International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51

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International Journal of Impact Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijimpeng

Lattice discrete particle modeling of plain concrete perforation

responses
TagedPD1X XJun FengD2Xa,X *, D3X XWenjin YaoD4Xb,c
X , D5X XWeixin LiDd6X X , D7X XWenbin LiD8XbX
a
TagedP National Key Laboratory of Transient Physics, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
c
Temasek Laboratories, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637553, Singapore
d
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA

TAGEDPA R T I C L E I N F O TAGEDPA B S T R A C T

Article History: This paper numerically investigates the large-caliber hard projectile perforation of plain concrete slab with
Received 3 March 2017 steel culvert confinement by using the recently developed Lattice Discrete Particles Model (LDPM). With
Revised 22 May 2017 mesoscale constitutive laws governing the interaction between adjacent particles, LDPM simulates concrete
Accepted 26 May 2017
features like cohesive fracture, strain hardening in compression and compaction due to pore collapse. The
Available online 1 June 2017
perforation simulation model is established with LDPM for concrete, elastoplastic model for steel culvert
and penalty contact for projectile-concrete interaction. Simulation of 5 shots concrete perforation tests are
TagedPKeywords:
carried out to validate the numerical model, and the numerical results are in good agreement with the
Concrete perforation
Steel culvert
experimental data in terms of residual velocities as well as target damage mode. Extensive simulations are
Lattice discrete particle model further performed to investigate the effects of aggregate discretization, steel culvert confinement and diam-
Residual velocity eter size on perforation responses. Comparative numerical study indicates that with culvert confinement,
Damage mode the projectile residual velocity is significantly reduced except for perforation case with 0.3 m thickness tar-
get. Meanwhile, crack fills the 0.6 m diameter target which poses less resistance to projectile impact.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
TagedPCharacterized with high compressive strength, easily shaping,
considerable durability and low cost, concrete material has been
widely used in most of human civilization, including buildings, high-
way bridges, offshore platforms and civil defense etc. During their
service life, these concrete structures might be exposed to high
intensity extreme loadings due to projectile impact and explosion.
Therefore, it is of great importance to understand the behavior of
concrete structures subjected to impact loadings. Extensive perfora-
tion and penetration tests [1
7] have been performed to explore the
mechanism of the impact response on the concrete target. Based on
which various empirical, semi-empirical and analytical formulae
[8
13] have been developed to analyze the deep penetration and
perforation problems. As computation becomes increasingly power-
ful, numerical simulation tools such as finite element method (FEM)
[14
17], extended finite element method [18], discrete element
method [19,20], smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) [21
23],
material point method [24,25], reproducing kernel particle method
(RKPM) [26,27] and various meshfree methods [28
32] are
* methods, do not rely on a structured mesh topology to compute the
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: fengjunandrew@gmail.com (J. Feng), njyaowj@163.com
(W. Yao), w.li@u.northwestern.edu (W. Li), lwb2000cn@njust.edu.cn (W. Li).
TagedPmotivated by the high cost of undertaking impact concrete tests and
the ease of material properties effects evaluation.
TagedPThe presence of extreme material distortion and failure still
remains a challenge in computational mechanics. Lagrangian struc-
tured-mesh methods, for example the finite element method,
exhibit mesh sensitivity and subjectivity in the presence of severe
material deformation during penetration modeling. Techniques like
element erosion have been developed as a non-physical treatment
[33]. In contrast, Eulerian finite difference and finite volume meth-
ods are more resilient in modeling large deformation and flow [34],
however their fixed grid generally produces error because they fail
to accurately identify transient contact surfaces and free surface for-
mation. This leads to significant limitations when material breakage
or fracture is dominant. The complex constitutive description of con-
crete material under high pressure, high stain rate and high temper-
ature is also an important aspect issue. Target material undergoes
fracture, compaction and high confinement shear etc. Advancements
are being made toward multiscale descriptions of material failure,
where behavior is described according to the fundamental mecha-
nisms at finer scales [35,36].
TagedPDiscrete element methods, in contrast to traditional mesh-based
discrete numerical solution. Consequently, large deformation as well
as crack initiation and propagation can be naturally captured

