MARK 30053

MARKETING RESEARCH
COMPILED BY:

MS. MA. TERESA H. BAUTISTA

Instructor 1, PUP CABIAO CAMPUS

MS. CRISELDA P. CORONADO

Instructor 1, PUP CABIAO CAMPUS

1
 INTRODUCTION

This module deals with the study of the planning, collection and analysis of data relevant to marketing decision making and
communicating the results of this analysis to management. This further deals with the function which the consumer, customer and
public to the marketer through information that is used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine
and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance and improve understanding of marketing as a process.

The successful entrepreneurs must adapt to an ever-changing business environment. In an everyday aspect of running a
business, a company must consider the following aspects: materials, inflation, economic recessions, unemployment, and technological
changes. A profitable company/industry must respond to the market with its products/services and advertising as well. The critical
tool for measuring the market and keeping competitive is effective marketing research. In this module, you will learn the marketing
research tools to be successful entrepreneur.

Business owners and managers often identify problems they need help to resolve. With this situation, additional information
typically is needed to make a decision or to solve a problem. One solution is the marketing research based on a scientific research
process. This module also provides an overview of the research process as well as a preview of some of the core topics.

Once you have created a research problem, you have to develop a research question. A research question will give you a
research direction. From the research question, a hypothesis or hypotheses can be formulated to guide the research. A hypothesis
should include a statement about the relationship between two or more variable and should carry clear implications for testing the
stated relationship. For example, you might need to know if and how the customers’ positive and negative product and negative product
expectations are confirmed or disconfirmed upon product use.

At the end of this module, the student will be able to perform the basic functions of management such as planning, organizing,
staffing, directing, and controlling; plan and implement business related activities; and prepare operational plans and analyze the
business environment for strategic direction.

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Table of Contents
SYLLABUS....................................................................... i
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING RESEARCH .................. 1
Introduction............................................................................... 1
Type of Marketing Research ................................................. 2
Types of Qualitative Research .............................................. 4
Quantitative Research ............................................................ 5
Types of Quantitative Research............................................ 6
Qualitative Research Designs ............................................... 6
Purpose of Research .............................................................. 7
CHAPTER 2 .................................................................... 8
RESEARCH PROBLEM ............................................................. 8
Introduction............................................................................... 8
How to formulate the research problem............................... 8
The Research Process ........................................................... 9
The Research Problem ........................................................ 11
Guidelines in the Selection of Research Problem ............ 12
Problem Energizer ................................................................ 14
Research title ......................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 3 .................................................................. 17
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING (CHAPTER 1)............ 17
Introduction............................................................................. 17
Conceptual Framework ........................................................ 19
Statement of the Problem .................................................... 20
Hypothesis .............................................................................. 22
CHAPTER 4 .................................................................. 26
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES
(CHAPTER 2) ............................................................................ 26
Introduction ............................................................................. 26
Review of Related Literature and Studies ......................... 26
Types of Sources................................................................... 27
Paraphrasing .......................................................................... 28
Paraphrasing Techniques .................................................... 28
CHAPTER 5 .................................................................. 29
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (CHAPTER 3) ..................... 29
Introduction ............................................................................. 29
Criticism of Data .................................................................. 36
CHAPTER 6 (CHAPTER 4) .......................................... 47
ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF
DATA ........................................................................................... 47
Introduction ............................................................................. 47
Analysis ................................................................................... 49
Scope of the Interpretation................................................... 51
CHAPTER 7 (CHAPTER 5) .......................................... 52
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
...................................................................................................... 52
Introduction ............................................................................. 53
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 The Summary of Findings .................................................... 53
Conclusions ............................................................................ 55
Steps in Making Conclusion ................................................ 55
Recommendations ................................................................ 56
Sample Bibliography: APA ....................................................... 58

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 Republic of the Philippines
POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES
Cabiao Campus
San Roque, Cabiao, Nueva Ecija

SYLLABUS
COURSE TITLE MARKETING RESEARCH
COURSE CODE MARK 30053
CREDIT UNITS 3 Units
COURSE PRE- None
REQUISITE
COURSE This course deals with the study of the planning, collection and analysis of data relevant to marketing
DESCRIPTION decision making and communicating the results of this analysis to management. It further deals with the
function which the consumer, customer and public to the marketer through information that is used to identify
and define marketing opportunities and problems; generate, refine and evaluate marketing actions; monitor
marketing performance and improve understanding of marketing as a process.
Institutional Learning Outcomes Programs Outcomes Course Objectives
1. Creative and Critical Thinking Apply the basic concepts that • Appreciate marketing research as a course;
underlie each of the functional • Examine closely the relevance of the theories of strategic
areas of business (marketing, marketing research process;
finance, human resources • Develop/design a marketing program for a product to build
management, production an its brand equity; and
operation management, • Analyze marketing decision – making skill on marketing
information technology, and research.
strategic management) and
employ these concepts in
various business situations
Select the proper decision-
making tools to critically,
analytically and creatively solve
problems and drive results.
Analyze the business
environment for strategic
direction

i
2. Effective Communication
3. Strong Service Orientation
4. Community Engagement
5. Adeptness in the Responsible
Use of Technology
6. Passion to Life-Long Learning
7. High Level of Leadership and
Organizational Skills
8. Sense of Personal and
Professional Ethics
9. Sense of Nationalism and
Global Responsiveness
Express oneself clearly and
communicate effectively with
stakeholders both in oral and
written forms.
Demonstrate corporate
citizenship and social
responsibility
Manage a strategic business unit
for economic sustainability
Apply information and
communication technology (ICT)
skills as required by the business
environment
Innovate business ideas based
on emerging industry
Conduct business research
Generate new knowledge using
research and development
projects.
Perform the basic functions of
management such as planning,
organizing, staffing, directing,
and controlling
Plan and implement business
related activities
Prepare operational plans
Work effectively with other
stakeholders and mange conflict
in the workplace
Exercise high personal moral
and ethical standards
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COURSE PLAN

Week Topic Learning Outcomes Methodology Resources Assessment

1 Introduction to Marketing Research Define marketing Lecture • Basic Quiz
a. Define marketing research research Group Report Marketing Activity
b. Type of research Identify and discuss the Small-group Research: Assignment
c. Qualitative and quantitativetypes of research Discussion Volume 1,
research Identify and discuss the Smith S.M.,
d. Purpose of research tools in marketing Albaum, G.S.,
research 2012
2 Research Process and Problem Discuss the research Lecture • Cooper, D. Quiz
Formulation process and explain the Group Report (2015). Activity
Research Design: Exploratory Research various types Business Assignment
Distinguish between Research Sample
exploratory, descriptive Methods, 12th observation
and causal research Edition. research
designs McGraw Hill.
Identify and explain the • McCarthy, C.
major components of a and Perreault,
research proposal W. (2012).
3–4 2.Preliminaries to Research ➢ Identify sources of ➢ Lecture Essentials of Quiz
a. Research Problem research problem ➢ Discussion Marketing: A Activity
b. Guidelines in Selection of ➢ Enumerate and Activity Marketing Assignment
Research Problem explain the Strategy Title Proposal
c. Problem Energizer characteristics of a Planning
d. Research Title good research Approach,
e. Characteristics of research problem 13th Edition.
title ➢ Submit research McGraw Hill
f. Sample Research Problem titles International
➢ Synthesize Publication
collected literature • Cooper, D.
and studies about and
the chosen Schindler, P.
research title (2011).
Business
Research

iii
 Methods, 11th
Edition.
McGraw Hill
Publication
5–6 The Problem and Its Setting (Chapter 1) ➢ Analyze the Lecture • Cooper, D. Quiz
Parts different parts of Discussion (2015). Activity
i. Introduction Chapter 1 Business Assignment
ii. Theoretical framework ➢ Enhance Research
iii. Conceptual framework understanding in Methods, 12th
iv. Statement of the writing Chapter 1 Edition.
Problem (Objectives) ➢ write complete McGraw Hill.
v. Hypothesis/Assumption Chapter 1 • McCarthy, C.
vi. Scope and Limitations and Perreault,
vii. Significance W. (2012).
viii. Definition of Terms (if Essentials of
technical) Marketing: A
Marketing
7 Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature ➢ Collect related Lecture Strategy Quiz
and Studies literature Discussion Planning Activity
2.1 Thematic Literature based on the ➢ Enhance Group defense Approach, Assignment
variables being studied understanding of 13th Edition. Chapter 1
2.2 Citation Format the variables being McGraw Hill
included in the International
study Publication
Write citation properly • Cooper, D.
8 Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature ➢ Collect related Lecture and Quiz
and Studies literature Discussion Schindler, P. Activity
2.1 Thematic Literature based on the ➢ Enhance Group (2011). Assignment
variables being studied understanding of presentation Business Chapter 2
2.2 Citation Format the variables being Research
included in the Methods, 11th
study Edition.
➢ Write citation McGraw Hill
properly Publication
9 – 10 Chapter 3: Research Methodology ➢ Write the reason in Workshop Quiz
3.1 Research Designs choosing the Group defense Activity

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 • Descriptive Research Method research • Carpenter, Assignment
o Broad View of Descriptive methodology Thomas G., Chapter 3
Research Library
o Importance of Descriptive
Research
o Classification in
Descriptive Research
o Analysis in Descriptive
Research
o General Steps in
Descriptive Studies
3.2 the Experimental Method
• Characteristics of an experiment
• Individual method and group
technique of experimental studies
3.3 The Historical Research
• Value of history
• Process in historical research
• Sources of historical data
Criticism of data
11 The population and Sampling Technique Differentiate the Workshop Quiz
a. Sampling technique population from the Activity
b. Types of sampling sample Assignment

➢ Compute for the

sample size of an
identified group of
respondents
12 The respondents Identify the Lecture Quiz
respondents for their Discussion Activity
research proposal Workshop Assignment
13 Instrument used Enumerate the rules in Lecture Quiz
a. Good instrument writing a research Discussion Activity
b. Research made instruments instrument Workshop Assignment
Validation of Instrument Draft a research
Data Gathering Procedures instrument

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14 Statistics in Research Compute statistical Lecture Quiz
a. Descriptive statistical tools data for descriptive Discussion Activity
b. Measures of central tendency statistic and inferential Problem Assignment
c. Measures of variability or scatter statistics solving
significance
Statistical inference
15 Writing the Research Report Submit research Quiz
Main body or text of the research proposal Activity
proposal Submit Assignment
a. Chapter 1 projects/compilation Chapters 1 - 3
b. Chapter 2
c. Chapter 3
16 Chapter 4 - Analysis, Presentation and Lecture Quiz
Interpretation of Data Group Activity
Reporting Assignment
Chapter 4
17 Chapter 5 – Summary, Conclusions and Lecture Quiz
Recommendations Group Activity
Reporting Assignment
Chapter 5
18 Wrap-up: Oral defense of research Prepare the research Group defense Presentation
proposal paper for research Analyzation
proposal
18 FINAL EXAMINATION

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COURSE GRADING SYSTEM:
FORMULA

Class Standing*70% + Major Exam *30% = Midterm Grade

Class Standing*70% + Major Exam *30% = Final Grade
Midterm Grade + Final Grade = General Average
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WHERE:
CLASS STANDING 70%
Quizzes 40%
Assignments/Activities 60%
Total 100%
MAJOR EXAM 30%

Enhanced by: Received by: Noted by:

Ma. Teresa H. Bautista, MEM Jenny Q. Estingor, MEM Fernando F. Estingor, MSIT
Instructor 1 Academic Head Satellite Campus Director

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO MARKETING RESEARCH

Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

Define marketing research

Identify and Discuss the types of research
Identify and discuss the tools in marketing research.

Introduction

The successful entrepreneurs must adapt to an ever-changing business

environment. In an everyday aspect of running a business, a company must consider the
following aspects: materials, inflation, economic recessions, unemployment, and
technological changes. A profitable company/industry must respond to the market with
its products/services and advertising as well. The critical tool for measuring the market
and keeping competitive is effective marketing research. In this chapter, you will learn
the marketing research tools to be successful entrepreneur.

What is Marketing Research?

The American Marketing Association defines marketing research as the function

that links an organization to its market through the gathering of information. This
information facilitates the identification and definition of market-driven opportunities and
problem, as well as the development and evaluation of marketing actions. Finally, it
enables the monitoring of marketing performance and improved understanding of
marketing as a business process. Organizations use marketing research information to
identify new product opportunities, develop advertising strategies, and implement new
data-gathering methods to better understand customers.

