Electrical Machines II lecture notes

3rd year – undergraduate study,

Department of Electrical Engineering,
College of Engineering, University of Baghdad
Baghdad – Iraq

Prepared and presented by:

Dr. Aslan Sa. Jalal
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 Lecture contents

8- Phasor diagram of a 3-Φ IM at no – load condition.

9- Phasor diagram of a 3-Φ IM at load condition.
10- Relation between rotor copper loss, slip and rotor input power.
11- Torque developed by the 3-Φ IM.
12- Torque-slip and Torque-speed curves for a 3-Φ IM.
13- Condition of maximum torque, starting torque of a 3-Φ IM, and
the effect of increasing rotor resistance by external means.

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 8. Phasor diagram of a 3-Φ IM at no – load condition
In slip ring IM rotor circuit can be opened. Under this
condition, when stator is connected to 3-phase supply, it
draws a very small current called no-load current 𝑰𝒐 . This
current has two components i.e., active component 𝑰𝒘 and
magnetising component 𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈 . The active component is in
phase with the supply voltage and it supplies the stator iron
losses. Whereas, magnetising component lags behind the
supply voltage by 90° and produces the mutual flux which
links stator and rotor winding and induces 𝑬𝟏 and 𝑬𝟐 . The
equivalent circuit and phasor diagram are shown in figure (1).

(a)
Equivalent
circuit diagram

Figure (1): 3-Φ IM on no - load 3

 9. Phasor diagram of a 3-Φ IM at load condition
When load is applied on the IM its speed decreases
slightly and slip increases. Thus rotor current 𝑰𝟐 increases.
To meet with this load, motor draws extra current from the
supply mains similar to that of a transformer. The
complete circuit diagram and phasor diagram of a loaded
IM is shown in figure (2).

𝑗𝑋𝑚 𝑅𝑐

(a) Equivalent circuit diagram

From the circuit in figure (2-a) we have:

𝑉 𝑉
𝑋𝑚 = ; and 𝑅𝑐 =
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔 𝐼𝑤

Figure (2): 3-Φ IM on load

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 From the phasor diagrams of the 3-Φ IM shown in figures
(1-b) and (2-b), it can be seen that the magnetising current
𝑰𝒎𝒂𝒈 of the IM is quite large compared to that of a
transformer of the same power rating. This is due to the fact
that, since there is an air gap separating the stator and the
rotor, the reluctance of the air gap has the effect in
increasing the no – load magnetising current component.
This in turns makes the power factor of the IM to be
minimum at no – load condition and increases as the load
increase and becomes maximum at full load, and therefore,
it is advised to operate the IM at full load.
Thus, because of the air gap, IM draws large magnetising
current and operates at low lagging power factor.
Most of IM design research focuses on improving its
operating power factor. 5
10. Relation between rotor copper loss, slip and rotor input power
In the previous lecture it was discussed that the electrical power developed in
the rotor is converted into mechanical power (𝑷𝒎 ) which is given by the
relation:
𝟐 𝟏−𝒔
𝑷𝒎 = 𝑹′𝟐 𝑰𝟏 . W
𝒔

When this power is assigned in the rotor circuit without referring it to the stator
circuit its value will be unchanged, and is given as:
𝟐 𝟏−𝒔
𝑷𝒎 = 𝑹 𝟐 𝑰𝟐 . W
𝒔

The rotor circuit copper loss (𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 ) is given as:

𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 = 𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 W

The ratio of (𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 ) to (𝑷𝒎 ) will be:

𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝒔
= 𝟏−𝒔 ⟹ 𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 = 𝑷𝒎 . W
𝑷𝒎 𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 . 𝒔 𝟏−𝒔

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 The rotor copper loss can also be related to the input power to the rotor
(𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒓 ). The input power to the rotor is simply the sum of rotor copper loss
(𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 ) plus the mechanical power developed by the rotor (𝑷𝒎 ), and is given as:

𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐
𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒓 = 𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 + 𝑷𝒎 = W
𝒔

Hence the (𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 ) can be found using the ration given as:
𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐
= 𝟐 ⟹ 𝑷𝒄𝒖𝒓 = 𝒔. 𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒓 W
𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒓 𝑹 𝟐 𝑰𝟐
𝒔

This means that whenever the motor operating slip is known, and the input
power to the rotor (the electromagnetic transferred power to the rotor) is
known, then rotor copper loss can be predicted for a given speed.