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijimpeng.2017.05.017
0734-743X/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
40 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51
TagedPwithout requiring the non-physical treatments like element dele-
tion. By modeling concrete through a discrete system of beams, van
Mier and coworkers [37
39] assigned different material properties
to the lattice elements. The mesoscale lattice models provide realis-
tic simulations of concrete cracking and fracture propagation
[40
43]. Building on the successful developments of lattice model
and discrete element method, Cusatis et al. [44] proposed a compre-
hensive mesoscale discrete model entitled Lattice Discrete Particle
Model (LDPM). Capable of simulating the tensile fracture and dam-
age in compression, the mesoscale discrete model is then exten-
sively calibrated and validated in quasi-static regime [45]. Later,
Cusatis [46] extended the LDPM to include the strain-rate effects
which has been applied to dynamic simulations including Hopkin-
son bar test, perforation and penetration analysis of high perfor-
mance fiber reinforced concrete [20,47]. Therefore, LDPM is utilized
in this work to numerically study the response of hard projectile
perforation of plain concrete target.
TagedPUnder projectile impact loading, concrete target experiences
extreme high strain rates which requiring an accurate numerical
model with a better understanding of the time-dependent mechani-
cal behavior of concrete. In most cases, the rate effect is quantified
through the Dynamic Increase Factor (DIF) defined as the ratio
between the dynamic properties of interest and the associated
quasi-static value. The DIF curves are generally obtained by inter-
ploting between experimental data with huge scatter. Moreover, the
rate effect incorporation with constitutive equations is implemented
by multiplying DIF curve function by the model parameters. The
method however is not correct since it fails to distinguish between
‘intrinsic’ phenomena included in the constitutive laws, and ‘appar-
ent’ phenomena which are structure features of the response
[15,46,48]. The most important component leading to the concrete
strain-rate effect behavior attributes to the inertia effects. As pointed
by Cusatis [46], as long as inertia is correctly accounted for in the
interpretation of experimental results and the numerical simula-
tions, no inertia effects should be included in the constitutive equa-
tions.
TagedPWith reference to perforation tests conducted by Li et al. [6], this
article briefly introduces the LDPM formulations and parameter
meanings which is then used in the numerical models together with
penalty contact. As a consequence, 5 sets of large-caliber hard pro-
jectile perforation simulations are performed and validated by com-
parison of residual velocities and target damage mode. Further
simulations are carried out to analyze the effects of aggregate discre-
tization, steel culvert confinement and diameter scale on the perfo-
ration responses.
Fig. 1. LDPM polyhedral particles and cell distretization for a typical dogbone specimen.
2. Review of the Lattice Discrete Particle Model (LDPM)
TagedPAccording to Ref. [44], LDPM model generation procedure and
governing constitutive equations are explained in the following four
subsections.
2.1. LDPM model construction
TagedPConcrete meso-scale structure is modeled by LDPM through the
following steps:
TagedP Spherical aggregate generation is the first step which is carried
out assuming that each aggregate piece can be approximated as
a sphere. Under this assumption, the following spherical aggre-
gate size distribution function proposed by Stroeven [49] is con-
sidered
qdq0
f ðdÞ ¼ ð1Þ
½1
ðd0 =da Þq dqþ1
in which da and d0 are the maximum and minimum spherical aggre-
gate size, respectively, and q is a material parameter. It can be shown
[49] that Eq. 1 is associated with a sieve curve (percentage of spheri-
cal aggregate by weight retained by a sieve of characteristic size d)
in the form

nf
d
f ðdÞ ¼ ð2Þ
da
where nf ¼ 3
q. For nf ¼ 0:5; Eq. (2) corresponds to the classical
Fuller curve [50] which for its optimal packing properties, is exten-
sively used in concrete technology. Considering concrete cement
content c, water-to-cement ratio wa/c, specimen volume, maximum
da and minimum d0 spherical aggregate size along with the consid-
ered distribution function Eq. (1), the spherical aggregate system
can be generated using a random number generator.
TagedP By using a try-and-error random procedure, spherical aggregate
pieces are introduced into the concrete volume from the largest
to the smallest size. Fig. 1(a) shows the spherical aggregate sys-
tem generated for a typical dogbone specimen.
TagedP Delaunay tetrahedralization of the spherical aggregate piece
centers is employed to define the interactions of the spherical
aggregate system (Fig. 1(b)).
TagedP Finally, a three-dimensional domain tessellation anchored to the
Delaunay tetrahedralization is carried out to create a system of
polyhedral particles interacting through triangular facets, and a
lattice system composed of the line segments connecting the
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51 41

TagedPspherical aggregate centers. Fig. 1(c) shows the final polyhedral TagedP eyond pore collapse (
ɛV ɛc1 ). In this case one has s bc ¼ s c1 ðrDV Þ exp
b
particle discretization of the dogbone specimen. ½ð
ɛV
ɛc1 ÞHc ðrDV Þ=s c1 ðrDV Þ and s c1 ðrDV Þ ¼ s c0 þ ðɛc1
ɛc0 ÞHc ðrDV Þ.

TagedPFriction due to compression-shear. TagedPThe incremental shear stresses

rates are computed as t_ M ¼ ET ðe_ M
e_ M Þ and t_ L ¼ ET ðe_ L
e_ L Þ;
p p
2.2. LDPM kinematics _ p _ _ p _
where eM ¼ λ@’=@s M ; eL ¼ λ@’=@s L ; and λ is the plastic multiplier
with loading-unloading conditions expressed through the Karush