Marketing research is the application of the scientific method in searching for the
truth about marketing phenomena. Research applications include defining marketing
opportunities and problems, generating and evaluating marketing ideas, monitoring
performance, and generally understanding the marketing process. Marketing research is
more than conducting surveys. The process includes ideas and theory development,
problem definition, searching for and collecting information, analyzing data, and
communicating the findings and their implications.

Marketing research is the systematic process of collecting, recording, and

analyzing the information relevant to finding solutions to a problem in the field of

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marketing. There are different types of Marketing Research classified on the basis of the
research objective for which the study is to be carried out and the sources of a data used
to gather the information. The widely used classification of marketing research is based
on the functional objectives of the research and are identified as: descriptive, exploratory,
predictive, and causal research.

The Use of Research

Some researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge,

whereas others use it to solve specific problems. Let’s consider the differences between
fundamental/basic research and applied research.

1. Fundamental research seeks to extend the boundaries of knowledge in a given

area and doesn’t necessarily solve your immediate problems. Nevertheless, it has
useful applications. It reveals information and relationships that could be useful at
a later date. for example, the Green Yogurt company conducted fundamental
research about consumer preferences for certain combination of fruits, nuts, and
caramel that differ in sugar type and strength of sweetness.
2. Applied research gathers information to solve a specific problem or set of
problems. For instance, customers engaged in a blind taste test would respond
with what they specifically liked or disliked about business plan, focus on
advertising campaign, or improve the product.

Fundamental and Applied Research Compared

The procedures and techniques utilized by fundamental and applied researchers

do not differ. Both employ scientific method to answer the questions at hand. The
community is the primary consumer of fundamental research and the consumers of
applied research findings are practitioners such as teachers, caseworkers, or decision
makers. The applied researchers have an obligation to translate findings from scientific
technical language into the language of decision makers or practitioners.

Type of Marketing Research

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 1. Exploratory Market Research: The researcher uses the exploratory research
when he has a very little information about the research problem and needs to gain
insights about it before finding the solutions to it. It requires the researcher to clear
his concept, gain insights, formulate problems, eliminate impractical ideas and
formulate a hypothesis to check the relevancy of the research design. This can be
done by using the secondary data, i.e. information available both inside and
outside the organization, conducting observational studies, consulting experts, and
processing feedback from the marketplace and surveys.

2. Descriptive Market Research: The descriptive research is concerned with testing

the hypothesis to find out the accurate answers of the research problem. Such as,
who are the prospective buyers of the product? How the products are consumed?
What fraction of the population uses the product? What is the demand forecast?
And who are the potential competitors? The objective of the descriptive market
research is to measure the frequency with which the things occur and the extent
to which the variables under study are correlated.

3. Causal Market Research: The causal market research is conducted to establish

the cause-and-effect relationship between the variables, such as if the packaging
of the product is changed then what will be its effect on the product durability?
Thus, this research is carried out to explain the facts that why a certain change in
one variable is observed due to the change in the other.

4. Predictive Market Research: As the name suggests, the predictive research is

conducted to forecast or predict certain market variable for which the research is
designed. Such as predicting the future sales, projection of growth, test market to
predict the success of a new product, defining of firm’s product line, etc.

The marketing research can be further classified on the basis of the type of data
generated and the degree of mathematical accuracy required as:

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research deals with understanding human behavior in a natural setting.

It is naturalistic in nature because it studies human behavior and the reasons that govern
it. The emphasis is on the complexity of humans and their ability to shape and create
their own experience. It emphasizes the dynamic, holistic, and individual aspects of
human experience within the context of those who are experiencing them.

It focuses on:

1. Gaining insights on and an understanding of the individual’s perception of events

2. Concerned with in-depth descriptions of people on events and their interpretation

of experience

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 3. Data are collected through unstructured interviews and participant observation

4. The research is to synthesize the patterns and the theories in the data

5. Not limited by existing theories but must be open to new ideas and theories

The limitation of this model is:

1. It is reductionist, it reduces human experience to just a few concepts under

investigations;

2. The subjective nature of naturalistic inquiry, which sometimes causes concerns

about the nature of conclusions and

3. Most naturalistic studies involve a relatively small group of people.

Types of Qualitative Research

Phenomenological Method

Describing how any one participant experiences a specific event is the goal of the
phenomenological method of research. This method utilizes interviews, observation and
surveys to gather information from subjects. Phenomenology is highly concerned with
how participants feel about things during an event or activity.

Ethnographic Model

The ethnographic model is one of the most popular and widely recognized
methods of qualitative research; it immerses subjects in a culture that is unfamiliar to
them. The goal is to learn and describe the culture's characteristics much the same way
anthropologists observe the cultural challenges and motivations that drive a group. This
method often immerses the researcher as a subject for extended periods of time.

Grounded Theory Method

The grounded theory method tries to explain why a course of action evolved the
way it did. Grounded theory looks at large subject numbers. Theoretical models are
developed based on existing data in existing modes of genetic, biological or psychological
science.

Case Study Model

Unlike grounded theory, the case study model provides an in-depth look at one
test subject. The subject can be a person or family, business or organization, or a town

4
or city. Data is collected from various sources and compiled using the details to create a
bigger conclusion.

Historical Model

The historical method of qualitative research describes past events in order to

understand present patterns and anticipate future choices. This model answers questions
based on a hypothetical idea and then uses resources to test the idea for any potential
deviations.

Narrative Model

The narrative model occurs over extended periods of time and compiles
information as it happens. Like a story narrative, it takes subjects at a starting point and
reviews situations as obstacles or opportunities occur, although the final narrative doesn't
always remain in chronological order.

Phases in a Qualitative Study

1. Orientation and Overview. The first phase is to determine what is salient about the
phenomenon or culture of interests

2. Focused Exploration. It involves focused scrutiny and in-depth exploration of the

aspects of the phenomenon judged to be salient. The questions asked and the
types of people invited are shaped based on the outcome of the first phase

3. Confirmation and closure. The researcher undertakes efforts to prove that her/his
findings are trustworthy, often going back to the study and discussion her/his
understanding of it with the participant.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is a traditional, positivist, scientific method which refers to a

general set order by disciplined procedures to acquire information. According to Cristobal
& Cristobal (2013) quantitative research utilizes a deductive reasoning to generate
predictions that are tested in the real word.

It is systematic. This gather empirical evidence – evidence that is rooted in

objective reality and gathers directly or indirectly through the senses. It involves
measurement of outcomes using numerical data under standardized condition

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Types of Quantitative Research

1) Descriptive - provides a description and exploration of phenomena in real-life situations

and characteristics. Correlational of particular individuals, situations or groups are
described.

2) Comparative - a systematic investigation of relationships between two or more

variables used to explain the nature of relationships in the world. Correlations may be
positive (e.g., if one variable increases, so does the other), or negative (correlation
occurs when one variable increase and the other decreases).

3) Quasi-experimental- a study that resembles an experiment, but random assignment

had no role in determining which participants were placed on a specific level of treatment.
Generally, would have less validity than experiments.

4) Experimental (empirical) method- the scientific method used to test an experimental

hypothesis or premise. Consists of a control group (not exposed to the experimental
treatment, i.e. is dependent) and the experimental group (is exposed to the treatment,
i.e., independent)

Qualitative Research Designs

Experimental Designs

This is concerned with cause and effect relationships in which all experimental
studies involve manipulation or control of the independent variables (causes) and
measurement of the dependent variables (effects). it is the intervening or extraneous
variables are not part of the study but are believed to influence study outcomes.

Types of experimental design

1. True experimental designs – pretest-posttest control design; posttest only control

design; Solomon four group

2. Quasi-experimental designs – non-equivalent; time series

3. Pre-experimental designs – one-shot case study; one group pretest; posttest

Non-experimental Design

This is a research conducted without manipulation of the independent variable and

random assignment of the participants to group. De Belen (2015) explained that non-
experimental research put forward a lot of alternative explanations for the relationship of

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the variables under study. It cannot simply conclude the cause and effect of relationship
but offer other explanations. Johnson (2007) cited categories that cannot be manipulated
such as gender, parenting style, learning style, ethnicity, retention in grade and others.

Types of non-experimental designs

1. Action studies
2. Comparative studies
3. Developmental studies
4. Evaluation studies
5. Meta-analysis studies
6. Methodological studies
7. Needs assessment studies
8. Secondary analysis studies
9. Survey studies

Purpose of Research

1. Exploratory research helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive future
study will not begin with an inadequate understanding of the nature of the problem.

2. Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation, social

setting or relationship. It describes characteristics of population or phenomenon.

3. Explanatory research identifies the reasons for something that occurs.

4. Research provides a scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any field.

5. Research is undertaken for sustainable development of and further productivity in

any field like education, management, business, nursing and other areas.

6. Research develops tools for assessing the effectiveness of any practice.

7. Research provides solutions to problems encountered in the different areas of

work.

8. Research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the educational

aspects of any discipline.

9. Research advances the personal and professional qualifications of a practitioner.

Review Questions:

How do you define marketing research?

Give the types of research and explain each.

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 What are the tools in marketing research?

CHAPTER 2

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Objectives

Discuss the research process and explain the various types

Distinguish between exploratory, descriptive and causal research designs
Identify and explain the major components of a research proposal
Identify sources of research problem
Enumerate and explain the characteristics of a good research problem

Introduction

Business owners and managers often identify problems they need help to resolve.
With this situation, additional information typically is needed to make a decision or to solve
a problem. One solution is the marketing research based on a scientific research process.
This chapter provides an overview of the research process as well as a preview of some
of the core topics.

Once you have created a research problem, you have to develop a research
question. A research question will give you a research direction. From the research
question, a hypothesis or hypotheses can be formulated to guide the research. A
hypothesis should include a statement about the relationship between two or more
variable and should carry clear implications for testing the stated relationship. For
example, you might need to know if and how the customers’ positive and negative product
and negative product expectations are confirmed or disconfirmed upon product use.

How to formulate the research problem

The problem formulation is simplified once the component of the research problem is
defined.

1. Specify the Research Objectives – a clear statement of objectives will help to

develop effective research. It will help in the decision makers to evaluate the project.
It is critical to the manageable objectives. (Two or three clear goals will help to keep
the research project be focused and relevant)
2. Review the Environment for Context of the Problem – as a marketing researcher,
you must work closely with your team because this will help you determine whether
the findings of the project will produce enough information to be worth the cost. For

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 this to happen, you have to identify the environmental variables that will affect the
research project. (Variables will be discussed in later chapters)
3. Explore the Nature of the Problem – research problems range from simple to
complex, depending on the number of variables and the nature of their relationship.
It you understand the nature of the problem as a researcher, you will be able to
better develop a solution for the problem. To help you understand all dimensions,
you can consider the focus groups of consumers, sales people, managers, or
professionals to provide what is sometimes much needed insight.
4. Define the Variable Relationships – marketing plans often focus on creating a
sequence of behaviors that occur over time, as in the adaptation of a new package
design, or the introduction of a new product.
5. The Consequences of Alternative Courses of Action – there are always
consequences to any course of action. Anticipating and communicating the possible
outcomes of various courses of action is a primary responsibility in the research
process.

The Research Process

The research process consists of four distinct but related phases:

▪ Determine the research problem

▪ Select the appropriate research design
▪ Execute the research design
▪ Communicate the research results

The phases of the process must be completed properly to obtain accurate information for
decision making. But each phase can be viewed as a separate process that consists of
several steps. Figure 2.1 show the four phases of the information research process.

Figure 2.1 – The Four Phases of the Information Research Process

Determine the Select the Communicate

Execute the
Research Appropriate the Research
Research Design
Problem Research Design Results

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Table 2.1 – Phases and Steps in the Information
Research Process

Phase 1: Determine the Research Problem

Step 1 – Identify and clarify information

needs

Step 2 – Define the research questions

Step 3 – Specify research objectives and

confirm the information value

Phase 2: Select the Research Design

Step 4 – Determine the research design

and data source

Step 5 – Develop the sampling design and

sample size

Step 6 – Examine measurement issue and

scales

Step 7 – Design and pretest the

questionnaire

Phase 3: Execute the Research Design

Step 8 – Collect and prepare data

Step 9 – Analyze data

Step 10 – Interpret data to create

knowledge

Phase 4: Communicate the Research Results

Step 11 – Prepare and present final report

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The Research Problem

Formulating a problem is the first step in the research process. In many ways,
research starts with a problem that management is facing. This problem needs to be
understood, the cause diagnosed, and solutions developed. However, most
management problems are not always easy to research. A management problem must
first be translated into a research problem

The term research problem implies that an investigation, inquiry or study is to be

conducted, or that the problem is ready for investigation, inquiry or study. It is considered
a professional situation in need of improvement or a solution. It could be anything in the
universe that leads to a better life for men. It is one that will help satisfy basic human
needs – the physiological or biological and psychological needs. There are certain
elements that a problem must possess before it becomes a research problem ready for
investigation. These elements are:

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. This answer the question “Why”
Why is there an investigation, inquiry or study?

