Root-locus Technique for Control Design

Control Engineering – I
Third Year
Electrical Department
 Introduction

Stability and characteristics

Locations of the closed-loop
of transient response of
poles (C.L.P)
closed-loop systems

Problems to solve characteristic equation Q(S)=1+G(S)H(S)=0

1. Difficult for systems of third or higher order.
2. Tedious for varying parameters.

2
 Varying the loop gain K

R(s) Y(s) The open-loop gain K is an

K G (s) important parameter that
-
can affect the performance
H(s) of the system

In many systems, simple gain adjustment may move the

closed-loop poles to desired locations.
Then the design problem may become the selection of an
appropriate gain value.
It is important to know how the closed-loop poles move in the
s plane as the loop gain K is varied.

3
 Root Locus (RL)
The locus of roots of the characteristic equation of the closed-loop
system as a specific parameter (usually, loop gain K) is varied form 0 to ∞.

The advantages of RL approach:

Ø 1. Avoiding tedious and complex roots’ solving calculation.
Ø 2. Clearly showing the contributions of each open-loop poles or zeros to
the location of the closed-loop poles.
Ø 3. Indicating the manner in which the open-loop poles and zeros should
be modified so that the response meets system performance
specifications.

4
 Starting by an example
Consider a second-order system shown as follows:

R(s) k Y(s) Closed-loop TF:

- s ( s + 1) k
f (s) = 2
s +s+k
Characteristic equation (CE): s +s+k =0
2

- 1 ± 1 - 4k 1 1
Roots of CE: s1, 2 = = - ± 1 - 4k
2 2 2
The roots of CE change as the value of k changes.
When k changes from 0 to ∞, how will the locus of the roots of CE move?
5
 1 1
s1,2 =- ± 1 - 4k , k : 0 ® ¥ k®¥
2 2
k＝0 s1 = 0 s 2 = -1
k =0 k =0
-1 1 -1/2 0
0 < k < 1/ 4 As the value of k increases, k=
the two negative real roots 4
move closer to each other.
k®¥
k＝1/ 4 s1 = s 2 = -1 / 2
1/ 4 < k < ¥ A pair of complex-conjugate roots leave the negative real-axis
and move upwards and downwards following the line s=-1/2.

On the s plane, using arrows to denote the direction of characteristic roots

move when k increases, by numerical value to denote the gain at the poles.

6
By Root loci, we can analyze the system behaviors

(1)Stability:
ًWhen Root loci are on the left half plane, then the system is
definitely stable for all k>0.

(2)Steady-state performance:
There’s an open-loop pole at s=0, so the system is a type-I system. The
steady-state error is
0 under step input signal.
R/Kv under ramp signal.
∞ under parabolic signal.

7
(3)Transient performance:
There’s a close relationship between root loci and system behavior:
on the real-axis: k<0.25 underdamped;
k=0.25 critically damped
k>0.25 underdamped.
However, it is difficult to draw the root loci directly by closed-loop
characteristic roots-solving method.

The idea of root loci is by knowing the open-loop

transfer function, drawing the closed-loop root loci
directly.
Relationship between zeros and poles of open-
loop transfer function G(s)H(s) and closed-loop
ones:
R(S) Y(s)
G(s)
-

H(s)

Forward path TF: G (s) Feedback path TF: H (s)

G (s)
Closed-loop transfer function C.L.T.F. f (s) =
1 + G (s) H (s)
9
To draw Closed-loop root locus is to solve the CE

1 + G(s) H (s) = 0
That is
G ( s ) H ( s ) = -1 RL equation

Suppose that G(s)H(s) has m zeros (Zi) and n poles（Pi), the

above equation can be re-written as:
m
K Õ (s - Zi )
G ( s) H ( s) = i =1
n
= -1 as K varies from 0 to ∞
Õ (s - P )
i =1
i

10
 m
K Õ (s - Zi )
RL equation: G ( s) H ( s) = i =1
n
= -1
Õ (s - P )
i =1
i

Since G(s)H(s) is function of a complex variable s, the root locus equation can
be described by the following two equations:
Magnitude equation (ME) Angle equation (AE)
m
K Õ s - Zi m n

i =1
=1
å Ð( s - Z ) - å Ð( s - P )
i =1
i
i =1
i
n

Õi =1
s - Pi = (2l + 1)p , l = 0, ±1, ±2,!