TagedPThe triangular facets forming the rigid polyhedral particles are
Kuhn
Tucker conditions: qλ_ ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
0; ’ ffi
0 and λ_ ’ ¼ 0. The plastic
assumed to be the potential material failure locations. Each facet is
potential is defined as ’ ¼ s 2M þ s 2L
s bs ðs N Þ; where the nonlinear
shared between two polyhedral particle and is characterized by a
frictional law for the shear strength is assumed to be
unit normal vector n and two tangential vectors m and l [44]. Accord-
s bs ¼ s s þ ðm0
m 1 Þs N0 ½1
expðs N =s N0 Þ
m 1 s N ; s N0 is the tran-
ingly, three strain components are defined on each triangular facet
sitional normal stress; m0 and m1 are the initial and final internal
using Eqs. (1) and (2), which for LDPM gives
friction coefficients.
nT vuC b mT vuC b lT vuC b
ɛN ¼ ; ɛM ¼ ; ɛL ¼ ð3Þ
l l l
2.4. Strain rate dependence in LDPM
where vuC b is the displacement jump vector calculated at the facet
centroid, l is the length of the tetrahedron edge. It is noted that the TagedPThe rate dependence of concrete behavior in LDPM is assumed to
LDPM constitutive equations explained in the next section are inde- be caused by two different physical mechanisms. The first is a
pendent of facet curvatures. It was recently demonstrated that the dependence of the fracture process on the rate of crack opening, and
mesoscale strain defined in Eq. (3) corresponds to the local reference the second is the viscoelastic deformation of the intact (unfractured)
system projection of Green-Lagrange strain tensor of continuum cement paste.
mechanics [51,52]. TagedPWith reference to the theory formulated by Bazant [53], the frac-
ture is considered as a thermally activated phenomenon governed
2.3. LDPM constitutive equations by the classical Maxwell
Boltzmann equation. The dependence of
the cohesive behavior on the crack opening rate can be expressed as:
TagedPIn the elastic regime, the normal and shear stresses are pro- 

portional to the corresponding strains: s N ¼ EN ɛN ; s M ¼ ET ɛM ; s L w_
s ch ðw; w_ Þ ¼ 1 þ c1 arcsinh f ðwÞ ð4Þ
¼ ET ɛL ; where EN ¼ E0 ; ET ¼ aE0 ; E0 is the effective normal modulus, c0
and a ¼ shear-normal coupling parameter. In LDPM, the reversible where s ch is the cohesive stress, w is the crack opening, w _ is the
elastic behavior is limited by a number of nonlinear boundaries crack opening rate, f(w) is the cohesive law under static condition, c0
which is characterized by softening for pure tension and shear-ten- is the reference crack opening rate and c1 is the strain rate coeffi-
sion, as well as plastic hardening for pure compression and shear cient.
compression. TagedPThe elastic strain rate can be negligible compared to the crack
opening rate during softening [46], hence the LDPM effective strain
TagedPFracturing behavior. F
TagedP or fracture behavior characterized by normal can be written as ɛ_ ¼ w=l _ þ s_ =E0  w=l.
_ _ in Eq. (4)
Substituting w
strains (eN > 0), the fracturing evolution is formulated through the by l_ɛ ; LDPM boundary condition be modified as:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  
effective strain, ɛ ¼ ɛ2 þ aðɛ2M þ ɛ2L Þ; and the effective stress, s ¼ 〈ɛ
ɛ ð_ɛ ; vÞ〉
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi N s bt ðɛ; ɛ_ Þ ¼ Fð_ɛ Þs 0 ðvÞ exp
H0 ðvÞ exp max 0 ð5Þ
s 2N þ ðs M þ s L Þ2 =a; where the normal and shear stresses are s 0 ðvÞ
defined as s N ¼ ɛN ðs =ɛÞ; s M ¼ aɛM ðs =ɛÞ; s L ¼ aɛL ðs =ɛÞ. The effec- where ɛ0 ðɛ_ ; vÞ ¼ Fð_ɛ Þs 0 ðvÞ=E0 ; and the function Fð_ɛ Þ follows from
tive stress s is incrementally elastic, in rate form s_ ¼ E0 ɛ_ ; and Eq. (4):
must satisfy the inequality 0
s
s bt(e, v). The boundary s bt 