2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. This answer the question “what”.
What is to be investigated or studied?

3. The place or locale where the research is to be conducted. This answer the
question “Where” Where is the study to be conducted?

4. The period of time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This
answer the question “When?” When is the study to be carried out?

5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected. This answer the
question “Who?” or “From whom?” Who are the respondents? From whom are the
data to be gathered?

Summarizing, the elements of a research problem are aim or purpose, subject matter
or topic, place or locale, period of time and population or universe. They respectively
answer the questions stating with why, what, where, when and who or from whom.

Example of research problem: To evaluate the effect of positive and negative word of
mouth in restaurant industry in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija for the past five years from 2015-
2020.

Aim or purpose: To evaluate the effect of positive and negative word of mouth in the
restaurant industry.

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 Subject matter or topic: Effect of positive and negative word of mouth in the restaurant
industry.

Place or locale: Cabiao, Nueva Ecija

Period of time: 2015-2020

Population: The respondents are the students or professionals or both.

Guidelines in the Selection of Research Problem

1. The research problem or topic must be chosen by the researcher himself. This is
to avoid blaming others or offering excuses for any obstacle encountered.

2. It must be within the interest of the researcher. This is to make sure that the
researcher will focus his full attention on the research work.

3. It must be within the specialization of the researcher. This will in some way make
the work easier for him because he is working on familiar grounds.

4. It must be within the competence of the researcher to tackle. The researcher must
know the method of research and other research procedures applicable to his
problem and he must know how to apply them. He must have a workable
understanding of his study.

5. It must be within the ability of the researcher to finance, otherwise he must be able
to find funding for his research. Research involves not a small amount of expense
and the researcher must be able to foot the bills until his study is completed. There
must be a budget which he must be able to shoulder.

6. It is researchable and manageable, that is,

a. Data are available and accessible

b. The data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity, and verifiability

c. Answer to the specific questions (subproblems) can be found.

d. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted or
rejected.

e. Equipment and instrument for research are available and can give valid and
reliable results.

12
7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time unless it is a longitudinal
research which takes a long time for its completion.

8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation, timely
and of current interest. This means that the research project must be able to make
a substantial impact upon situations and people it is intended for or addressed to.

9. The results are practical and implementable.

10. It requires original, critical and reflective thinking to solve it. To be able to apply
these, the research project must be novel, new or original. The study is considered
novel and new if it has not yet been studied before and the data are gathered from
new and original sources.

11. It can be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big or large enough
to be able to give significant, valid and reliable results and generalizations. The
area and population may reduce but only to such an extent that the generalization
be considered true and useful.

12. It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of the
quality of human life. This is the ultimate aim of research, to improve the quality
of human life.

13. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge. All the facts and knowledge
that we have are mostly the products of research.

14. It must show or pave the way for the solution of the problem or problems intended
to be solved. Usually, after an inquiry has been conducted, recommendations are
made for the solution of problems discovered which, if implemented, can solve the
problems.

15. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people. It must not
advocate the promotion of antisocial values. As much as possible it must advocate
the promotion of divine values and those admirable human values.

16. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of
violence but by peaceful means.

17. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher, either one or all of the
following, if the research report is completed:

a. Monetary, either increase in salary or publication of the results in which

there is some kind of royalty.

b. Advancement of position, promotion.

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 c. Improved specialization, competence, and skill in professional work
especially if the research subject is related to the profession.

d. Enhanced prestige and reputation.

e. Satisfaction of intellectual curiosity and interest, and being able to discover

truth.

18. There must be a consideration of the hazards involved, either physical, social or
legal.

Problem Energizer

Problems are everywhere, but it takes an energizer to become aware of them. Unless
one is sensitive to a situation or an occurrence, the problem could not be grasped. It will
just be frying around unnoticed. Individuals who seek explanations of phenomena and
for some truths look at their environment. Individuals, teams and agencies often do their
searching when the following situation exist:

1. When a difficulty exists. Difficulty gives rise to a need to explore. What could be
causing the difficulty? The difficulty could be felt by the management, managers,
or customers or even the company.

2. When a new problem arises form an old problem. As old problem exists, and out
of the old problem a new may evolve. It could be that the solutions to the old
problem were inadequate, obsolete or inappropriate for the time. A new problem
may be tackled differently. The new problem could even be quite apart from an
old one, but is founded on an old problem.

3. When a thinker is stimulated by what he reads. Reading variety of materials could

be the source of a problem. The material could be a previously completed
research study. Curiosity will lead him to experiment further on the subject or on
condition. Thinkers usually analyze the materials they read. They weigh values,
and question occurrences using other reading as foundations for analysis.

4. When an individual or group has the urge to achieve and contribute something to
society. Problems solved are sought by individuals who like to achieve something
for the betterment of the life of man.

5. When an individual likes to exercise resourcefulness, ingenuity and creativeness.

A resourceful person tinkers with things. While tinkering, something may lead him
to become aware of probable relationship of what he sees with other phenomena.

14
Research title

The title summarizes the main idea or ideas of your study. A good title contains
the fewest possible words that adequately describe the contents and/or purpose of your
research paper. It is the starter of any report. Reading through a title enables the reader
to have an understanding of the general thrust of the research study. The title, although
brief

The title is without doubt the part of a paper that is read the most, and it is usually
read first. If the title is too long it usually contains too many unnecessary words, e.g., "A
Study to Investigate the...." On the other hand, a title which is too short often uses words
which are too general. For example, "African Politics" could be the title of a book, but it
does not provide any information on the focus of a research paper.

Here is the basic question asked about the research title.

1. Does the title describe what the study is all about?

2. Does the title contain high specificity level?

3. Is the title academically phrased and is not verbose?

4. Is the title within the twelve (12) substantive word requirement of the American
Psychological Association (APA)?

The following parameters can be used to help you formulate a suitable research
paper title:

1. The purpose of the research

2. The narrative tone of the paper [typically defined by the type of the research]

3. The methods used

The initial aim of a title is to capture the reader’s attention and to draw his or her attention
to the research problem being investigated.

Effective titles in academic research papers have several characteristics.

1. Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study.

2. Avoid using abbreviations.

3. Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader interest.

15
 4. Use current nomenclature from the field of study.

5. Identify key variables, both dependent and independent.

6. May reveal how the paper will be organized.

7. Suggest a relationship between variables which supports the major hypothesis.

8. Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.

9. Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar constructions.

10. Titles are usually in the form of a phrase but can also be in the form of a question.

11. Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words
capitalized, including the first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first and last words of the title are
also capitalized.

12. In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by an exclamation mark. However, a

title or subtitle can be in the form of a question.

Read the following titles. Do they meet the basic questions asked?

Topics for the Marketing Students

1. Pharmaceutical marketing and ethics

2. Effects of gender on a family buying decision
3. Factors that influence the level of impulse buying
4. Social media in marketing?
5. The impact of brand extension on brand personality
6. The use of Black Friday sales and how these benefits company gross
7. The use and benefit of sending birthday announcements and coupons
8. Market segmentation
9. Relationship between marketing research, customer knowledge, and business
sales
10. Telemarketing
11. The effect of the recession on promotional activities
12. An attitude of people in different roles towards direct marketing
13. How smartphones and tablets can be used to tap into customers thinking?
14. Relationship marketing
15. The leadership among the marketing team
16. Loyalty programs as instrument of marketing
17. Factor affecting educationists/scientist response to patent registration

16
 18. Relationship between customers internal usage practices usage practices and
awareness to internal advertising
19. Factors affecting positive and negative word of mouth in restaurant industry
20. Maternity and baby products marketing
21. Marketing strategies and paradigms
22. E-marketing
23. Effects of occupational status on women food buying and cooking behavior
24. Effect of self-placement of habitual buying products on their sales
25. Market entry strategy in an emerging market using country of origin information

Review Questions:

Explain the research process and give the various types

Differentiate between exploratory and causal research designs
Explain the major components of a research proposal
Give the sources of research problem
Identify and explain the characteristics of a good research problem

CHAPTER 3

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING (CHAPTER 1)

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

Analyze the different parts of Chapter 1

Enhance understanding in writing Chapter 1
Write complete Chapter 1

Introduction

The research starts with Chapter 1 entitled the Problem and Its Setting. This part
introduces the entire research study. This section deals with the following:

1. Introduction;
2. Theoretical framework;
3. Conceptual framework;
4. Statement of the problem / objective;
5. Hypothesis / assumption;
6. Scope and limitations;
7. Significance of the study; and
8. Definition of terms (if technical)
These are general components of Chapter 1.

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 The introduction is not a title of the Chapter 1. It is actually a paragraph side head,
which begins Chapter 1. The introduction leads the reader from general research issue
or problem to the specific area of research. It puts the research question in context by
explaining the significance of the research being conducted. This is usually done by
summarizing current understanding (research to date) and background information about
the topic. This may also explain the methodology (how you will research this issue) and
explain what the study can reveal.

In introduction the researcher uses four questions such as “What am I studying?”;

“Why is this topic important to investigate?”; What do we already know about this topic or
what have other experts discovered about the topic?” and “How will my research advance
new knowledge or new ways of understanding?” before writing.

The beginning of the introduction is the presentation of the topic, that is what the
topic is all about and its importance. In this segment also see the background of the study
that consist the historical background may be given. The next part of the introduction is
the reference to the existence of an unsatisfactory condition, a problem that has to be
solved. The ending of the introduction should be the rationale of the study- the need to
solve the problem, the reason for conducting the study.

We have but a brief introduction of the research. It is merely composed of three

paragraphs enabling the readers to see at a glimpse the entire contents of the research
work.

The intention of first paragraph is to provide the readers a mental warm-up; thus,
giving them information and readiness as to what the research is all about. The second
paragraph carries the bulk of introduction and the third and last paragraph is a sort of a
closing portion that is intriguing and challenging the readers to become interested in
knowing the results of the proposed study. Consequently, the readers will be prompted
to continue reading the research.

Theoretical Framework

This is the foundation of the research study. These are highly related theories and
principles that were established and proven by authorities which are very useful to the
present study. Almost all research studies that were conducted in the past were based
on universally accepted theories and principles.

Theoretical framework identifies the variables investigated in the study. It

illustrated how the variables interact with each other as hypothesized in the research by
the aid of diagrams. It states the central concept(s) integral to the study. Connecting the
study to theory.

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 Theory provides patterns for the interpretation of data, links one study to another
supply’s framework within which concepts and variables acquire special significance and
allows us to interpret the larger meaning of our findings for ourselves and others.

Theoretical framework means relating to or having the characteristics of the theory.

It refers to the set of interrelated construct, definitions, and prepositions that presents a
systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables. It becomes the
basis of the research problem. It explains the phenomena upon which the research
investigation hopes to fill the vacuum in the stream of knowledge.

Pursuing the linkage between theory and the problem at hand, the researcher
views theoretical framework as an organize body that explains what has been done and
what has been said on the topic or problem being investigated. Moreover, the body of
knowledge establishes relationships among the variables concerned. The present study
is the missing link to the body of knowledge. Accordingly, when the research study is
consummated, the gap of missing link disappears since the study will have closed the
gap. The theoretical framework is now more complete until another researcher discovers
another gap, inconsistency, or weakness which will be the object of another investigation.

What data must be obtained from a theory?

1. The name/s of author/s of the theory must be taken including the place and the
time/year when he or she postulated such as principle or generalization.

2. Next, copy exactly the part or parts of the theory that are relevant to your study.
Make sure you will use a parenthetical reference to recognize the parts copied.

3. Finally, you will have to make a synthesis by relating to your findings what the
theory has to say about the phenomenon being studied.

Conceptual Framework

Conceptual framework is the basic structure that serves as a mental window of the
researcher because it depicts the research design and the relationships of the variables
involved.

A conceptual framework is a written or visual presentation that explains either

geographically, or in narrative form, the main things to be studied, the key factors,
concepts or variables and the presumed relationship among them.

