FLAXMAN'S HOMER ILLUSTRATIONS

by

JOHN RADCLIFFE STUART

B.A. The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia, 1977

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF ARTS

in

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

(Department of Fine Arts)

We a c c e p t this t h e s i s as conforming

to the required standard

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

F e b r u a r y 1986

(c) John R a d c l i f f e S t u a r t , 1986

7 8
In p r e s e n t i n g this thesis in partial f u l f i l m e n t of the
r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r an advanced degree a t the University
of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make
it freely available for reference and study. I further
agree t h a t permission f o r extensive copying of this thesis
f o r s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may be g r a n t e d by the head o f my
department or by h i s or her representatives. It is
understood that copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of this thesis
for f i n a n c i a l gain s h a l l not be a l l o w e d w i t h o u t my written
permission.

Department o f Fine Arts

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia
1956 Main Mall
V a n c o u v e r , Canada
V6T 1Y3

Date F e b r u a r y 14, 1986

ABSTRACT

S i n c e t h e i r a p p e a r a n c e i n 1793 J o h n F l a x m a n ' s illustrations

to Homer's I l i a d a n d O d y s s e y h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e

a n c i e n t a r t t h a t i n s p i r e d t h e i r commission. I n t h i s t h e s i s they

are examined from a s t a n d p o i n t o t h e r than t h a t adopted i nthe

major l i t e r a t u r e . Besides s u s t a i n i n g F l a x m a n ' s own a s s e r t i o n

that the designs w e r e t o be u s e d f o r s c u l p t u r e , t h e i r conception

is r e l a t e d t o o u t l i n e designs submitted t o h i s former emloyer o f

12 y e a r s , i n d u s t r i a l i s t J o s i a h Wedgwood. More significantly,

t h e i r most c o n s p i c u o u s characteristics--their two-dimensional

space, absence o f c o l o u r , t e x t u r e , and d e t a i l and most n o t i c e a b l y

t h e i r rendering i n simple o u t l i n e — a r e , f o r the f i r s t time,

p l a c e d i n another context of considerable importance i nthe

18th Century. L i n e drawing and i t s m u l t i p l e - p r o d u c t i o n counter-

part, l i n e engraving, w e r e t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l modes o f c h o i c e

in the t r a n s m i s s i o n o f e s s e n t i a l ideas i n a wide v a r i e t y o f

d i s c i p l i n e s i n c l u d i n g h i s own d e s i g n s f o r Wedgwood. Exclusive

of the connection with ancient a r t , simple l i n e w o u l d have been

regarded as t h e most s u i t a b l e form o f i l l u s t r a t i o n f o r the epic

poems w h i c h were b e i n g s t u d i e d a t t h e time as models o f t h e

e s s e n t i a l human s o c i e t y . T h i s t h e s i s t r e a t s Flaxman's designs

as one a s p e c t o f t h e e f f o r t t o d e f i n e u n i v e r s a l t r u t h s and t h e

r e l a t e d need t o c r e a t e c o n c e p t u a l m o d e l s o f them i n t h e 1 8 t h

Century.

To e s t a b l i s h t h e d e s i g n s i n this-j broader c o n t e x t , t h e f i r s t

four chapters s e t out i n succession: the search f o r , and '

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f , the e s s e n t i a l i n the 18th Century; Flaxman's

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o i t w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o h i s e d u c a t i o n and

12 y e a r a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Wedgwood; t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e Homer

designs themselves f r o m h i s s t u d i e s o f a r t w o r k s he h a d s e e n

and, the c r i t i c a l reviews of the i l l u s t r a t i o n s and t h e i r

s u b s e q u e n t a d o p t i o n by o t h e r a r t i s t s a s s o u r c e s of inspiration.