ɛ_
evolves exponentially as a function of the maximum effective Fð_ɛ Þ ¼ 1 þ c1 asinh ð6Þ
c0 =l
strain of the loading history emax=maxt
t[e(t )], s bt ¼ s 0 ðvÞ exp
½
H0 ðvÞ〈ɛmax
ɛ0 ðvÞ〉=s 0 ðvÞ where Macaulay q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 〈x〉 ¼ maxf
bracket
pffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffi
x; 0g; tanðvÞ ¼ ɛN = aɛT = s N a=s T ; and ɛT ¼ ɛ2M þ ɛ2L . When the
3. Numerical modeling of concrete perforation
maximum effective strain reaches its elastic limit e0(v), the fractur-
ing damage starts to decay the boundary s bc with the post peak
TagedPThe concrete targets used in the perforation tests conducted by Li
softening modulus defined as H0 ðvÞ ¼ Ht ð2v=pÞnt ; where Ht is the
et al. [6] were C30 concrete material with 5 mm to 15 mm diameter
softening modulus in pure tension (v ¼ p=2) expressed as
quartz aggregates. Normalized to the cement density, each compo-
Ht ¼ 2E0 =ðlt =le
1Þ; lt ¼ 2E0 Gt =s 2t ; le is the length of the tetrahedron
nent density ratios for the C30 concrete mixture design are summa-
edge; and Gt is the mesoscale fracture energy. LDPM provides a
rized and listed in Table 1. After 40 days curing process, the samples
smooth transition between pure tension and pure shear (v ¼ 0) with
 were performed uniaxial compression test and the average compres-
parabolic variation for strength
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi given by s 0 ðvÞ ¼ s t rst2
sinðvÞ þ sive strength was measured as 34.3 MPa. The dry density of the con-
3
sin2 ðvÞ þ 4a cos2 ðvÞ=rst2 Þ = ½2a cos2 ðvÞ; where rst ¼ s s =s t is the crete samples is reported to be 2420 kg=m . To generate the target
ratio of shear strength to tensile strength. plates, the concrete were casted in the steel culvert rings with
approximately 1.2 m inner diameter and 3 mm thickness. Five con-
TagedPPore collapse and subsequent compaction. TagedPNormal stresses for compres- crete targets were made with thickness of 0.3 m, 0.4 m, 0.5 m, 0.6
sive loading (eN < 0) are computed meeting the inequality
s bc ðɛD ; ɛV Þ m and 0.7 m for the preparation of 5 shots perforation tests.