The conceptual framework shall show the research paradigm or structure of the
entire study. This will guide the researcher what do or not to do and what are needed or
not needed in the study.

19
 This is the researchers’ map that guides him/her in undertaking the study. It shows
how he/she understands and looks at the problem by means of presenting relationship of
variable after a review of related literature and studies. The discussion of the conceptual
framework is followed by a diagram (also called a paradigm) that allows the reader as
well as the researcher to have an idea of the whole research process at one glance.

Conceptual framework consists of the investigator’s own position on a problem

after his exposure to various theories that have bearing on the problem. It is the
researcher’s new model which has its roots on the previous models which the researcher
had studied. The conceptual framework becomes the central theme, the focus, the main
thrust of the study. It serves as a guide in conducting the investigation.

The conceptual paradigm is a diagrammatic representation of a conceptual

framework. It depicts in a more vivid way what the research wants to cover.

There are three styles of presenting the conceptual framework. They are as
follows:

1. The Conceptual Framework is integrated with the problem in Chapter 1.

Also, there is no separate Chapter II for Review of Related Literature and
Studies for it is also integrated in Chapter 1.

2. The Conceptual Framework is followed by the Statement of the Problem in

Chapter 1 with a separate Chapter II for a Review of Related Literature and
Studies

3. The Review of Related Literature and Studies is in Chapter II with the

Conceptual Framework at the end of the Chapter.

Statement of the Problem

The Statement of the Problem is what the researcher aims to discover or establish.
Research demands that a clear statement of the problem be made. The researcher
should write out in simple language just what it is he/she proposes to investigate. It may
be in the form of: 1) a question or questions or a single question followed by several sub-
questions; 2) a declarative statement or a series of complete statements; and 3) a
statement followed by a series of questions. The question form has some advantages by
way of sharpening and clarifying the problem to be attached, although both statements
and question are generally acceptable. Whatever the form may be, the research should
keep away from the phrase “a study to show” so as to avoid the implications of initial bias
since the purpose of the researcher is to seek an impartial answer to the questions raised
rather than to prove something.

20
 The Statement of the Problem is the focus of the study and all questions stated
should be categorically answered. The following are some guide to the problem from
broad to the specific: 1) Read a lot of reading materials; 2) Define the interest; 3) Continue
reading the literature; 4) Cite the special aspects of interest; 5) Read the studies about
the interest; 6) Delimit the broad problems to specific ones; and 7) State the problem.

The statement of the problem can best be used as frame of reference to write this
paragraph. It is simply telling the readers the scope and coverage of the study. To be
able to solve the stated problem is the major task of the researcher. It must revolve
around mentioning the purpose of the study which is to determine the relationships
existing or not existing between the independent and dependent variable.

Guidelines in Formulating the General Problem and the Specific Subproblems

1. The general statement of the problem and the specific subproblems or questions
should be formulated first before conducting the research.

2. It is customary to state the specific subproblems in the interrogative form. Hence,

subproblems are called the specific questions.

3. Each specific question must be clear and unequivocal.

4. Each specific question is researchable apart from the other questions.

5. Each specific question must be based upon known facts and phenomena.

6. Answers to each specific question can be interpreted apart from the answers to
other specific questions.

7. Answer to each specific question must contribute to the development of the whole
research problem or topic.

8. Summing up the answer to all specific questions will give a complete development
of the entire study.

9. The number of specific questions should be enough to cover the development of

the whole research problem or study.

10. Generally, there should be a general statement of the problem and then this should
be broken up into as many subproblems or specific questions as necessary.

The main problem is stated first. The problem should be stated in a similar manner
as the title but not necessarily in the same words. A good main problem spells out
expected subproblems that will further clarify it. Sub-problems spring out of the main

21
problem. The variables and factors are stated in the subproblems which could be in the
form of questions or statements.

The problem statement is divided into the major or main problem and the minor sub-
problems. The major or main problem is the verbalization of the specific “question” which
the researcher wants to answer. It may be stated declaratively of interrogative.

Example:

Main Problem (Declarative)

This study aims to evaluate the effect of positive and negative word of mouth in the
buying behavior of the students/professionals in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija for the past five
years from 2015-2020.

Statement of the problem:

1. What is the profile of the respondent in terms of the following:

a. Age,
b. Lifestyle,
c. Buying patterns,
d. Purchasing preferences, and
e. Income
2. What are the factors influencing the buying behavior of the respondents in terms of:

a. Internal influence
b. External influence
3. Is there a significant difference on the factors influencing purchasing behavior when
they are group according to their profile?

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more

variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen
in your study.

A hypothesis must be empirically grounded and lead to the main contributor of the
investigation. A research hypothesis is the statement you created when you speculate
upon the outcome of a structure, as the ultimate aim of any experiment. It is a statement
that predicts the relationship between the independent (casual) and dependent (outcome)
variables.

22
 A hypothesis (plural, hypotheses) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.
Hypothesis consists of independent and dependent variables. The dependent variables
is the outcome you are interesting in studying-the effect. The independent variable is the
variable that is producing a change in the dependent variable-the cause.

Forms of Hypotheses

1. Operational Form – stated in the affirmative, and also states that there is a
difference between two phenomena.

2. Null Form – stated in the negative, and also states that there is no difference
between the two phenomena. The null hypothesis is a statement about the
population or populations being examined that always states that there is no effect,
no change, or no relationship.

Guidelines in Formulation of Explicit Hypothesis:

1. In experimental investigation, hypotheses have to be explicit; they have to be

expressed. They have to be expressed also in comparative and correlational
studies.

2. In descriptive and historical investigations, hypotheses are seldom expressed if

not entirely absent. The subproblems or specific questions raised before the start
of the investigation and stated under the statement of the problem serve as the
hypotheses. The specific question serves as the hypotheses. With this fact, it is
logical to presume that all studies in research have hypotheses and for that matter
all theses and have their own respective hypotheses. Consequently, no research
is conducted without any hypothesis at all.

3. Hypotheses are usually stated in the null form because testing a null hypothesis is
easier than a hypothesis in the operational form. Testing the hypothesis is simply
means gathering data to answer it.

4. Hypotheses are formulated from the specific questions upon which they are based.

Purpose, Functions and Importance of Hypotheses or Specific Questions

1. They help the researcher in designing his study: what methods, research
instrument, sampling design and statistical treatments to be used, what to gather,
etc.
2. They serve as bases for determining assumptions
3. They serve as bases for determining the relevance of the data.
4. They serve as bases for the explanation or discussion about the data gathered

23
 5. They help or guide the researcher in consolidating his findings and in formulating
his conclusions. Generally, findings and conclusions are answers to the
hypotheses or specific questions raised at the start of the investigation.

The example of hypotheses stated in null form:

1. There is no significant difference in the buying behavior of the respondents in terms

of their internal and external factors when they are group according to their profile.

Scope and Limitations

Limitations are stated to guide thesis report readers and the researchers
themselves. Readers may want more inclusions in the study if the limitation is not stated.
This part states what is included in the particular study. Reasons why other aspects
seemingly relevant to the study are omitted are also stated in this part of the report.
Unusual occurrences in the process of making the study, like in terms of instrumentation
and application of results are mentioned.

Scope of the study – defines where and when the study was conducted and who the
subjects were. The scope sets the delimitations and establishes the boundaries of the
study.

Limitations – is a phase or aspect of the investigation which may affect the result
adversely but over which the researcher has no control.

This portion of the introduction simply points out what is included or covered by
investigation and what is not. In terms of “what”, the researcher should explain clearly
the specific topic covered by the study and which are not covered by the study. In terms
of “who/whom,” the researcher should identify who are involved in the research and who
are not. In terms of “where”, and “when”, the writer is obliged to indicate definitely the
locale and the time covered by the research.

Some phrases/expressions we can use to express scope and limitations are:

1. The study focused on, or included only…

2. The study involved only
3. The coverage of the study was limited to
4. The researcher had no intention to
5. There was no attempt to
6. The investigation was not concerned with

Guidelines in writing the Scope and Limitations

1. A brief description of the general purpose of the study.

24
 2. The subject matter and the topics studied and discussed.
3. The locale of the study, where the data were gathered of the entity to which the
data belong
4. The population or universe from which the respondents were selected
5. The period of the study

Significance of the Study

This criterion refers to the significance of the study to the field involves, its
timeliness and its practical value in terms of applicability and eventual implementation of
the results. The researcher should make certain that the results will indeed be useful.

Guidelines in Explaining the Significance of the Study

1. The rationale, timeliness and/or relevance of the study

2. Possible solutions to existing problems or improvement to unsatisfactory
conditions.
3. Who are to be benefited and how they are going to be benefited?
4. Possible contributions to the fund of knowledge
5. Possible implications

Definition of Terms

Terms are defined according to their use in the study. This clears up difficulty in
understanding the research report. Sometimes the definition of terms given in the
International Webster’s Dictionary is not the definition of the same term as used in the
study.

This is the last part of Chapter 1. Two ways of defining a term are the conceptual
or constitutive and operational or functional. The conceptual definition is given in
dictionaries. It is the academic or universal meaning of a word; it is the meaning
understood by almost everybody. The operational definition is according to how word
was used by the researcher in the study

After defining all terms, arrange them alphabetically using the first letter of the first
word as basis. This portion of the thesis will then look like a little dictionary.

If it will be necessary to use the definitions of printed sources and materials, a

parenthetical reference has to be included in the typewritten material.

Guidelines in Defining Terms:

1. Only terms, words, or phrases which have special or unique meaning in the study
are defined.

25
 2. Terms should be defined operationally.
3. The researcher may develop his own definition from the characteristics of the term
defined
4. Definitions may be taken from encyclopedias, books, magazines and newspaper
articles, dictionaries and other publications but the researcher must acknowledge
his sources.
5. Definitions should be brief, clear and unequivocal as possible.
6. Acronyms should always be spelled out fully especially if it is not commonly known
or if it used for the last time.

Review Questions:

Identify the different parts of Chapter 1

Write the complete Chapter 1

CHAPTER 4

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES (CHAPTER 2)

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

Collect related literature

Enhance understanding of the variables being included in the study
Write citation properly

Introduction

The second chapter is the “Review of Related Literature and Studies”. It presents
whether the present investigation confirm, negate or innovate the findings in other
inquiries about the same research problem or topic so that generalizations or principles
maybe formulated. Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue,
rather than the progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important
factor in a thematic review.

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Review of related literature and studies is the major process that leads a
researcher to past theory and studies. And it is expected that the results of such studies,
the findings and conclusions have benefit and relevance to the ongoing study. Review
involves systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing

26
information related to the research problem. This is the researcher’s immediate concern
to look for these sources to put the literature into some organized form and use these for
the study.

Here are the major steps in a literature review according to Gale, Gale and Borg.

1. Search preliminary sources such as books, articles, theses, etc.

2. Use secondary sources – a document written by someone who do not actually the
research
3. Read primary sources – obtain and study the original outputs of at least studies
that are most central to your proposed investigation
4. Synthesize the literature – synthesize what you have learned to write a little
literature review.
5. Identify recommendations for further research. Researchers often conclude their
reports with a discussion of issues raised by them and the recommendations for
another research that might be done. These issues and recommendations should
be considered carefully because they represent insights gained by the researcher
after considerable study of a given problem.
6. Seek support for grounded theory. Many research studies are designed to test a
new theory that has been developed to explain the learning process or other
educational phenomena. Glaser (1978), however proposed that studies also can
be designed such that data are collected first, and then a theory is derived from
these data. The resulting theory is called grounded theory because it is “grounded”
in a set of used data.

Types of Sources

1. General References – tell the researcher where to find other sources, such as
article, monographs, books and other documents. Most general references are
either indexes, which is list the author, title, and place of publication of articles and
other materials on education, or abstracts, which give a brief summary or various
publications, as well as their author, title, and place of publication.

2. Primary Sources – these are the result of researchers of investigations that the
reported by the researchers themselves and are then published. Most primary
sources are journals.

3. Secondary Sources – these are publications in which the authors describe the
works done by others.

Documentation Style

Throughout the research, the published researches of other researches are cited
to credit those who prepared the foundation for your work. To present someone else’s
ideas or work as your own is to commit plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious breach of

27
ethics. Reference citation must be included in your paper wherever else’s ideas or work
has influenced your thinking and writing.

The American Psychological Association (APA) is a popular style commonly used

by researchers in documentation or reference citation. The APA format is also called the
author-date method of parenthetical documentation or in-text citation.

