of limestone. It is used as a facade on
some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather
than solid blocks. In the United States, Indiana, most notably the
Bloomington area, has long been a source of high-quality
quarried limestone, called Indiana limestone. Many famous
buildings in London are built from Portland limestone. Houses
built in Odessa in Ukraine in the 19th century were mostly
The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of
constructed from limestone and the extensive remains of the the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
mines now form the Odessa Catacombs.[107] World had an outside cover made
entirely from limestone.
Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle
Ages in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and
commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in
Europe are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in
southern England.[108]
Limestone quarry at Cutting limestone Limestone as

Cedar Creek, blocks at a quarry in building material
Virginia, USA Gozo, Malta
Riley County Courthouse
built of limestone in
Manhattan, Kansas, USA
Limestone is used
worldwide as
building material.
A limestone plate with a negative

Limestone is the raw material for production of lime, primarily map of Moosburg in Bavaria is
known for treating soils, purifying water and smelting copper. prepared for a lithography print.
Lime is an important ingredient used in chemical industries. [109]
Limestone and (to a lesser extent) marble are reactive to acid
solutions, making acid rain a significant problem to the preservation of artifacts made from this
stone. Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid
rain.[110][111] Likewise limestone gravel has been used to protect lakes vulnerable to acid rain, acting
as a pH buffering agent.[112] Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should
only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkali-based cleaner.[113]
Other uses include:
It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide), cement and mortar.[57]
Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils (agricultural lime).[114]
Is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads as well as in asphalt concrete.[57]
As a reagent in flue-gas desulfurization, where it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution
control.[115]
In glass making, particularly in the manufacture of soda-lime glass.[116]
As an additive toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment
and a cheap filler.[117]
To suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.[118]
Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.[119]
As a calcium supplement in livestock feed, such as for poultry (when ground up).[120]
For remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to
restore essential nutrient levels.[121]
In blast furnaces, limestone binds with silica and other impurities to remove them from the
iron.[122]
It can aid in the removal of toxic components created from coal burning plants and layers of
polluted molten metals. [123]
Many limestone formations are porous and permeable, which makes them important petroleum
reservoirs.[124] About 20% of North American hydrocarbon reserves are found in carbonate rock.
Carbonate reservoirs are very common in the petroleum-rich Middle East,[57] and carbonate
reservoirs hold about a third of all petroleum reserves worldwide.[125] Limestone formations are also
common sources of metal ores, because their porosity and permeability, together with their chemical
activity, promotes ore deposition in the limestone. The lead-zinc deposits of Missouri and the
Northwest Territories are examples of ore deposits hosted in limestone.[57]
Scarcity
Limestone is a huge industrial material that is in constant demand. This raw material was and has
been essential in the iron and steel industry since the nineteenth century.[126] Companies never had a
shortage of limestone, however it was a concern as the demand continued to increase[127] and in fact
is still in high demand today.[128] The major potential threats back in the nineteenth century were
regional availability and accessibility.[126] The two main accessibility issues were transportation and
property rights. Other problems were high capital costs on plants and facilities due to environmental
regulations and the requirement of zoning and mining permits.[129] These two dominant factors lead
to the adaptation and selection of other materials that were created and formed to design alternatives
for limestone that suited economic demands.[126]
Limestone was classified as a critical raw material however, with the potential risk of shortages, it
drove industries to find new alternative materials and technological systems. This allowed limestone
to no longer be classified as critical and granted a significant impact to the construction of new
substances, minette ores is a common substitute for example.[126]
Occupational safety and health
Powdered limestone as a food additive is generally recognized as NFPA 704
safe[131] and limestone is not regarded as a hazardous material. fire diamond

However, limestone dust can be a mild respiratory and skin [130]
irritant, and dust that gets into the eyes can cause corneal 0
abrasions. Because limestone contains small amounts of silica, 1 0
inhalation of limestone dust could potentially lead to silicosis or
cancer.[130] Limestone
United States
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible
exposure limit) for limestone exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3
respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and
5 mg/m3 respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.[132]
Graffiti
Removing graffiti from weathered limestone is difficult because it is a porous and permeable
material. The surface is fragile so usual abrasion methods run the risk of severe surface loss. Because
it is an acid-sensitive stone some cleaning agents cannot be used due to adverse effects.[133]
Gallery

A stratigraphic Photo and etched Biosparite limestone A concretionary

section of section of a sample of the Brassfield nodular (septarian)
Ordovician of fossiliferous Formation (Lower limestone at
limestone exposed limestone from the Silurian) near Jinshitan Coastal
in central Kope Formation Fairborn, Ohio, U.S., National Geopark,
Tennessee, U.S. (Upper Ordovician) showing grains Dalian, China
The less-resistant near Cincinnati, mainly composed of
and thinner beds are Ohio, U.S. crinoid fragments
composed of shale.
The vertical lines
are drill holes for
explosives used
during road
construction.
Limestone from Folded limestone Fossils in limestone Limestone

Lake Tai, used in layers on Cascade from the northern distribution in Ohio,
gongshi, a Chinese Mountain in Provo Black Sea region from "Geography of
stone art Canyon, Utah Ohio," 1923
Chalk is a variety of
limestone. It is a
softer, and more
powdery material.
See also
Coral sand
In Praise of Limestone – poem by W. H. Auden
Kurkar – Regional name for an aeolian quartz calcrete on the Levantine coast
Limepit – Old method of calcining limestone
Sandstone – Type of sedimentary rock
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Further reading
Boynton, Robert S. (1980). Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone (https://archive.org/
details/rulesdistrictco00distgoog). Wiley. ISBN 0471027715.
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About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and

percentage of the mineral dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2. Magnesian Málaga, Spain

Limestone has numerous uses: as a building material, an essential

of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and

Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine

Skeletal grains have a composition reflecting the organisms that

Oncoliths resemble ooids but show a radial rather than layered

Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the

A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds

Other descriptive terms

Travertine is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca2+ + 2HCO3

The origin of carbonate mud,[29] and the processes by which it is

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 + H4SiO4 → SiO2 + Ca2+ + 2HCO3 + 2 H2O

Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert.[49]

Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically

As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under

Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is

Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness.

Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional

Limestone and living organisms

Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms

Limestone shows the same range of sedimentary structures

Micritic mud mounds

Limestone quarry at Cutting limestone Limestone as

A limestone plate with a negative

Other uses include:

Occupational safety and health

Powdered limestone as a food additive is generally recognized as NFPA 704

safe[131] and limestone is not regarded as a hazardous material. fire diamond

A stratigraphic Photo and etched Biosparite limestone A concretionary

Limestone from Folded limestone Fossils in limestone Limestone

18. Boggs 2006, p. 161-164.

76. Ehrlich, Henry Lutz; Newman, Dianne K. (2009). Geomicrobiology (https://books.google.com/boo

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