s N
0; where s bc is the boundary function of the volumetric strain eV
and the deviatoric strain eD. Beyond the mesoscale compressive yield Table 1
Normalized concrete mixture [6].
stress s c0,
s bc models pore collapse as a linear evolution of stress for
increasing volumetric strain with stiffness Hc for
ɛV
ɛc1 ¼ kc0 ɛc0 : Cement Water Sand Aggregate
s bc ¼ s c0 þ 〈
ɛV
ɛc0 〉Hc ðrDV Þ; Hc ðrDV Þ ¼ Hc0 =ð1 þ kc2 〈rDV
kc1 〉Þ; kc1, 1.0 0.44 1.26 2.45
kc2 are material parameters. Compaction and rehardening occur
42 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51
Fig. 2. Projectile geometry and dimension [6].
TagedPThe ogival nose projectile, with 64 mm caliber and 3 caliber-
radius-head (CRH) as dimensioned in Fig. 2, was launched to acquire
a normal striking velocity of about 400 m/s. As mentioned by
Li et al. [6], the projectiles were machined from heat treated
35CrMnSiA alloy which is supposed to have high strength and
toughness.
3.1. Perforation simulation scheme
TagedPSince the high strength steel alloy projectiles suffered a negligible
deformation during the perforation process as reported in Ref. [6].
This work chooses to model the projectile as a rigid body for the
sake of computational cost. The foregoing introduced LDPM is
adopted herein to describe the concrete material response. While
the steel culverts confining the concrete targets are modeled by FEM
via an elastoplastic material law with Young’s modulus of 200 GPa
and yield stress of 500 MPa. Meshed by hexahedral blocks of 20 £
10 £ 3 mm dimension, the 0.3 m thick culvert ring is divided into
9450 elements.
TagedPThis work adopts the penalty-function contact model to compute
the normal contact force between the concrete particle system and
the rigid projectile as illustrated in Fig. 3. The penalty force Fn is
assumed to be proportional to the normal penetration Pn: Fn ¼ K  Pn
where K represents the linear spring stiffness [54]. The contact force
is always normal to the contact pair surface and resists the projectile
moving forward. The time step Dt is used in conjunction with the
minimum mass mmin of the nodes participating in the contact to
define the penalty spring stiffness K ¼ mDmin t2
. The explicit algorithm
used in LDPM requires the time step must satisfy Dt < 2/vhf where
vhf is the highest natural frequency of the computational system
[44]. Here we choose Dt ¼ 3  10
7 s; and the penalty spring stiffness
is of the order of magnitude of 108 N m
1 which is sufficient to avoid
overlapping problem in impact simulation. Similarly, the culvert
Fig. 3. Diagramme of penalty contact between concrete and projectile.
rTagedP ing FEM nodes are also constrained to the aggregate particles with
penalty-function contact.
3.2. Selected LDPM parameters
TagedPAccording to the information in Table 1, the concrete mixture
proportion by weight is characterized by cement content
c ¼ 470 kg/m3, water to cement ratio wa =c ¼ 0:44; aggregate to
cement ratio a=c ¼ 3:71; minimum aggregate size 5 mm, maxmum
aggregate size 15 mm, Fuller coefficient nF ¼ 0:5 which are input
information for LDPM particle generation. Take simulation of test
No. 1 in Table 2 for example, a total number of 422,890 particles and
2,515,260 tetrahedrons are employed to discretize the concrete tar-
get where the surface contains 124,060 triangular facets.
TagedPWith reference to the parameters provided by Cusatis et al. [45],
the listed LDPM parameters are justified to meet the 34.3 MPa
for 15-cm-cube concrete specimen: normal elastic modulus
E0 ¼ 35000 MPa, densified normal modulus Ed ¼ E0 ; shear-normal
coupling parameter a ¼ 0:25; tensile strength s t ¼ 3:2 MPa, yielding
compressive stress s c0 ¼ 60 MPa, shear strength s s ¼ 2s t ; tensile
characteristic length lt ¼ 200 mm, softening exponent nt ¼ 0:2; ini-
tial hardening modulus Hc0 ¼ 0:4E0 ; transitional strain ratio kc0 ¼ 4;
initial internal friction coefficient m0 ¼ 0:17; internal asymptotic
friction coefficient m 1 ¼ 0; transitional stress s N0 ¼ 200 MPa,
deviatoric-to-volumetric strain ratio kc1 ¼ 1; and kc2 ¼ 5.
TagedPThe hydrostatic compression response, shown in Fig. 4(a), is
obtained by LDPM simulation with a cylinder specimen of 150 mm
diameter and 300 mm height. In the case of dydrostatic compres-
sion, three transitions can be observed in the stress-strain curve. The
behavior is elastic up to the first transition point corresponding to
the beginning of the voids collapse. Then the nonlinear response
develops up to the second transition that corresponds to the fully
compaction [55]. After that, the stress exponentially increases due to
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51
Table 2
Comparisonof perforation tests and numerical predictions.
No. Projectile mass (kg) Target thickness (m) Striking velocity (m/s)
1 5.040 0.3 405.7
2 5.052 0.4 400.8
3 5.304 0.5 415.4
4 5.036 0.6 405.1
5 4.986 0.7 411.9
TagedPthe comminution response. By keeping the lateral confinement pres-
sure constant, the triaxial compression response is achieved with
axial displacement control in numerical modeling. For confining
pressures of 50 MPa, 100 MPa, 150 MPa and 200 MPa, the axial
stress versus axial strain curves are plotted in Fig. 4(b). Since the
shear yield criterion of concrete material is pressure dependent, the
higher confining pressure will induce the axial response to exhibit
strain-hardening. This pressure-dependent inelastic property is a
typical response for concrete like granular material which is primar-
ily controlled by the heterogeneity of grain skeleton [56].
3.3. LDPM simulation validation
TagedPIn this section, we evaluate the numerical performance of LDPM
for the simulation of plane concrete perforation via the crack pattern
and residual velocity. The numerical results of projectile residual
velocities are listed in Table 2 for 5 different impact tests. In general,
LDPM predicted projectile residual velocities after perforation tar-
gets with different thickness match the experimental measured data
with less than 10% error. It is to be noted that both experimental and
numerical results show nonperforation for shot test No. 5. Although
the rear surface shear plugging occurs, the projectile remained
embedded in the target with approximately 0.57 m depth of pene-
tration predicted by LDPM. Ref. [6] did not give the penetration
depth of test No. 5, but the rear crater was measured about 0.27 m
and most of the projectile nose tip was exposed from the back view.
Therefore, we may estimate the shot No. 5 experimental depth of
penetration is about 0.54 m which agrees well with the predicted
value by LDPM simulation.
TagedPThe curves of projectile deceleration versus time for perforation
simulations with thickness 0.3 m, 0.4 m, 0.5 m and 0.6 m are plot-
ted in Fig. 5 with 4 different colors. Due to the similar striking veloc-
ity and mass, the peaks of deceleration curves are almost identical
even though the target thickness is different. For thicker perforation
cases, the penetration time lasts much longer, especially for the case
with 0.6 m thickness target. After perforation through 0.6 m target,
Fig. 4. LDPM simulation of concrete material triaxial response.
43
Measured Residual Velocity (m/s) LDPM prediction (m/s)
250 265
221 211
150 169
30 27
0 0
tTagedP he projectile exits with approximately 30 m/s residual velocity. For
this impact condition, 405 m/s striking velocity is very closed to the
ballistic limit which is defined as the minimum velocity needed to
perforate the target plate with no residual velocity [20,57]. Cavity
expansion theory indicates that the penetration resistance depends
on the expansion velocity projected from penetration velocity and
the triaixal mechanical response of target material [9,58]. As the
scabbing on the rear surface occurs, the resistance acting on the pro-
jectile nose becomes smaller as a result of free surface boundary
reflected tensile stress degradation on the concrete material. More-
over, the low penetration velocity (approximately 30 m/s) further
decrease the resistance. These two main factors both contribute to
the long tail in the velocity versus time curve for 0.6 m target perfo-
ration case. With reference to Wu et al. [59], the energy profile
obtained from the impact simulation is analyzed hereby. As shown
in Fig. 6, the system total energy, the projectile kinetic energy and
the internal energy, including elastic energy stored by the target and
dissipated energy due to plastic work, are depicted with normaliza-
tion to the original total energy. The loss in the total energy is limited
within 3%, therefore the energy conservation is satisfied in this sim-
ulation system.
TagedPThe cross section views of crack opening distribution inside the
concrete targets are plotted in Fig. 7 with color bar ranging from 0.1
to 2 mm for visualization. Projectile crush is very obvious for targets
with 0.3 m, 0.4 m and 0.5 m targets since the residual velocities are
relatively high. Meanwhile, numerical results of perforation cases
with 0.6 m and 0.7 m reveal that the concrete target rear surface
fragments are plugged by the low velocity projectile punch. In other
words, the projectile may move forward together with the concrete
fragmented pieces (Fig. 7(d)) and plugged blocks (Fig. 7(e)).
TagedPFront and rear surface damage comparison of experimental and
numerical results are plotted in Fig. 8. Since the damage mode is
symmetric, we merge the snapshots of front and rear surface
obtained from perforation experiment and simulation in Fig. 8(a)