Documentation refers to the acknowledgement of sources. These sources are

cited as direct quotations or as indirect quotations (paraphrases).

Paraphrasing

• Is used when we want to express someone else’s idea in our own words.

• Uses different words to express the same idea.

• Is rewriting the text in order to simplify focusing not only on what is said but also
on how it is said.

• Makes the understanding of the source text less difficulty by breaking down the
information into manageable units.

Paraphrasing Techniques

Replace a word with a synonym.

• Paraphrasing can be longer or shorter than the original. Concentrate on the

meaning not on the words.

• Verbs and adjectives have counterparts that are interchangeable with the author’s
original words.

• Not all synonyms have exact meaning.

• Avoid using abstract words – they come as weak words.

• Use of synonyms is a problem in scientific writing because often there is only one
word to describe a certain action or object. It is better to keep the important words
and change the sentence structure.

Synthesis of Review

Synthesis of review, cites the similarities of the aforementioned theses with the
present study, will be stated. Mention also the difference of the present study from those
28
theses or dissertation mentioned. Family names of the writers must be stated together
with the year when these were written.

What to Cite

It should be emphasized that only the major findings, ideas, generalizations,

principles, or conclusions in related materials relevant to the problem under investigation
should be discussed in this chapter. Generally, such findings, ideas, generalization,
principles or conclusions are summarized, paraphrased, or synthesized.

Review Questions:

What is your understanding of the variables being included in the study?

Write the complete Chapter 2

CHAPTER 5

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (CHAPTER 3)

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

Write the reason in choosing the research methodology Enhance understanding

of the variables being included in the study
Differentiate the population from the sample
Compute for the sample size of an identified group of respondents
Identify the respondents for their research proposal
Enumerate the rules in writing a research instrument
Draft a research instrument
Compute statistical data for descriptive statistic and inferential statistics

Introduction

The third chapter is the “Research Methodology”. It varies according to the

research method used. In descriptive research studies, like surveys and genetic studies,
the chapter on Research Methodology include research method used; population and
sampling; description of respondents; description of instruments used in collection of
data; validation of the instrument; how data are collected; and how data were treated and
organized.

Research Designs

29
 According to Kerlinger (cited in Kumar, 2011) a research design is a plan, structure
and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions or
problems. It is the complete scheme or program of the research. It includes an outline
of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and their operational
implication to the final analysis of data.

Research Method

This refers to the philosophical, theoretical, conceptual and analytic perspective of

research. It can be quantitative, qualitative or mixed method.

Research Method Used

This part describes the appropriate research method used. This could be the
descriptive research method, experimental method or quasi-experimental studies or a
historical study method.

Descriptive Research Method

The descriptive research method is the most popularly used by researchers. This
may be confirmed by even a cursory look through theses and dissertations finished by
undergraduate, masters or doctoral students. This is particularly true in the field of
education.

Broad View of Descriptive research

Descriptive research deals mostly with verbal information. Non-verbal, e.g., charts
and diagrams may also be used. A descriptive research consists of set of gathered data
or information analyzed, summarized, and interpreted along certain lines of thought for
the pursuit of a specific purpose or study.

Descriptive research deals with both quantitative and qualitative information.

Qualitative descriptions are often based on quantitative data.

Descriptive research describes and interprets “what is”. It reveals conditions or

relationships that exist or do not exist, practices that prevail or do not prevail, beliefs or
points of view or attitudes that are held or are not held, processes that are going on or
otherwise, effects that are being felt, or trends that are developing. It attempts to interpret
the present.

According to Good (2002), descriptive research includes studies that purport to

present facts concerning the nature and status of anything. This means that descriptive
research gives meaning to the quality and standing of facts that are going on.

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 Descriptive data for descriptive research are collected by using different methods.
It may be presented qualitatively or in verbal forms or symbols, or quantitively in
mathematical symbols, depending upon the nature of the material and the purposes for
which one is doing research.

Importance of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research assumes a position of importance in scientific investigations

for the following reasons:

1. For scientific basis of judgments. Descriptive studies provide information which

could be used as basis for important decisions.
2. For a closer look into situation, behavior, practices, schemes, methods and
procedures. Descriptive studies provide essential facts and understanding about
the nature of anything.
3. It led to solve problems.
4. It assists management in developing teacher strategies.
5. Descriptive research results may show the way for some savings.

Classification in Descriptive Research

Classification is putting together (ordering under some heading) related things. It

provides some order that would ease up understanding of presented situations.

Points to remember classifying

1. Keep in mind the purpose of the classification being made. Classification is simply
selective association and, for these reasons, it must serve a purpose. The purpose
could be to order the data, to describe the cases, to single out similarities or
difference, to put together some characteristics or status.

2. Think of only a few related headings. By adding more categories in a classification

system, one makes the job more complex.

3. Disturbing classes should be restudied further. Think of the interrelationship of

behavior and place them accordingly.

4. Consider the different ways by which things and situation could be classified.

5. Start from big headings and move towards the sub-headings. This is like selecting
main topics and putting under each subordinate topic related to the main topic.

6. Analyze classification by looking into the reservoir of ideas already forwarded by

others.

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How to classify

1. Classification in the formulation of a problem. A problem is synthesized form an

ordered comprehensive concept or case. In the process of selecting a problem, a
researcher looks at the whole perspective and its components. It is very difficult
to handle a big problem. It would easier to explore a small segment of a
classification.

2. Classification in the selection of the respondents, objects, etc. or in the population

from which data will be gathered. In research it would be very expensive to handle
the universe or totality of a subject for study. One must economize not only in
finances but also in the utilization of energy or effort.

3. Classification in determining priorities to be used in determining the scope of the

problem for the particular study.

4. Classification in putting together data gathered.

5. Classification in the statistical analysis of data

6. Classification in the presentation and interpretation of findings.

7. Classification in the making of generalization.

Analysis in Descriptive Research

Analysis is always part of any research study irrespective of method or approach

used. Analysis involves studying components to serve as direction in reaching a goal. It
is a form of description, for description is founded upon analysis.

The general uses of analysis are as follows:

1. Analysis dissects. This means that the researcher should look into the meaning of
every word in the problem
2. Analysis directs. Analysis serves to direct in the sense that it led one structure or
organize his movements.
3. Analysis compares. Characteristics, traits, behavior, condition and events are
compared.
4. Analysis discover new avenues. Things can be discovered through analysis, for
this is one of its purposes.
5. Analysis identifies. Those that do not exist, or those that exist to a little extent are
identified.

General Steps in Descriptive Studies

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 1. The situational Analysis. This first step in scientific research undertaking is a
survey of available data regarding to certain study. The information is gleaned
from discussion with management, from internal data and from available published
materials in libraries. In this step, the researcher seeks to obtain all the information
he can about the problems of the school and the environment in which the analysis
is to made.

2. Setting up of the Problem, Sub-Problems and Objectives and/or Hypotheses. After

knowing or defining the problem and the details that go with it, one is ready to set
up the statement of the problem. This serves as the overall direction of the
researcher.

3. Instrumentation. In research, one has to gather data. Scientific studies

necessitate gathering of facts. Instruments are to be developed or secured for the
purpose of gathering of facts.

4. Gathering Data. In this step, the field work, or organized collection of primary data,
is carried out. After the feasibility of the plan has been tested, the final field survey
is made, observation is taken, or the experiment are conducted.

5. Treatment of Data. This includes checking, tallying, tabulation, statistical treatment

of data as well as their presentation through tables, figures or verbal analysis.

6. Organization of Result. This step organizes data for presentation. It takes into
consideration the statement of the problem. Generally, these are presented
following the statement of sub-problems or objectives and/or hypotheses of the
study.

7. Interpretation. The tables and figures or models are now ready for interpretation.
Interpretation gives meaning to the results of the study.

8. Summary of findings, conclusions, and recommendation.

Experimental Method

An experiment is expected to reveal causal relationships. It deals with the

interaction of forces. Broadly, to experiment means to try. It is an act of operation carried
out under conditions determined by the experimenter in order to discover some unknown
principle or effect or to test, establish or illustrate some suggested or known truth.

Characteristics of an experiment

1. Experimentation lends itself to easier manipulation because of quantitative entities.

2. Observation are done under controlled conditions.
3. Gathering of valid facts is rigorous.

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 4. Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory or in the field.
5. Laboratory experiments are intensive and exacting
6. Laboratory experiments are limited to a small number of cases or subjects.
7. There is more thorough analysis of variable factors
8. Often, equating or pairing or matching is done.

Individual method and Group technique of Experimental studies

The Individual Method. The individual method of experimentation utilizes as subject a

single individual or object or situation. A researcher could make experiments by using an
individual or object as the case to be studied.

The One-Group Technique. This technique is the same as the single-group method. A
group is studied under two or more different conditions, but no control is set up.

The Parallel-Group and Its Variations. May research studies in nutrition, psychology,
education, and sociology employ the parallel-group techniques and its variation. When
the research design does not lend itself to the use of the individual or a single-group
method, the parallel-group technique is used.

Historical Research

History means the search for knowledge and for the truth about the past. This
meaning seems very engulfing, overly embracing; hence, the need for a more limiting
definition. Good (2002) defined history as any integrated narrative or description of past
events or facts written in the spirit of critical inquiry for the whole truth. This implies that
the events have occurred. The need is to look into the relationship of these events with
other events, past or present or in predicting a future even.

The historical approach is the type of research which focuses on the past events
in order to clarify issues that elicit the interest of the present by exhaustively studying
material that are already available.

Value of History

1. Past events contribute to the understanding of the present life.

2. History gives the feeling of importance of human achievements. Appreciation of

past human achievements may provide motivation for the present generation to
achieve its goal.

3. Events, practices, attitudes, ideas and thoughts, a custom, a tradition, a material

of enduring worth is chronicled for the generation of today and tomorrow through
history.

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 4. Relationships are grasped and expanded through history.

Process in Historical Research

1. Existence of a problem. A problem is selected by the researcher. The

problem may arise accidentally or it may be a framed problem arising from
a felt need based on empirical observations.

2. Hypotheses formulation. The hypothesis is a hunch, a tentative solution to

the problem.

3. Data gathering. In all the research methods, collections of data its

imperative. The method of collection, however, varies depending on the
approach used.

4. Treatment of data. This is a feature of research that is indispensable

whether the approach is descriptive, experimental or historical in nature.

5. Presentation and interpretation of data. A prelude to the making of general

statement or conclusions is the presentation and interpretation of data.

6. Conclusions and recommendations. Conclusion and recommendations are

the culminating features of a research study.

Sources of Historical Data

Sources of data should be scrutinized by the historical researcher. Two general

categories of data by sources are: deliberate and inadvertent and primary and secondary.

Deliberate and inadvertent sources. Deliberate sources of data are those events,
information, and facts which have been consciously recorded and preserved by those
concerned and are interested for reasons of their won and for some reasons, personal or
otherwise, that make the works of other alive. But inadvertent sources differ from
deliberate sources in that the original intent of the former sources not to convey
information for the next generation or future generations. This source is intended for
some particular people or company during the period.

Primary and Secondary sources. The primary source of historical data is fundamental
to historical research. This source involves the direct reporting or recording of an event.
Classifications of the primary source are an animate primary source and an inanimate
primary source. Inanimate primary sources of data are physical artifacts and the
secondary sources of data in historical research are sometimes used in the absence of
primary sources. Secondary sources are the reports of the person who relates the
testimony of an actual witness of or a participant in an event. In other words, the person

35
himself was not involved in the experience or incident but got the information from a
person who participated in it.

Criticism of Data

1. External critique of collected data. External criticism is concerned with the

genuineness of the document, the fact, or the evidence or remains. What are
assessed are the originality, author’s status, and conditions influencing production.
It deals with data relating to form and appearance, rather than to meaning and
content.

2. Internal critique of data. The next move in the criticism of gathered data is to
appraise them in terms of their internal content. Internal criticism deals with the
weighing of meanings in the statements.

Population and Sampling Technique

The researcher describes how he selected places, products, situations and

respondents. If regions were used, the different regions of the country are included in his
first list. The next question is: how did the researcher select the sample regions included
in the study? Are the selected regions representative of all the regions that make up the
Philippines? If barrios in a particular province were the focus of the study, how did the
researcher select the few barrios representative of all the barrios? On the other hand, if
ethnic groups were used, how did he arrive at the majority and minority ethnic groups of
the particular national survey? The researcher should describe how he went about
selecting the sampled places and sampled products and respondents in this part of the
methodology.