Magnitude equation is related not only Angel equation is only related to zero
to zeros and poles of G(s)H(s), but and poles of G(s)H(s).
also to loop gain K.
Use AE to draw root locus and use ME to determine the value of K
on root loci. 11
Example 1
K (t s + 1) K ' = Kt / T1T2 2
G( s) H ( s) =
s(T1 s + 1)(T2 2 s 2 + 2z T2 s + 1)
wd = 1 - z 2 T2
K ' ( s + 1/ t )
= wn = 1/ T2
s( s + 1/ T1 )( s + zwn + jwd )( s + zwn - jwd )

Poles of G(s)H(s)（×） p1 = 0 p2 = -1/ T1 p 3, 4 = -zw n ± jwd

Zeros of G(s)H(s)（〇） z1 = -1 / t
For a point s1 on the root loci, use AE
1 4
ÐG ( s1 ) H ( s1 ) = å Ð( s - zi ) - å Ð( s - pi )
i =1 i =1

= f1 - (q1 + q 2 + q 3 + q 4 )
Use ME
s1 × s1 - p 2 × s1 - p3 × s1 - p 4 Angel is in the
K =
'
direction of anti-
s1 - z1
clockwise
12
Example 2 K
Unity-feedback transfer function: G (s) =
s
*One pole of G(s)H(s): p1 = 0
*No zero.
*Test a point s1 on the negative real-axis
m n

å Ð( s - z ) -å Ð( s - p ) |
i =1
i
i =1
i s1

= -Ðs1 - p1 = -180!

All the points on the negative real-axis are on RL.

m n
*Test a point outside the
negative real-axis s2=-1-j
å Ð( s - z ) -å Ð( s - p ) |
i =1
i
i =1
i s2

= -Ðs2 - p1 = 135!
All the points outside the negative real-axis are not on RL. 13
 Probe by each point:
1. Find all the points that satisfy the Angle Equation on the s-
plane, and then link all these points into a smooth curve, thus
the system root locus when k changes from 0 to ∞ is obtained.
2. For a given k, find the points that satisfy the Magnitude
Equation on the root locus, then these points are required
closed-loop poles.
However, it’s unrealistic to apply such “probe by each
point” method.
W.R. Evans (1948) proposed a set of root locus drawing
rules which simplify the drawing work.
 Rules to draw regular root locus
(suppose the varying parameter is open-loop gain K)

Properties of Root Locus

Ø K=0 and K=∞ points of Root Locus
Ø Number of Branches on the RL
Ø Symmetry of the RL
Ø Root Loci on the real-axis
Ø Asymptotes of the RL
Ø Breakaway and break-in points on the RL
Ø Departure angle and arrival angle of RL
Ø Intersection of the RL with the imaginary axis
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1- K = 0 and K = ¥ points
Root loci originate on the poles of G(s)H(s) (for K=0) and terminates
on the zeros of G(s)H(s) (as K=∞).
m
K Õ ( s - Zi )
RL - Equation: G( s) H ( s) = i =1
n
= -1
Õ (s - P )
i =1
i

m n
K Õ s - Zi Õ s-P i
Magnitude Equation: i =1
n
=1 K＝ i =1
m

Õ s-P
i =1
i Õ s-Z
i =1
i

K =0 ® s = Pi àRoot loci start from poles of G(s)H(s)

K =¥ ® s = Zi àRoot loci end at zeros of G(s)H(s)

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 2 Number of branches on the RL
For nth-order system, RL have n starting points and n branches (each open-
loop pole O.L.P. is a source of a RL branch at k=0, each branch terminates
at an open-loop zero O.L.Z. at K= ∞).
m
K Õ ( s - Zi )
RL Equation: G( s) H ( s) = i =1
n
= -1
Õ (s - P )
i =1
i

Ø Since the order of the characteristic equation is n àas K varies from 0

to ∞, n roots changeàn root locus branches.
Ø For a real physical system, the number of poles of G(s)H(s) are
usually more than zeros，i.e. n > m.
v n root locus branches start at open-loop poles（finite poles)
v m root locus branches end at open-loop zeros（finite zeros)
v (n－m) root locus branches end at (n－m) infinite zeros in the direction
of asymptotes. 17
 3 Symmetry of the RL
The RL are symmetrical with respect to the real axis of the s-plane.

Ø The roots of characteristic equation are either real or

complex-conjugate.

Ø Therefore; it is satisfactory to draw only the RL on the upper

half s-plane and on the real-axis, the rest can be obtained by
plotting its mirror image.