∴ 𝑹𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒑 × 𝑹𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 W

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Example: A 10 hp, 4 pole, 25 Hz, 3-phase, wound rotor induction motor is
taking 9100 watt from the line. Core loss is 290 watt, stator copper loss is 568
watt, rotor copper loss in 445 watt, friction and windage losses are 100 watt.
Determine; (a) power transferred across the air gap; (b) mechanical power in
watt developed by rotor; (c) mechanical power output in watt; (d) efficiency;
(e) slip.
Solution:

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 11. Torque developed by the 3-Φ IM
We have already derived an equation of the shaft torque (𝑻𝒎 ) for a 3-Φ IM in
terms of rotor phase resistance referred to primary, stator current, synchronous
speed and slip, as given below:

Also, we have seen that the electrical power of a 3-Φ IM converted into
mechanical power is given by the relation:
𝟏−𝒔
𝑷𝒎 = 𝟑𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 . W
𝒔
And since the electrical power is related to the torque by the relation:
𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝑷 𝒊𝒏 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒕𝒔 = 𝑻 𝒊𝒏 𝑵𝒆𝒘𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝝎 ( )
𝒔𝒆𝒄
Then:
𝟏−𝒔 𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 𝟏−𝒔
𝝎𝒓 ∙ 𝑻𝒎 = 𝑷𝒎 = 𝟑𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐 . ⟹ 𝑻𝒎 = 𝟑 (Nm)
𝒔 𝒔 𝝎𝒓

And since: 𝝎𝒓 = (𝟏 − 𝒔)𝝎𝒔 , then:

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 𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝑰𝟐 𝟐
𝑻𝒎 = (Nm)
𝝎𝒔 𝒔
Remembering that:
𝒔𝑬𝟐𝒐 𝒔𝑬𝟐𝒐
𝑰𝟐 = = A
𝒁𝟐
𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐𝒐 𝟐
Then:
𝟐
𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝒔𝑬𝟐𝒐 𝟑 𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒐 𝑹𝟐 Τ𝒔
𝑻𝒎 = = 𝟐
(𝑵𝒎)
𝝎𝒔 𝒔 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐𝒐 𝟐 𝝎𝒔
𝑹𝟐
+ 𝑿𝟐𝒐 𝟐
𝒔
The last equation represents the 3-Φ IM torque equation at any speed or at
any slip, and at any load.
It can be noticed from the torque equation that most effective parameters on
the torque is the rotor induced voltage (𝑬𝟐𝒐 ) and the running speed (or slip).
Also, since (𝑬𝟐𝒐 ∝ 𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒙 ∅ ∝ 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 (𝑽)), then one can write:
𝟑𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝒎 = 𝒔𝒌𝑽𝟐 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌= 𝟐 𝟐
𝝎𝒔 𝑹𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐𝒐
Or
𝑻𝒎 ∝ 𝒔𝑽𝟐
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 Thus, when the supply voltage 𝑽 changes, it changes the torque 𝑻𝒎
developed by the motor under running condition. When there is a
decrease in supply voltage, torque decreases abruptly and in order to
maintain the same torque to pick up the load torque, 𝑻𝑳 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
which is unchanged, therefore slip increases or the fact is speed
decreases. Hence, the motor draws extra current from the supply mains
which may overheat the motor. If the motor is operated continuously
under this condition, it may burn. This is simply can be understood using
the following illustrating chart shown in figure (3).
Motor
V 𝑻𝒎 slip 𝒏𝒓 𝑰𝟐,𝟏 overheat and
may BURN
Figure (3): Effect of supply voltage decrease on the operation and health
of a 3-Φ IM at loading condition 11
 12. Torque-slip and Torque-speed curves for a 3-Φ IM
The torque developed by the 3-Φ IM is given by the expression below:
𝟐
𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝒔𝑬𝟐𝒐
𝑻𝒎 =
𝝎𝒔 𝒔 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐𝒐 𝟐

To obtain torque-slip and torque-speed curves, points need to be explained:

(i) At synchronous speed (𝑛𝑟 = 𝑛𝑠 ); slip, s = 0 and torque 𝑇𝑚 = 0.
(ii) When rotor speed is very near to synchronous speed i.e., when the slip is
very low the value of the term ( 𝑠𝑋2𝑜 2 ) compared to 𝑅22 and can be neglected.
Therefore, torque is given by the expression:

𝟑 𝒔𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒐 𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝒎 = 𝟐 = 𝑲𝒔, 𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝒎 ∝ 𝒔
𝝎𝒔 𝑹𝟐

Thus, at low values of slip, torque is

approximately proportional to slip s and the
torque-slip curve is a straight line, as shown
in figure (4). Figure (4): Torque-slip curve
of a 3-Φ IM 12
(iii) As the slip increases torque increases and attains its maximum value. This
maximum value of torque is known as break down or pull out torque (𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 ).
(iv) With further increase in slip due to increase in load beyond the point of
maximum torque i.e., when slip is high, the value of the term ( 𝑠𝑋2𝑜 2 ) is very
large compared to 𝑅22 . Therefore, effect of 𝑅22 can be neglected, and the torque
expression is then given as:

𝟑 𝒔𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒐 𝑹𝟐 ′
𝟏 𝟏
𝑻𝒎 = = 𝑲 , 𝒐𝒓 𝑻𝒎 ∝
𝝎𝒔 𝒔𝟐 𝑿𝟐𝟐𝒐 𝒔 𝒔

Thus, at higher value of slip (i.e., the slip beyond point M that corresponding
to maximum torque), torque is approximately inversely proportional to slip s
and the torque-slip curve is a rectangular hyperbola, as shown in figure (4).