Sampling Technique

Sampling is the process of selecting a few from a bigger group to become the basis
for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of information, situation
or outcome, regarding the bigger group.

Selecting a sample rather than the total population has advantages and
disadvantages. On the advantage side, it saves time, financial and human resources.
But on the disadvantage side, the researcher finds only an estimate or a prediction of
information about the population’s characteristics or other data, which are essential to the
research study.

Two factors may influence the degree of certainty about the inferences drawn from
a sample:

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 1. Findings based upon larger samples have more certainty than those based on
smaller ones. As a rule, the larger the sample size, the more accurate the findings.

2. The greater the variation in the study population with respect to the characteristics
under study for a given sample size, the greater the uncertainty.

Bias must be avoided in the selection of the sample in order to achieve maximum
precision in estimates within a given sample size.

Types of Sampling

There are three major types of sampling designs:

Probability Sampling

A. Random / Probability Sampling Design. This is a sampling design wherein each

element in the population has an equal and independent chance of selection in the
sample. The concept of independence means that the choice of one element is not
dependent upon the choice of another element in the sampling or the selection or
rejection of the element does not affect the inclusion or exclusion of another.

Main Advantages of the Random / Probability Samples

• As they represent the total sampling population, the inferences drawn from
such samples can be generalized to the total sampling population.

• Some statistical tests based upon the theory of probability can be applied only
to data collected from random samples. Some of these tests are important for
establishing conclusive correlations.

Steps in Selecting a Simple Random Sample

• Define the target population

• Identify existing sampling frame of the target population or develop a new
one.
• Assign a unique number to each element in the frame.
• Determine the sampling size
• Randomly select the targeted number of population elements
Techniques in Drawing Random Samples

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 1. Lottery method (also known as fishbowl technique). The numbers representing
each element in the target population are placed on chips, cards, rolled paper, etc.
These are then placed in a container and thoroughly mixed. Next, blindly select
chips form the container until the desired sample size has been obtained.

2. Table of random numbers. The numbers in a table of random numbers are not
arranged in any particular pattern. In using this technique, the researcher should
blindly select a starting point and then systematically proceed in the table the
number of digits that are used should correspond to the total size of the target
population. Since this process is tedious and time consuming, a statistical
software may be used for large populations.

3. Randomly generated numbers using a computer program (random number

generator). Activate the computer program with random number generator. Key
in a specific range of numbers from hundreds, thousands, or millions and the
random numbers will appear… from which you will pick your choices.

B. Stratified Sampling (sometimes called Quota Random Sampling). This is a

probability sampling procedure in which the target population is first separated into
mutually exclusive, homogenous segments(strata), and then a simple random sample
is selected from each segment (stratum). The samples selected from the various
strata are then combined into a simple sample.

C. Systematic Sampling (or Interval Random Sampling). In this sampling procedure

selection is made of the first element for the sample, then subsequent elements are
selected using a fixed or systematic interval until the desired sample size is reached.
For example, after a random start, the researcher may systematically select from a
group of 100 students every third name appearing on the list of community form the
school to be able to get a targeted sample of thirty-three students.

D. Cluster Sampling. This is probability sampling procedure wherein elements of the

population are randomly selected in naturally occurring groupings or clusters. In this
kind of sampling, the selection of population elements is not individually but in
aggregates. The clustering of sampling units may be based on geographical
locations, types of organization or classes.

Non-probability Sampling

A. Availability Sampling. Under this sampling design, the sample elements are
selected from the target population based on their availability, on the convenience of
the researcher and/or voluntary / self-selection. According to Daniel (2012),
availability sampling is the most frequently used sampling procedure in research.
Some reasons for this are: it is the least complicated sampling procedure. However,
availability sampling has its weaknesses, such as; it cannot target specific elements
of the population. It is least reliable; it does not represent population elements that

38
 are not readily accessible, that are uncooperative and are hidden. Moreover, it
underestimates the variability in the population.

B. Purposive Sampling. This is a non-probability sampling procedure in which the

elements are selected from the target population on the basis of their fit with the
purposes of the study and specific inclusion and exclusion criteria.

C. Quota Sampling. This is a type of non-probability sampling procedure in which the

population is divided into mutually exclusive subcategories, and the researcher solicits
participation in the study from members of the subcategories until a target number of
elements to be sampled from the subcategories have been met.

D. Respondent-Assisted Sampling. In this sampling procedure, the elements are

selected from a target population with the assistance of previously selected population
elements. This sampling procedure is often used in studying social networks, rare
populations, and hidden populations such as drug dealers and users and other
criminals or commercial sex workers etc.

Mixed-Methods Sampling

A. Telephone-Based Sampling. This is a sampling procedure that utilizes telephone

numbers as sampling units. According to research, telephone surveys were the
dominant survey methodology since 1980s. there are two subtypes of telephone-
based sampling, list-based sampling taken from telephone directories, list of
employees, customers, etc. and random digit dialing.

B. Web-Based Sampling. In this sampling procedure, email addresses, website visits,

and recruited user of the internet are utilized as sampling units. There are three
categories of web-based sampling, namely: list-based sampling, sampling of website
visits, and sampling from recruited panels of potential participants of research
projects.

C. Address-based Sampling. In this kind sampling procedure, postal addresses are

utilized as sampling units. The ABS sampling is used mostly in national surveys.

D. Time-based Sampling. Units of time are used as sampling units in this type of
sampling. This is used in studying repeated outcomes that vary a great deal over
time. The units of time may be time of the day, days of the week, months of the year,
or some other time unit. The time intervals may be the sampling units. The length of
the interval would depend in part on the rate of occurrence of what is to be observed.
Preparation for this type of sampling typically involves visits to the locations where the
data will be collected, observing the density of the target population over time and
gathering information form informants.

E. Space-based Sampling. This refers to a set of sampling procedures that utilize

space as a sampling unit. This type of sampling is also referred to as area sampling,

39
 spatial sampling, location-based sampling, venue-based sampling and facility-based
sampling. The space may be geographical units or various locations or venues. It is
the principal mode of sampling utilized in nationwide personal interview survey,
environmental sampling, and ecological sampling.

Respondents of the Study

The respondents are described as small group or as a big group. Characteristics

may include sex, age levels, socio-economic status, marital status, level of intelligence,
education, type of community (urban or rural, barrio or town), ethnic group and other
characteristics sought by the researcher to describe his respondents. These
characteristics of respondents could be presented in table form.

Instrument Used

Instruments used for gathering data are described under Research Methodology.
The various aspects of the instruments are mentioned. Items in each instrument are
described, too. If validation of the test was made, this is also mentioned. In some studies,
several instruments are used. These could be related following the order of the
administration.

If the instrument is lengthy, this is generally placed in the appendix. Such

replacement has to be mentioned in the text and labeled as Appendix A, B, or C, as the
case may be.

This part describes the tools used to measure the variables. In most cases, this
means detailing the survey used. If a researcher developed a survey on his own or
modified one which is the literature, he needs to include this plus the cover letter in the
appendix. If he is using a well-researched questionnaire, reference it clearly.

Good Instruments

Good instruments are always sought in research work. Instrument are implements
or apparatuses necessary to facilitate and validate an assessment being made. An
instrument is termed good if it suits its purpose, when data gathered could be analyzed
or treated and when it sheds light, finally, to the research problems. Hence an instrument
measures aspect of the situations under study. Measurement is a descriptive process
and a substantial part of evaluation. Since instruments measure phenomena, one could
also say that when one uses an instrument, he is a way evaluating something.

Good instruments are determined by answers to the following questions:

1. Is the instrument appropriate for the study?

40
 2. Was there a trial run of the instrument to determine the difficulty index and validity
index of each item included if this is researcher-made?
3. Are the items in the instrument relevant to the problem on hand?
4. How long does it take to finish answering the instrument?
5. Are questions clear?
6. Has the instrument stood the test of time? How popular is it?
7. What are the critiques of its use? Were these considered?
8. Will responses yield to quantification and descriptive qualifications?
9. Is the instrument easy to administer?
10. Is scoring facilitated?

Researcher-Made Instruments

This type of instrument is very popular in research. Scrutinizing research studies

will reveal that researcher-made instruments are among the overall set of instruments
used in research. One or two or more of these researcher-made materials are combined
with other standardized instruments in the assessment of individuals, operations,
situations. This part of the chapter will describe the kinds of researcher-made instruments
and present examples of these, such as:

1. Personal Information Blanks. Information about the respondent is important to the

researcher. Personal information is sources of descriptions about the respondent.
Such information is usually included in the methodology part of the research report.
Part of this chapter deals with descriptions of respondents which call for data
usually gathered through the personal information sheet. On the other hand, the
personal information form is the source of the variables needed in the research
project. The following is a sample.

2. Questionnaire. A questionnaire is defined as a form for securing response to

certain questions. It is distributed through mail or is filled out by the respondent
under the supervision of the investigator. The answers to the questions could be
factual, intended to obtain information about considerations or practices of which
the respondent is presumed to have knowledge. They could be information or an
understanding of situations, materials, systems or individuals; the questions could
be concerned with status, including the personal and professional characteristics
of respondents. Questionnaires have been useful to secure information from
varied and scattered sources.

The questionnaire is the most commonly used instrument in gathering data. Used
with discretion and formulated with care, this could be a good tool. Otherwise, the
questionnaire would be a stumbling block of a researcher. To minimize frustrations
in the use of questionnaires the following pointers are suggested:

1. The questionnaire should be short and should include only questions

pertinent to the problem under study.

41
 2. The questionnaire should be tried out, i.e,, a trial run should be made.
3. It should be worded in such a way that the respondents could comprehend
meaning easily.
4. It should require a minimum of writing.
5. Questions should be so framed that responses could be classified
descriptively and if possible, quantitatively. The latter leads to statistical
treatment of collected data.
6. It should be so arranged as to facilitate classification and analysis.

Validation of the Instrument

In this section, suggestion, corrections and refinement of the draft may be

explained thoroughly. The different persons involved in the corrections and refinement
of the research instrument may be mentioned. After the refinement of the research
instrument, testing the validity and reliability of the instrument may be done.

For the validity, experts in line with the field of the study may be requested to go
over the research instrument.

For reliability, the researcher may use any of the four methods. These are test-
retest method, split-half, parallel form, and internal consistency.

In order to establish the content validity and reliability of a non-standardized

questionnaire, certain procedures and techniques need to be carried out.

1. Consultation with experts is one, in order to ensure that theoretical constructs

directly related to the major concepts of the study are fully established. Comments
and suggestions from the experts are closely observed and considered in
improving the questionnaire and making it a valid tool for data collection.

2. Pre-testing of the revised questionnaire to thirty (30) individuals who resemble the
characteristics of the intended respondents of the study but who will not be the
actual respondents. The purpose of this trial run is to determine the language
suitability and comprehensibility of the item, ese in following directions form the
point of view of the respondents, the average length of time required to finish
answering the questionnaires, as well as to determine other problems relevant to
the activity. These purposes have to be explained to the try-out respondents
before they are given the questionnaire. They will also be instructed to underline
words and/or encircle the item numbers which are not clear to them, and finally, to
write their suggestions, if any.

Data Gathering Procedures

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 In research, the required information could be taken from either primary or
secondary sources, or both. The information from primary sources are called primary
data, while those coming from secondary sources are referred to as secondary data.

This part clarifies the data gathering steps, procedures and time schedule. It
explains for whom and how permission to conduct study will be of obtained, how it will be
administered to and retrieved from the respondents. How long it will take the respondents
to answer each instrument and when the data gathering will be done.

This part of the chapter on Research Methodology narrates how the researcher
went about gathering data. Questions to be answered are the following:

1. Who gathered the data?

2. From where are they gathered?
3. When were the data gathered?
4. How were the data gathered?
5. Were there special teams involved?
6. Was the collection by mail or was it personally handled by the researcher?
7. What were the difficulties encountered, if any?
8. Was there a need for special ways of collecting the data?
9. How long did it take to gather the data?
10. What about the administration of the data-gathering instrument?

Statistical Treatment of Data

In this part, the questions of the study in Chapter 1 under the Statement of the
Problems will be answered using the statistical tools, which may be described, and the
formula may be explained. Moreover, the level of probability may be stated to determine
the degree of significance of the findings. The data must be described how will it be
analyzed and the rationale for the selection of the particular technique. It is crucial that
the variables are defined operationally in order to be ready to specify the statistical
analysis.