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 4 Parts of RL on the Real Axis
On a given section of the real axis, RL for k>0 are found in such section only if
the total number of poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) to the right of that section is odd.

zero：z1 poles：p1、p2、p3、p4、p5
Pick a test point s1 on [p2，p3]
1 5
ÐG ( s1 ) H ( s1 ) = å Ð( s1 - zi ) - å Ð( s1 - pi )
i =1 i =1

?ó ÐG ( s1 ) H ( s1 )＝(2l + 1)180°

The sum of angles provided by every pair of complex

conjugate poles are 360°;
The angle provided by all the poles and zeros on the right
of s1 is 180°
The angle provided by all the poles and zeros on the left of s1 is 0°
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Example
Consider the following open-loop transfer function:
K ( s + 1)( s + 4)( s + 6)
G(s) H (s) =
s ( s + 2)( s + 3)
2 2

Determine its root loci on the real axis.

jw
Poles: Zeros:
Repeated poles: S-plane

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0

On the right of [-2，-1] the number of real zeros and poles =3

On the right of [-6，-4], the number of real zeros and poles =7

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5 Asymptotes of RL
When n ≠ m, there will be 2|n-m| asymptotes that describe the behavior
of the RL at |s|=∞.
m
K Õ ( s - Zi )
RL Equation: G( s) H ( s) = i =1
n
= -1
Õ (s - P )
i =1
i

Ø The angles between the asymptotes and the real axis are:
(2i + 1)180°
ja = Where: i= 0，1，2，…, (n-m-1)
n-m
Ø The asymptotes intersect the real axis at：
n m

åp - åzi i
s a＝ i =1 i =1

n-m 21
Example
Consider the following loop transfer function
K (0.25s + 1) K * ( s + 4)
G (s) H (s) = =
s ( s + 1)(0.2s + 1) s ( s + 1)( s + 5)
Determine the asymptotes of its root loci.
Three poles：0、-1、-5
One zero：-4
The asymptotes intersect the real axis at n-m = 3 -1 = 2
n m

åp - åz i i
(0) + (-1) + (-5) - (-4)
s a＝ i =1 i =1
= = -1
n-m 3 -1
The angles between the asymptotes and the real axis are

(2i + 1)180°
ja = , i = 0,1 ja = 90! , 270!
n-m 22
Example Consider the following loop transfer function:
K ( s + 1)
G(s) H (s) =
s ( s + 4)( s 2 + 2 s + 2)
Determine the asymptotes of its root loci.

Four poles：0, -1+j, -1-j, -4 n-m=4-1=3

One zero：-1
The asymptotes intersect the real axis at
n m

å p -åzi i
s a＝ i =1 i =1

n-m
(0) + (-1 + j ) + (-1 - j ) + (-4) - (-1) 5
= =-
4 -1 3

The angles between the asymptotes and the real axis are
(2i + 1)180° j a = 60! ,180! , 300!
ja = , i = 0,1,2
n-m 23
6 Breakaway points on the RL
Breakaway points on the RL correspond to multi-order roots of the RL
equation.
The breakaway points on the RL are determined by finding the roots of
dK/ds=0 or dG(s)H(s)=0.
jw
p3
[s]

p2 p1
0 s

p4 24
Example The poles and zeros of G(s)H(s) are shown in the following
figure, determine its root loci.
jω
Rule 1, 2 & 3à
RL have three branches ， starting from
poles 0, -2, -3，ending at on finite zero -1
-3 -2 -1 0 σ and two infinite zeros. The RL are
symmetrical with respect to the real axis.

Ruel 4àThe sections [-1,0] and [-3,-2] on the real axis are RL.
Rule 5àThe RL have two asymptotes(n－m＝2)
(2i + 1)180° n m
ja =
n-m
= 90°, 270° åp - åz i i
0 + (-2) + (-3) - (-1)
s a＝ i =1 i =1
= = -2
i = 0,1 n-m 2
Rule 6àThe RL have breakaway points on the real axis (within[-3,-2])
1 1 1 1
＝ ＋ ＋ s b = -2.47
s b＋1 s b - 0 s b＋2 s b＋3
25
Example G ( s) H ( s) =
K
s ( s + 4)( s 2 + 4 s + 20)

jω Rule 1, 2, 3 & 4 à n=4, m=0

j4 § The RL are symmetrical with respect to the
real axis
§ The RL have four branches which start
from poles 0,-4 and -2±j4
§ The RL end at infinite zeros
§ The section [-4,0] on the real-axis is RL
0 σ
-4 -2 Rule 5à The RL have four asymptotes.
(2l + 1)180°
ja = (l = 0,1, 2,3)
n-m
-j4 = 45°， 135°, 225°，315°
n m