(f) for comparison. Numerical results match with the experimental
damage in terms of radial cracks distribution as well as crater shape
44 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51
Fig. 5. Projectile deceleration versus time.
TagedPand size. For 0.3 m and 0.4 thickness target perforation scenarios,
both experimental and numerical results indicate that the rear crater
contour size is larger than the front one, as shown in Fig. 8(a)
(d).
This may due to the reason that the rear surface is damaged mainly
by crush and plug while the front surface crater is generated by nob-
bing. Fig. 8(e) shows an asymmetrical crater shape for experiment,
which occurs might due to the heterogeneity. What is notable is that
the projectile fails to perforate 0.7 m thickness target the plug zone
is featured by an irregular shape as shown in Fig. 8(g). Fortunately,
LDPM constructs the meso-structure of concrete target by randomly
distributing the aggregate particle inside the body which accounts
for the anisotropy in mesoscale. The rear surface plug zone numeri-
cally obtained is quite closed to the shape of experimental results by
rotating 90° in counter-clockwise direction.
TagedPRabczuk and Belytschko [31] proposed a meshfree method using
Lagrangian kernels for initial simulation stage and switching to
Eulerian kernels for cracking and large deformation. Capturing mate-
rial fracture behavior including crack branching, the combined
meshfree method is applied to model perforation and penetration
tests performed by Unosson and Nilsson [2] whereby the 75 mm
diameter ogival nose projectile were fired at concrete cylinder target
Fig. 6. Energy profile during perforation response.
TagedP ith 1.4 m diameter and 0.8 m thickness. Except the concrete
w
strength, the projectile scale and target dimension of experiment
1:3 in Ref. [2] are similar to that of shot No. 5 investigated in this
work. To compare Rabczuk and Belytschk’s meshfree method with
LDPM, the numerical achieved crack patterns are plotted together in
Fig. 9. The Lemaitre model, with isotropic damage depending on the
effective strain, was employed by Rabczuk and Belytschk to describe
the concrete material. So the cracks are treated as damaged zones in
Fig. 9(a) which is different from the crack openings in LDPM derived
from the gaps between facets. Because the aggregate anisotropy is
accounted for, LDPM numerical result reveals the unsymmetric crack
pattern which is more realistic. Moreover, both the impact surface
crater area and radial crack distributions matches well with each
other.
3.4. Further analyses of LDPM simulation
TagedPIt is important to have an inside view of the stress distribution of
the target to better understand the impact response. With 0 to 40
MPa range, Fig. 10 demonstrates the internal stress as well as cracks
distributions of the target at 1st millisecond where the topside and
rearside view with the central plane cut of the target is plotted. It is
observed from Fig. 10(a) and (d) that the high pressure is mainly
concentrated near the projectile nose zone due to the resistance
against penetration. While the Mises stress distribution in Fig. 10(b)
and (e) gives a good approximation of the damaged zone owing to
the shear failure criterion. The crack openings are plotted in Fig. 10
(c) and (f) where the fragments are more realistic. It is worth noting
that the localized cracks in red colors correspond to the contour of
Mises stress distribution.
TagedPSince the front and rear cratering is a typical phenomenon
observered in perforation test, we further discuss the perforation
process with the LDPM numerical simulation of shot test No. 4. The
typical sequences of the perforation event are shown in Figs. 11 and
12 at every 1 ms. In cross section view, Fig. 11 plots the snapshots of
concrete target internal crack openings (ranging from 0.1 to 5 mm),
meanwhile Fig. 12 depicts concrete material velocities distribution
(ranging from 0 to 10 m/s) evolution history. At the first millisecond,
the projectile totally penetrate into the concrete target body, and
Fig. 11(a) shows that the front crater has not formed yet which
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51 45

Fig. 7. Cross section view of internal damage for perforation simulations.

Fig. 8. Damage comparison of LDPM simulation and experimental observation.