Treatment of data includes the classification made, the tallying, and the statistical
computations made. It is advisable that the researcher-writer look back at the formulated
sub-problems or objectives and/or hypotheses of the research study, using theses as
guide to the presentation of treatment used. Statistical formulas are presented in this
part. In the presentation of formulas, it would be beneficial to the reader if symbols are
interpreted or explained.

Descriptive Analysis

According to Coakes (2013) descriptive statistics are used to explore the data
collected and to summarize and describes those data.

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 Research results may be represented in terms of percentage, proportions, ratios
and rates. As pointed out by Healey (2010), percentage and proportion provide a frame
of reference for reporting research results by standardizing the raw data, that is,
percentage to the base 100 and proportion to the base 1.00. the mathematical definitions
of percentage and proportions are:

Proportion: P = f/n

Percentage: % = (f/n) x 100

Where:

f = frequency or the number of cases in any category

n = number of cases in all categories

Research results may also be summarized simply and clearly through ratios and
rates. Ratios are useful for comparing the number of cases in the categories of a variable.
In this statistic, the frequency of one category is divided by the frequency in another
category, instead of standardizing the distribution of the variable to the base 100 or 1.00
as what is done in computing percentages and proportions. Below is the mathematical
definition of a ratio:

Ration = f1/f2

Where: f1 = the number of cases in the first category

f2 = the number of cases in the second category

On the other hand, rates provide yet another way of summarizing the distribution
of a single variable. Rates are defined as “the number of actual occurrences of some
phenomenon divided by the number of possible occurrences per some unit of time”.

Another technique of presenting large sets of data is through the frequency

distribution. A frequency distribution is a listing, often expressed in chart form, that pairs
values of a variable with their frequency, or the number of times the value occurs in the
sample.

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency are expressed as the mean, median, mode and
midrange.

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Mean

The mean, which is also called arithmetic mean, is represented by “x-bar”. This is
computed by adding all the values of the variable x, and dividing the sum by the total
number of samples, represented by n.

Median

When the data are ranked in proper order according to size, the value of the data
that occupies the middle position is the median. The sample median is represented by
“x-tilde” or sample median. To find the median, three steps have to be followed: rank the
data, determine the depth of the media and determine the value of the median by counting
the ranked data.

Mode

This refers to the value of x that occurs most frequently in a set of data. If there is
no number that occurs more than once, the sample has no mode.

Midrange

This refers to the number which is found exactly midway between a lowest data
value and a highest data value. To find the midrange, get the average of the low and the
high value.

Measures of variability or Scatter Significance

Variability is the extent to which the scores tend to scatter or spread above and
below the average. It is clearly important to have some convenient method of indicating
the variability of the group.

Another way of analyzing quantitative data is to look at the spread, or variability,

of the set of data, and we are referring to the measures of dispersion, which include the
range, variance and standard deviation. The simplest measure of dispersion is the range,
which is the difference in value between the highest value and the lowest value in a set
of data.

Range. The range has already been referred to as the distance between the lowest and
the highest scores plus one. It is not a god measure of variability since it uses only two
scores and the rest of the score lose their identity. It is usually a very untrustworthy
measure of variability. The shift in a single score may greatly alter the range and thereby
materially increase or reduce the apparent variability of the group.

45
Quartile deviation. The quartile deviation as a measure of variability is used when the
measure of central tendency is the median. It is a measure of variability that avoids being
unduly influenced by extreme scores and is represented by Q. it is one-half the distance
between the first and third quartile. For this reason, it is often referred to as the semi-
interquartile range. It may be used as a measure of the average distance of each quartile
from the median.

Standard Deviation. The standard deviation from the mean is used as a measure of
variability when the measure of central tendency is the mean. The standard deviation
has may uses in educational measurement and other areas. It is usually represented by
the Greek letter called sigma and defined as the square root of the mean of the squares
of the deviation of the scores from their mean; that in a normal distribution.

Statistical Inference

Statistical inference constitutes the drawing of generalizations from numerical

information available from sample groups to a large group, from which information has
not been obtained. Inferential statistics are statistical techniques used to infer the
characteristics of the population based on the estimate of a sample.

The Sampling Distribution of Sample Means (SDSM), two types of inferences can
be made: estimating the value of a population parameter and testing a hypothesis.

A hypothesis is a tentative statement that something is true, which needs to be

proven through statistical information. In research, the researcher pursues a belief or
concern that an idea is true; however, for the purpose of objectivity, a scientific testing
process has to be done. The null hypothesis expressed as Ho is the hypothesis subjected
to testing. The alternative hypothesis, written as H1 is also known as the research
hypothesis since it represents the idea that the researcher theorizes in his study.

Level of Significance

Before samples are drawn, the researcher usually specifies in his study the
maximum probability of committing an error. This is called the level of significance.
Between α (null hypothesis is rejected) and β (null hypothesis is accepted), α is the one
more often used. The α levels of significance which are more commonly used are .05
and .01. An α level of .05 or 5% means there are about five chances of one hundred that
the null hypothesis will be rejected when it is true; hence, the researcher is in fact saying
that probability that he could be wrong is .05 or 5%. Similarly, at an α level of .01 is
therefore more significant that an α -.05. Some statisticians consider findings significant
at .01 as highly significant only at .05 level as not significant. Findings which are probably
significant needs further investigation.

46
Review Questions:

What is the reason in choosing the research methodology?

Differentiate the population from the sample
Who can be the respondents for the research proposal?
Identify and discuss the rules in writing a research instrument
Draft a research instrument
Write the complete Chapter 3

CHAPTER 6 (CHAPTER 4)

ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Objectives

At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

Describe the process for data preparation and analysis

Discuss validation, editing, and coding of survey data
Describe data tabulation and analysis approaches
Show the correct way of organizing research data
Analyze and interpret the meaning of the results
Apply the skill of integrating documentations to generate meaningful discussions
on the data gathered

Introduction

This chapter constitutes the presentation and the result of the investigation. The
analysis and interpretation are comprehensively discussed and supported by previous
findings of the researches. Textual discussion is usually accompanied by either tables,
figures, or graphs.

Presentation

The process of organizing data into logical, sequential and meaningful categories
and classification to make them amenable to study the interpretation.

There are three modes of presentation

1. Textual – uses statements with numerals or number to describe data

2. Tabular – use presentation through tables
3. Graphical – clarifies further in a more vivid fashion certain facts, trends,
relationships in cases

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Tables – this is the systematic arrangement of related data in which classes of numerical
facts or data are given each a row and heir subclasses are given each a column in order
to present the relationship of the sets or numerical facts or data in a definite, compact and
understanding form or forms.

There are rules to consider in Handling Tables

1. Good tables are relatively simple, concentrating on a limited number of ideas.

2. If a table is large enough to occupy more than half-page, it should be placed on a
page by itself, carefully centered for a balanced effect. It is short, it may be placed
on the page with textual discussion that relates to it.
3. Text references should identify tables by number, rather than by such expressions
as, “The Table above,” or “The following table”.
4. Tables should not exceed the page size of the manuscript.
5. The word Table is centered between the page margins and typed capitalizing the
first letter of each important word, followed by the table number in Arabic numerals.
The caption is placed two spaces below the word table, and arranged in inverted
pyramid from. No terminal punctuation is used. The main title should be brief,
clearly indicating the nature of the data presented.
6. Top of the table is placed two spaces below the last line of the title. Column
headings, or box heads, should be clearly labeled, describing the nature and units
of measure of date listed.
7. If numbers are shortened by the omission of zeros, that fact should be mentioned
in the subtitle (In millions of dollars-in thousands of tens)
8. Numerical data are usually arranged in descending order of magnitude or
frequency, so that comparisons by position can be noted readily.
9. Decimal points should always be aligned in the column.
10. When footnotes are needed to explain items, small Arabic letters or typewriter key
symbols are used. Table footnotes are placed just below the table, rather than at
the bottom of the page.

Figures – the device that presents statistical data in graphic form. Figures should not be
intended as substitutes for textual description, but included to emphasize certain
significant relationships.

Characteristics of Good Figures

1. The title should clearly describe the nature of data presented.

2. Figures should be simple enough and be understandable.
3. Numerical data upon which the figure is based should be presented in an
accompanying table, if it is not included in the figure itself.
4. Data should be presented carefully and accurately.
5. Figures should be used sparingly.

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 6. Figures that occupy more than a half age should be placed on a separate page.
7. Figures should follow, never precede, the related textual discussions.
8. Figures are numbered with Arabic rather than Roman numerals.
9. Title of the figure is place below the figure.

Analysis

The process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of categories
according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem.

Classification of Data

Classification is grouping together the data with similar characteristics

Bases of classification are the following

1. Qualitative
2. Quantitative
3. Geographical
4. Chronological

Interpretation

It gives the results of the analysis, makes inferences pertinent to the research
relations studied, and draws conclusions about these relations. Interpretation of Data is
to form inferences, interpretations, conclusions and/or generalizations from the collected
data. They are designed to represent characteristics of groups and are to be applied to
groups rather than to individual cases one at a time.

The organization of the presentation and interpretation of results varies according

to the research method used. The number of chapters on the presentation of findings or
results could be one or more. In historical research writing, the narrative is presented
following a chronological series or topical chapters.

In descriptive research, especially the survey type: the presentation of results

follows a pattern. Results are usually given captions. It would be a good idea to follow
the hypotheses or objectives or sub-problems in the presentation of results. Findings
could be presented in one chapter if there are only a few. If there is much material to be
presented, they could be written in several chapters. A one-chapter presentation could
be presented by giving the title of the chapter as “Presentation, Analysis, and
Interpretation of Data”. In the same chapter, captions of what is going to be presented,
deduced from the hypotheses, sub-problems of objectives are formed. Under each of the
captions, the appropriate tables of results are shown.

49
 After the presentation of the table, it is analyzed, and salient findings are
mentioned and interpreted. Sometimes illustrative materials such as bar graphs,
polygons, charts, diagrams, photographs, photostats, and drawings are presented.
These pictorial and graphical presentations reinforce understanding of the tables at a
glance. Data presented in illustrations are taken from the tables they represent. The
tables and figures picture the status of the practices, customs, behavior, or conditions
and other targets of the study.

Considerations in Graphic Presentation

The only justification for the use of illustrations in reports is that it assists in the
analysis, interpretation, and clarification of the text material. If properly chosen, carefully
drawn, and accurately presented, this can make many of the statements appearing in the
body of the report more meaningful. In utilizing graphic presentation to assist in
presenting the data, you have to avoid making a report the collection of tables and charts
with little or no explanation or interpretation of the data.

In choosing the type of graphic presentation you have to consider the intended
group of readers as important just as to other phases of report writing. If the prospective
reader will appreciate analyzing and comparing the five different but related situations in
one chart, so that should be presented. So, the consideration here should be what type
of reader will examine the illustration.

Evaluation of Tabulated Data

The researcher must make certain that the survey actually measured what it was
designed to measure before doing the interpretation of the results of the data to be
tabulated. To determine whether the researcher do what they said they do, the validity of
the answers can be checked by observing a sample of the respondents to the
questionnaire. Another the validity of the answers can be checked by including non-
existent possibilities in the answer columns of the questionnaire. For example if the
researcher would include the brand names of different scent which have not been written
under the question: “Which of the following brand is the best?” it would be probable that
a good percentage of the respondents would not only check those which are actually on
the market but also several which were not.

Another step-in evaluation might be an attempt to compare the result of the survey
with the results of the different type of survey with the results of the different type of survey
made in the same field. Which this can be done by checking questionnaire results with
interview responses indicated in a correlation. And the validity of piece of research may
be indicated by looking at the results of the survey and comparing those results with actual
subsequent events.

50
Analysis and Interpretation of Data

After the data have been gathered, counted, checked, and examined, the next step
is to analyze and determine what they indicate; the results of the findings must be
interpreted. Analysis should bring out the salient findings.

So, Interpreting the data is one of the most important steps in arriving at a final
acceptable conclusion of the problem which the researcher has undertaken. However,
interpreting the information which has been gathered is not an easy task and can hardly
be accomplished by a novice. There are criteria as basis for choice of interpreter:

• He should be skilled, competent, and well-versed in the field in which he is

working.
• He should be a patient individual who is not content with superficial research
but who demands of himself and his field a thorough analysis and investigation
into all primary and secondary sources available.
• His viewpoint should not be narrow; he should be able to see the broad aspects
of his findings.
• He should have good organizational ability so that he can readily integrate the
results of the qualitative comments with the qualitative facts.

In the process of interpreting the data, the researcher must continually strive to avoid:

• Showing bias or prejudice.