Thus, with the increase of slip beyond the point of maximum torque, due to
increase in load, torque decrease. The result is that the motor could not pick-up
the load and slows down and eventually stops. This results in blocked rotor or
short circuited motor.

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The torque-speed curve of the motor is shown
in figure (5). It is the same curve which is
already drawn, the only difference is that
speed is taken on the abscissa instead of slip.
From the curve, it is clear that IM develops
the same torque at points X and Y. However
at point X the motor is unstable because with
the increase in load speed decreases and the
torque developed by the motor also decreases.
Therefore, the motor could not pick up the
load and the result is that the motor slows
down and eventually stops. The miniature Figure (5): Torque-speed
circuit breakers will trip if the circuit is curve of a 3-Φ IM
protected.
At point Y, the motor is stable because in this region with the increase in load
speed decreases but the torque developed by the motor increases. Thus the
motor will be in position to pick up the extra load effectively. Thus, on the
torque-speed curve region BC is the unstable region and region AB is the
stable or the operating region of the IM.
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 13. Condition of maximum torque, starting torque of a 3-Φ IM
and the effect of increasing rotor resistance by external means
Recalling the torque equation given as:
𝟐
𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝒔𝑬𝟐𝒐 𝒔𝑹𝟐
𝑻𝒎 = ⟹ 𝑻𝒎 ∝
𝝎𝒔 𝒔 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐𝒐 𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝒔𝑿𝟐𝒐 𝟐

Assuming:
𝟑 𝟐
𝑬 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝝎𝒔 𝟐𝒐
The torque developed will be maximum at a particular value of slip. As the slip
is a variable quantity, therefore, to obtain the condition for maximum torque
(𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 ), , the above expression for torque is differentiated with respect to s and
equated to zero. Therefore:
𝒅𝑻𝒎 𝑹𝟐
= 𝟎 ⟹ 𝒔𝒍𝒊𝒑 𝒔 = ; 𝑿𝟐𝒐 = 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒓𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒅𝒔 ห𝑻= 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑿𝟐𝒐
Substituting this value of slip in the torque equation gives us:
𝟑𝑬𝟐𝟐𝒐
𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝟐𝝎𝒔 𝑿𝟐𝒐
Thus, 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 is independent of 𝑹𝟐 , but it is inversely proportional to 𝑿𝟐𝒐 . 15
 Therefore, to achieve higher value of 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 , the leakage reactance of the rotor
should be kept minimum. This is achieved by:
(i) Placing the rotor conductors very near to the outer periphery of the rotor.
(ii) Reducing the air gap between stator and rotor to smallest possible
mechanical clearance.
The starting torque of 3-Φ IM can be found by substituting (s = 1) in the
torque expression such that:
𝟐
𝟑𝑹𝟐 𝑬𝟐𝒐
𝑻𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 =
𝝎𝒔 𝑹𝟐 𝟐 + 𝑿𝟐𝒐 𝟐

Sometimes maximum torque is required at start. In that case, in the condition

for maximum torque substitute the value of (s = 1) such that (𝑹𝟐 = 𝑿𝟐𝒐 ).
Thus, to obtain (𝑻𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 ), the value of rotor resistance must be equal
to rotor leakage reactance at standstill. Therefore, at start some external
resistance is added in the rotor circuit. This is only possible in case of slip ring
induction motors, see figure (6). This is the reason, why slip ring induction
motors are applied where heavy loads are required to be picked up at start such
as in lifts, cranes, elevators etc. Once the motor picks up the load, the external
resistance is gradually reduced to zero.
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 Figure (6): 3-Φ slip-ring IM equipped with starting rotor external resistance
The effect of adding the external rotor
resistance (R) is to change the slip at
which maximum torque (𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 ) occurs.
The rotor leakage reactance is
unchanged and the effect of the added
rotor resistance is shown in figure (7).
The new slip at which 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 occurs
becomes:
𝑹 + 𝑹𝟐
𝒔ห𝑻𝒎 = 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Figure (7): Effect of external added
𝑿𝟐𝒐 rotor resistance on 3-Φ slip-ring IM
𝑻𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕 = 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 when 𝑹 + 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑿𝟐𝒐 torque – slip curves 17
 In case of squirrel cage induction motors, the rotor resistance is fixed and is
kept quite low in comparison to rotor reactance, otherwise the rotor copper
losses would be high and the efficiency of the motor would fall to low value.
However to obtain higher starting torque in case of squirrel cage induction
motors another cage is embedded in the rotor and the motor is called a double
cage induction motor, see figure (8). Bars of high resistance and low reactance
are placed in the outer cage, and bars of low resistance and high reactance are
placed in the inner cage. The outer cage has high 'reactance to resistance ratio'
whereas, the inner cage has low 'reactance to resistance ratio.

Figure (8): Double cage rotor of a 3-Φ IM

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Figure (9): Lamination shape used Figure (10): Torque-speed curve of a
in double cage rotor of a 3-Φ IM double cage rotor 3-Φ IM

Figure (11): Equivalent circuit of a double cage rotor 3-Φ IM 19

End of Lecture 19

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