TagedPagrees with the initial cratering region captured by high speed cam-
era captured photograph in Ref. [60]. Fig. 12(a) suggests that the
conical zone near the front surface has high spalling velocity to form
the front crater and the concrete material surrounding the projectile
nose is driven by the projectile to obtain high speed velocities. At
the second millisecond, the cracks propagate to the rear surface as
well as steel culvert boundary as shown Fig. 11(b) and Fig. 12(b)
gives a more obvious description of both front crater and back crater
formation tendency. Due to the low velocity, the projectile moves
forward ‘slowly’ to perforate the target. At the fifth millisecond, rear
crater segments are apparently separated from the target in Fig. 11
(e). Together with material velocity distribution in Fig. 12(e), we can
figure out the front and rear crater zones of LDPM perforation simu-
lation.
4. Perforation response discussion
TagedPWith the validated numerical model for perforation simulation,
this section further explores the perforation response influenced by
factors like steel culverts and cylinder diameter size. For penetration
TagedPtest No. 5, the target is not perforated by the projectile, this section
only concentrates on perforation cases with 0.3 m, 0.4 m, 0.5 m
and 0.6 m thickness targets.
4.1. Effect of discretization
TagedPDifferent from particle of Galerkin method [59] or element of
FEM, the aggregate particle sphere in LDPM is not only used for dis-
cretization but also contains the information of concrete meso-
structure which is related to the fracture energy and softening mod-
ulus of constitutive laws. In order to evaluate the aggregate size as
well as its distribution, we analyze the particle size diameter d0, da
and the Fuller coefficient nF with the simulation of shot No. 1. Table 3
lists 6 sets of discretization schemes and the corresponding curves of
cumulative distribution of Eq. (1) are plotted in Fig. 13.
TagedPWith different discretizations, the numerical predicted projectile
residual velocities of shot No. 1 vary as listed in Table 3. Discretiza-
tions Nos. 1
3 are featured by aggregate particles of different maxi-
mum and minimum sizes. With cylinder specimens of 150 mm
diameter and 300 mm height, the triaxial compression simulations
46 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51

Table 3
Shot No. 1 LDPM simulations with different
discretizations.

No. d0 (mm) da (mm) nF Vr (m/s)

1 5 15 0.5 265
2 5 10 0.5 268
3 10 15 0.5 265
4 5 15 0.35 270
5 5 15 0.65 260
6 8 12 0.5 275

TagedPof discretization Nos. 1
3 are performed with 20 MPa confinement

Fig. 9. Crack pattern of LDPM simulation compared to numerical result by Rabczuk
and Belytschko.
pressure. As plotted in Fig. 14(a), the finer particles exhibit slightly
greater axial stress. Consequently, the corresponding projectile
velocity evolution curves in Fig. 15(a) almost overlaps with each
other. Comparing discretization No. 1 with Nos. 4 and 5, the effect of
Fuller coefficient poses more significant effect on the triaxial

Fig. 10. Internal visualization of target at 1st millisecond.

Fig. 11. Cross section view of crack opening distribution at each 1 ms.
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51
Fig. 12. Cross section view of concrete material velocity distribution at each 1 ms.
TagedPresponse (see Fig. 14(b)) and penetration resistance (see Fig. 15(b)).
To be specific, concrete targets with smaller Fuller coefficient con-
crete targets can better resist the impact loadings. This phenomenon
is contributed by the discretization size effect on the softening mod-
ulus. Discretization Nos. 1 and 6 are characterized with different size
ranges but same medium value of d0 and da. From Fig. 14(c) and
Fig. 15(c), it is interesting to find that the more uniform discretiza-
tion shows a softer triaxial compression response which may stems
from the size effect. As shown in Table 3, the residual velocity, corre-
sponding to discretization 6, increases by 15 m/s for the interested
perforation.
Fig. 13. Discretization scheme.
Fig. 14. Triaxial compression with 20 MPa confinement of different discretizations.
47
4.2. Effect of steel culverts (SC)
TagedPThe steel culverts in the perforation test were used to cast the
concrete material as a container and also confine the cylinder target
lateral surfaces in radial direction. For each thickness, 2 sets of simu-
lations are performed herein: confined by 3 mm thickness steel cul-
vert and without any steel culvert. Then, this section compares and
further analyzes the damage mode as well as residual velocities of
cylinder target perforations caused by the culvert confinement
effect.
TagedPThe lateral steel culverts confinement alter the drag force
acting on the projectile nose to some extent. The confinement
effect is evaluated through the projectile deceleration curves
during the perforation process, as shown in Fig. 16. It is con-
cluded that the steel culvert poses negligible effect on the
projectile deceleration for perforation simulation with 0.3 m
thickness. Meanwhile, the steel culvert effect on the drag force
is apparent for perforation cases with 0.4 m, 0.5 m and 0.6 m
thickness. This phenomenon may stems from the penetration
response time duration. The thinner the concrete target, the less
time duration will last which ends even before the boundary
reflected stress waves start to affect the local impact zone mate-
rial. This may also account for the significant difference occur-
ring to deceleration after the peak of perforation simulations
with and without steel culverts. Table 4 provides numerically
obtained perforation residual velocities for targets with different
conditions. There is slight difference for residual velocities for
0.3 m thickness target perforations with and without a steel
48 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51

Fig. 15. Shot No. 1 projectile velocity evolutions of simulations with different aggregate discretizations.