• Assuming that because some aspects of two or more situations are similar all
aspects are.
• Arriving at conclusions on the basis of inadequate evidence
• Assuming that one situation is the case if the data prove that a second situation
is not.
• Making recommendations on inadequate data
• Comparing information or facts which are not really comparable.

Scope of the Interpretation

In this part of the research, it is important that the researcher decides how great
an area of his interpretation will be encompassed. Shall he simply point out the brief
statements of what the various percentages indicate or shall he go further and discuss
the implications which one may draw from his findings? This may be that the interpreter
feels that his task is not completed until he not only interprets the statistical data and
discusses its implications, but also offers his recommendations. But there is even an
additional step that he may wish to take and that is to point out in detail how his
recommendations best carried through into actual practice.

51
 It is also important that the report writer decides early the exact work on how far
he intends to go with the report which will carry the analysis or recommendations for future
action be included. But if the recommendations are submitted, how will it be offered?
These are some of the decision that must be made in the writing of the report.

When one asks the question: How shall I interpret results? The answers to this
question are the following:

• Use empirical observations to explain results.

• Use review of related literature and studies to explain occurrences.
• See similarities and dissimilarities of your findings with other researchers’ findings
in their researchers.

The Experimental research results are presented differently. For this type of
research study, a series of chapters could be presented. One chapter may deal on the
equipment and materials used, another on the experimental design, another on the
detailed procedure and the results. Explanations of materials and equipment used are
necessary because the research procedure is dependent upon these. Usually, the
emphasis is given to the groups or material or products under study and the experimental
and control groups. Then followed by the presentation of the results which includes the
two groups the experimental and control which are usually presented side by side in
tables to vividly see existing differences, if there is any. The descriptive research report,
organization of results may follow the hypotheses. The ordering of results would show
some order and facilitate ease in understanding occurrences.

Then the findings are interpreted in the light of result found by other researchers.
Also, the empirical observations may be used to explain occurrences. This part utilizes
the reading the researchers have previously done. Interpretations deduced from reviews
of literature and other research studies should be properly documented.

Review Questions

What is the process for data preparation and analysis?

How is validation, editing, and coding of survey data?
Write the complete Chapter 4

CHAPTER 7 (CHAPTER 5)

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Objectives

52
At the end of the chapter, you will be able to:

Determine the objective and rationale of drawing conclusions and stating the
recommendations
Show samples of conclusions and recommendations drawn from a study
State and realize the importance of coming up with correct and well-formulated
conclusions and recommendations.

Introduction

This chapter is devoted to the summary, conclusions, recommendations or

implications of the findings for further research. The summary should state as briefly as
possible the statement or purpose of the study and the research methodologies
undertaken by the researcher. The conclusions and recommendations should be based
on the findings. In stating the conclusion, care should be observed by the researcher as
he has full understanding of his work. It should not appear like restatement of findings.
Ideas should be integrated to enrich and expand data-based findings.

The part of the chapter, the researcher will describe the insight of the overall
strength or weakness of the study. Depending on the research conducted, either
quantitative research or qualitative research, which the quantitative research uses
statistical criteria to form conclusions, while the qualitative measure draws conclusions
from themes and holistic meanings derived context of behavior studied. According to
Tan, (n.d.) conclusions are logical outgrowth of the summary of findings as a result of
conceptualizations and generalization in response to the problems used in the study.

The Summary of Findings

The summary starts with the purpose of the study. A statement spells out the
objectives or hypotheses. A short paragraph describes the procedure. Then followed by
the findings. Presentation of the findings usually follows the heading in the chapter on
presentation of results, analysis and interpretation. However, in the summary, a brief
presentation of results is made and tables found int eh previous chapter are omitted.
Emphasis is given on results that are “outstanding”. No interpretation of occurrences is
made. The disadvantages of using only the summary in appraising the research study
are the following.

• Since it is brief, misinterpretation may arise.

• The entire picture of the study is left t one’s imagination.
• One’s imagination may not be right.
• The summary does not spell out the details
• Sometimes there arises a need for going back to other chapters.

53
 On the other hand, summaries are written for certain reasons, among which are:
(1) for easy reading, and (2) to save time. The Summary of Findings is the condensed
version or the abridged coverage of the main points highlighted in the study. It also tells
the result of the data gathered after they have been tallied, computed, compared,
contrasted, interpreted and evaluated. This also includes a brief statement of the
problem, a description of the main features of the method, a listing of the main results
and the writer’s conclusion based on the data gathered. This also includes the findings
of the research which sum up interpretations of analyzed data presented to answer each
research question in the study.

A component of summary of the findings is to provide a discussion for each of

the findings, using anchor verbiage that justifies rather than distorts the intent of the
findings. Tell us how the findings are important or relevant based on the aim and scope
of your study. It includes a synopsis of the following:

• The objective of the study.

• The subjects who served as respondents to the study either as respondents or
as key resource persons.
• The sampling procedure conducted to determine the sample subjects.
• The method of research employed the study.
• The research instrument used to gather data.
• The statistics applied to treat the data obtained.

Remember when writing a summary: Use verbs in the past tense.

Guidelines in writing the summary of findings.

1. There should be a brief statement about the main purpose of the study, the population
correspondents, and the period of the study, method of research used, the research
instrument, and the sampling design. There should be no explanations made.
2. The findings may be lumped up together but clarify demands that specific question
under the statement of the problem must be written first followed by the findings that
would answer it.
3. The findings should be textual generalizations; that is, a summary of the important
data consisting of text and numbers or statistical measures woven into a meaningful
statement. No deduction not inference nor interpretation should be made otherwise
it will only be duplicated in the conclusion.
4. Only the important findings, the highlights of the data, should be included in the
summary, especially those upon which the conclusions should be based.
5. Findings are not explained not elaborated upon anymore. They should be stated as
concisely as possible.
6. No new data should be introduced in the summary of findings.

54
Conclusions

The conclusions are general statements inferences and abstractions based on the
findings, and they should answer the specific questions raised at the beginning of the
investigation. They should be logical and valid outcomes of the study, and they should
be stated concisely and clearly and limited only to the subject of the study. Conclusions
are derived from the findings of the study. It is considered as the limitations of the
applicability of research findings. These are the general statements that could be
explained by the data gathered.

Steps in Making Conclusion

1. Analyze the implications or the suggested meanings of the date presented.

2. Refer back to the rationale of the study as discussed in the introductory part of the
research, the specific objectives, and he hypothesis.
3. Make a generalized judgement out of the implications or suggested meanings in the
light of the specific objectives/problems of the study.

Remember when writing a conclusion: The sentences are constructed in the present
tense.

Guidelines in Writing Conclusion

1. They should not contain any numeral because numerals generally limit the forceful
effects or impact and scope of a generalization. No conclusions should be made that
are not based upon the findings.
2. The Conclusions should appropriately answer the given under the statement of the
problem. The study becomes almost meaningless if the questions raised are not
properly answered by the conclusions.
3. The conclusion should point out what were factually learned from the inquiry.
However, no conclusions should be drawn from the implied or indirect effects of the
findings.
4. Conclusions should be formatted concisely, that is brief and short, yet they convey all
necessary information resulting from the study as required by the specific questions.
5. They should be worded as if they are 100% true and correct. They should not give
any hint that the researcher has some doubts about their validity and reliability. The
use of qualifiers such as probably, perhaps, maybe, and the like should be avoided
as much as possible.
6. The conclusions should refer only to the population, area or subjects of the study.
7. Conclusions should be repetitions of any statements anywhere in the research. They
may be recapitulations if necessary but they should be worded differently and they
should convey the same information as the statements recapitulated.

55
Factors that a researcher should guard against:

• Bias
• Incorrect generalization
• Incorrect deduction
• Incorrect comparison
• Abuse correlation data
• Limited information furnished by any one ratio
• Misleading impression concerning magnitude of basic variable

The good concluding statements do not repeat the data on which the same statements
are based. So generally, the statements derive from findings could be grouped under
some appropriate headings. The conclusions consider the limitation of the applicability
of research findings.

The following are pointers for appraising the validity of a conclusion.

• The conclusion should agree with the facts. Only facts revealed in the study
should be mentioned which could be done by looking back into the data and the
findings previously mentioned and the investigator should also assess the
conclusions with common sense.
• Conclusions should be supported by findings.
• The conclusions should state the simple terms
• Conclusions should be directed and the generalization made could be a basis for
further study.
• The conclusions should avoid preconceived ideas and prejudices and only facts
with actual basis should be used.

Recommendations

The recommendations should be derived from the findings and the conclusions.
This is the part that envisions how the results could be used for the betterment of
situations and life. The people, agencies or institutions who may use the results and how
they could be used the same are mentioned.

Important Pointers in Making Recommendations

• The applications or recommendations should be made directly from data gathered

and from findings and otherwise could be labeled accordingly.
• The use of non-technical language is suggested.
• Suggest a few feasible recommendations rather than many which could hardly be
attained.

56
 • The extension studies springing out of the research study could be enumerated for
future investigations.
• Recommendations are meant to improve a particular field of study, a situation or
life in general.

The recommendations are based on the conclusions and they should be action-
oriented, feasible, practical and attainable but they should help solve problems
discovered in the study. However, no recommendations should be given for any problem
that was not discovered not discussed in the study.

Guidelines in Writing Recommendation

• Recommendation should aim to solve problems discovered in the investigation.

• No recommendations should be made for a problem nor anything for that matter,
that as not been discovered in the study.
• Recommendations should aim for the ideal but they must be feasible, practical and
attainable
• The recommendation should be logical and valid
• Recommendation should be addressed to the persons, entities, agencies or
officers in the position to implement them
• There should be a recommendation that further researcher can use to verify,
amplify or negate the findings of the study.

Reference Materials

Bibliography or List of References – the selected materials relevant to and used in

the study are to be included in this part which includes books, monographs, pamphlets,
master’s theses, doctoral dissertations, articles, written speeches, and other research
studies reported in journals or elsewhere. The Polytechnic University of the Philippines
adopts the American Psychological Association (APA) format. The following are general
pointers in writing the bibliography:

• The bibliography should be arranged in a definite order, either alphabetically or

chronologically, by surnames of authors
• This list of references should be typed single-spaced with double-spaced between
entries.
• The bibliography or list of references should follow immediately the last chapter
• Page number should be continuous
• Using the long bibliography materials, group materials by topic, with the
alphabetical ordering preserved under each of the headings or topics.
• The sources of materials included in the footnotes be included in the bibliography
• The unpublished theses should be placed as the last reference

57
 • The references should be presented consecutively

Sample Bibliography: APA

The basic format for a book citation requires listing the author's name, the title of
the book, the publisher's name, and the date of publication. Edited books, when cited in
full, will list the editor's name instead of an author’s name.

Becsey, L., Wachsberger, P., Samuels, S., et al (Directors). (2008). In the valley of Elah.
[DVD] Burbank, CA: Distributed by Warner Home Video.

Ginsberg, J. P., Ayers, E., Burriss, L., & Powell, D. A. (2008). Discriminative delay
Pavlovian eyeblink conditioning in veterans with and without posttraumatic stress
disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 809-823.
doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.08.009

Glantz, A. (2009). The war comes home: Washington's battle against America's
veterans. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Jakupcak, M., Luterek, J., Hunt, S., Conybeare, D., & McFall, M. (2008). Posttraumatic
stress and its relationship to physical health functioning in a sample of Iraq and
Afghanistan war veterans seeking postdeployment VA health care. Journal of
Nervous and Mental Disease, 196, 425-428.

Jensen, G. & Wiest, A. A. (2001). War in the age of technology myriad faces of modern
armed conflict. New York: New York University Press. Retrieved from the
NetLibrary database.

Review Questions

How do you determine the objective and rationale of drawing conclusions and
stating of the recommendations?
Give examples of conclusions and recommendations drawn from a study
What is the importance of coming up with correct and well-formulated conclusions
and recommendations?
Write the complete Chapters 1 to 5

58
References:

Cooper, D. (2015). Business Research Methods, 12th Edition. McGraw Hill

Cooper, D. and Schindler, P. (2011). Business Research Methods, 11th Edition. McGraw
Hill Publication

Salvador, S.M., Baysa, G.J.T, Geronimo, E.C.F. Fundamentals of Business Research

McCarthy, C. and Perreault, W. (2012). Essentials of Marketing: A Marketing Strategy
Planning Approach, 13th Edition. McGraw Hill International Publication.
Smith S.M., Albaum, G.S, (2012). Basic Marketing Research

59