åp - åzi i
0 + (-4) + (-2)＋(-2)
s a＝ i =1 i =1
= = -2
n-m 4
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Example K
G ( s) H ( s) =
s ( s + 4)( s 2 + 4s + 20)

jω Rule 6à The breakaway point of

j4
the RL
K
1 + G ( s) H ( s) = 1 + =0
s ( s + 4)( s + 4 s + 20)
2

K = - s ( s + 4)( s 2 + 4s + 20)
-4 -2 0 σ = -( s 4 + 8s 3 + 36 s 2 + 80 s )
dK
= -(4 s 3 + 24 s 2 + 72 s + 80) = 0
ds

-j4 s b1 = -2

s b 2, 3 = -2 ± j 2.45

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7 Angles of departure and angles of arrival of the RL
The angle of departure or arrival of a root locus at a complex pole
or zero, respectively, of G(s)H(s) denotes the angle of the
tangent to the locus near the point.

28
Angle of Departure:
m n
q pj＝(2l + 1)p＋å Ð( p j - zi ) - å Ð( p j - pi ), l = 0, ±1,!
i =1 i =1
i¹ j

Pick up a point s1 that is close to p1

Applying Angle Equation (AE)
Ð( s1 - z1 ) - Ð( s1 - p1 ) - Ð( s1 - p2 ) - Ð( s1 - p3 ) =
(2l + 1)p

s1àp1 Ð( s1 - p1 ) àangle of departure θp1

q p1＝(2l + 1)p ＋Ð( p1 - z1 ) - Ð( p1 - p2 ) - Ð( p1 - p3 )

29
Angle of Arrival:
n m
j zj＝(2l + 1)p＋å Ð( z j - pi ) - å Ð( z j - zi ), l = 0, ±1,!
i =1 i =1
i¹ j

30
Example Consider the following loop transfer function
Ks
G ( s) H ( s) =
( s + 1) ( s - 1)
2

Determine its RL when K varies from 0 to ∞

Three poles P1,2= -1(repeated poles) P3= 1. One zero Z1=0，n-m=2.
Three branches & 2 asymptotes
n m
jw
åP -åZ i i
-1 - 1 + 1 - 0
sa = i =1 i =1
= = -0.5
n-m 3 -1

(2l + 1)p p 3p
fa = = , -1 -0.5
n-m 2 2 1

Angle of departure:
p p 3p
q pl = (2l + 1)p + p - p - = ,
2 2 2
31
8 Intersection of the RL with the Imaginary Axis
The characteristic equation may have roots on jw-axis and the system
then is marginally stable.
The intersection points of characteristic equation with the imaginary axis
may be obtained by either of two methods, as illustrated below:

Method 1 Using Routh’s criterion to obtain the value of K when

the system is marginally stable, then get ω from K.

Method 2 Substituting jw-axis equation into CE and solve for w

s = jw ® 1 + G( s) H ( s) = 0 ® 1 + G( jw ) H ( jw ) = 0
ìRe[1 + G ( jw ) H ( jw )] = 0
í ®w
îIm[1 + G ( jw ) H ( jw )] = 0
32
Example Consider the following loop transfer function
K
G( s) H ( s) =
s ( s + 1)( s + 2)
Determine the intersection of the RL with Im-axis.
Method 1
Closed-loop CE: s( s + 1)( s + 2) + K = s 3 + 3s 2 + 2 s + K = 0
Routh’s Array:

s3 1 2 Marginally stable at:

K =6
s2 3 K
1 6- K Auxiliary equation P(s) :
s 0
3 3s + 6 = 0
2

s0 K
Intersection points: s=±j 2 33
Example Consider the following loop transfer function
K
G( s) H ( s) =
s( s + 1)( s + 2)
Determine the intersection of the RL with imaginary axis.
Method 2
Closed-loop CE:s( s + 1)( s + 2) + K = s 3 + 3s 2 + 2 s + K = 0
s = jw →Closed-loop CE ® 1 + G ( jw ) H ( jw ) = 0
( jw )3 + 3( jw ) 2 + 2( jw ) + K = ( K - 3w 2 ) + j (2w - w 3 ) = 0

Real par t : K - 3w 2＝0

w =± 2 K =6
Imaginary part: 2w - w 3＝0
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