Fig. 16. Numerical comparison of steel culvert effect on the projectile deceleration.

TagedPculvert. On the contrary, 0.4 m, 0.5 m and 0.6 m thickness target TagedPTo analyze the steel culvert effect on the concrete target damage
perforation simulation results indicate that the residual velocity mode, this work compares the front and rear surface damage of
rises by 36 m/s, 56 m/s and 119 m/s due to the lack of effect of 0.6 m thickness cases as plotted in Fig. 17. As revealed in Fig. 17(a)
steel culvert reinforcement. and (b), the front surface damage of target without steel culvert is

Fig. 17. Numerical damage comparison of 0.6 m thickness target perforation.

Table 4
Numerical comparison of perforation with different target conditions.

No. Target thickness (m) 1.2 m diameter without steel culvert 1.2 m diameter with steel culvert 0.6 m diameter with steel culvert

1 0.3 266 265 274

2 0.4 247 211 230
3 0.5 225 169 206
4 0.6 146 27 93
 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51
TagedPdominated by localized radial cracks meanwhile the main cracks
occurring to the steel culvert confined target is in circumferential
direction. For the concrete perforation cases without steel culvert,
the free boundary condition allows the cylinder target to expand in
radial direction which causes radial cracks initiation when circum-
ferential tensile stress reaches fracture or tensile yield strength. The
circumferential cracks may result from the reflected stress provided
by the steel culvert confinement. Similarly, the rear surface damage
mode is also mainly featured by radial cracks and circumferential
cracks for target with and without steel culvert. The steel culvert
confinement poses more resistance on the projectile body, thus the
residual velocity is 146 m/s and 27 m/s as listed in Table 4. The rear
crater is caused by low velocity projectile plug for steel culvert con-
fined target while the rear crater of free lateral target is formed by
projectile crush since the residual velocity is much higher.
4.3. Effect of slab diameter size
TagedPTo investigate the diameter effect on the perforation response,
we perform perforation simulations with 0.6 m and 1.2 m diameter
cylinder for each slab thickness. The comparative analysis is then
performed to shed some light on the target scale effect on the perfo-
ration response.
TagedPNumerical results of projectile deceleration versus penetration
depth for 4 thickness cases are plotted in Fig. 18. It is notable that
the projectile deceleration data has not decreased to zero when the
projectile penetration depth reaches the plate thickness. Rather the
drag force vanishes until the penetration depth is near target thick-
ness plus 100 mm which corresponds to the position where projec-
tile nose fully perforate the target. The LDPM simulation of projectile
deceleration curves indicate that the rare crater is generated by the
projectile crush for perforation cases. In other words, the con-
crete fragments behind the target rear surface may still pose
resistance on the projectile until the whole projectile nose part
fully exits the target. Table 4 gives the detailed projectile
Fig. 18. Numerical comparison of target diameter effect on the projectile deceleration.
Fig. 19. Numerical damage comparison of 0.4 m thickness target perforation.
49
TagedPresidual velocities for 4 sets of perforations with 0.6 m and
1.2 m target thickness. Due to the concrete degradation caused
by localized pulverization damage, projectile residual velocities
corresponding to targets with 0.6 m thickness get increased by
9 m/s, 19 m/s, 37 m/s and 66 m/s, respectively.
TagedPFor targets with 0.4 m thickness, Fig. 19 shows front and rear sur-
face damage mode difference caused by diameter scale. The crater
zones in Fig. 19(a) and (c) almost fill the whole front and rear target
surfaces due to the localized reflected and superimposed stress
waves. Although, the crater sizes of 0.6 m diameter targets are
reduced owing to the smaller surface. The damage however is more
server comparing Fig. 19(a) and (b).
TagedPAs depicted in Figs. 20 and 21, the cross section diagrams of the
0.4 m thickness targets are comparaed in terms of crack distribu-
tions and concrete material velocity distributions. Obvious deforma-
tion occurring to the steel culverts of 0.6 m diameter targets can be
observed from Fig. 20(a) and Fig. 21(a). For 0.6 m diameter cases, the
opening cracks almost fill the whole concrete target cross section
due to the comminution damage and the rear crater zone reaches
the steel culvert boundary. The reduction of diameter size will cause
the concrete target to suffer structure damage and become less pro-
tective against projectile impact.
5. Conclusion
TagedPThe recently developed Lattice Discrete Particle Model (LDPM) is
adopted in the present article for the simulation of the hard projec-
tile perforation of the plain concrete slab confined by a steel culvert.
Based on the results of the LDPM numerical simulations, the follow-
ing conclusions can be drawn out. (1) The employed mesoscale dis-
crete element model is able to realistically predict the projectile
residual velocities and crater contour for all 5 slab thicknesses. (2)
The rear crater fragments are crushed by high velocity projectile,
while the low residual velocity projectile poses a plug effect on the
rear target separated blocks. The front crater is generated after the
50 J. Feng et al. / International Journal of Impact Engineering 109 (2017) 39
51

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