The t h e s i s concludes by c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y z i n g Flaxman's achieve-

ment, r e v i e w i n g h i s o b j e c t i v e s f o r t h e s e r i e s a n d r e l a t i n g t h e

designs t o i n d u s t r i a l / w o r k s h o p d r a w i n g s by Flaxman and o t h e r

contemporary artists.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract i i

List of I l l u s t r a t i o n s v

Acknowledgements xi

Chapter

I H i s t o r i c a l and P h i l o s o p h i c a l b a c k g r o u n d :
the e s s e n t i a l i n the 18th Century 1
Footnotes 15

II Flaxman's I n t r o d u c t i o n t o the E s s e n t i a l 19
Footnotes 47

III The A c t u a l P r o d u c t i o n o f t h e D e s i g n s 53
Footnotes 68

IV T h e R e c e p t i o n R e c e i v e d by t h e E n g r a v i n g s :
C r i t i c a l comments by F l a x m a n ' s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s
and t h e u s e o f d e s i g n s by o t h e r a r t i s t s 70
Footnotes 88

V Flaxman's Achievement:
C r i t i c a l A n a l y s i s o f t h e d e s i g n s and t h e i r place
among i n d u s t r i a l d r a w i n g s 92
Footnotes 109

Bibliography 111

Illustrations 123

i-v
L I S T OF ILLUSTRATIONS

1 T h e t i s B r i n g i n g t h e Armour t o A c h i l l e s E n g r a v i n g , after
F l a x m a n by Tomaso P i r o l i , I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 31.

2 Anthony's O r a t i o n over the Dead Caesar, Pencil and grey

wash. 22.3 X 34.1 cm.

3a Sosias Painter R e d - F i g u r e cup interior

A c h i l l e s and P a t r o c l u s

3b Sosias Painter R e d - F i g u r e cup e x t e r i o r

I n t r o d u c t i o n o f H e r a c l e s t o Olympus

4 Henry F l i t c r o f t : Pantheon Temple Stourhead, Wiltshire

England

5 William Sutherland : The S h i p - B u i l d e r ' s A s s i s t a n t o r

Marine A r c h i t e c t u r e , 1755, P l a t e I I I S e c t i o n o f a S h i p .

6 The M a n u f a c t u r e r ' s Arms, 1784. The Trustees of the

Wedgwood Museum, B a r l a s t o n . Staffs.

7 John Flaxman, the e l d e r : A r c h i t e c t u r e , Marble, Lord

B a r n a r d , Raby C a s t l e , Durham. 117.7 cms high.

8a Ann R u s s e l l and h e r son Henry : monument Died 1780-81.

All S a i n t s , Lydd, Kent.

8b A f i g u r e f r o m The Tower o f t h e Winds i n A t h e n s . Depicted

i n James S t u a r t and N i c h o l a s R e v e t t : The A n t i q u i t i e s o f
A t h e n s , 1762, V o l . I , C h a p t e r I I I , P l a t e XVII.

9 Barbara Bourchier : monument. Died 1784. St Mary,

Newent, G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e .

10 Mrs. Sarah Morley : monument. D i e d 1784. Gloucester

Cathedral.

11 R e v e r a n d Thomas and Mrs. Ball : monument, 1784-86.

Chichester Cathedral.

12 Mrs. S i d d o n s : Jasperware portrait After Flaxman's model

of 1782.

13 F l a x m a n ' s own d e s i g n f o r t h e Chessmen. Probably 1783.

L a t e r executed i n J a s p e r w a r e by Wedgwood.

14 The C r o w n i n g o f a K i t h a r i s t . E n g r a v i n g f r o m D' H a n c a r v i l l e ' s

C a b i n e t o f t h e Hon. W i l l i a m H a m i l t o n , 1766-67, V o l . 3 .

v
15 Kitharist Vase. D e s i g n by J o h n F l a x m a n , 1786.

16 P e a s a n t a s l e e p on t h e p l i n t h of a b u i l d i n g . Pen and i n k ,
5.8 x 10.5 cm.

17 B a t t l e o f t h e Nudes, a f t e r Signorelli, Duomo, Orvieto.

P e n c i l , 15.2 x 36.2 cms.

18 Signorelli : B a t t l e o f t h e Nudes ( d e t a i l ) Duomo, O r v i e t o .

19 B a t t l e o f t h e Amazons, a f t e r a n t i q u e r e l i e f i n the Vatican.

P e n c i l , 24x16.5 cms. •

20 Fury o f Athamas, 1790-1794. Marble, 208.5 cms. high.

21 William, 1st Earl of Mansfield : monument, 1793-1801.

W e s t m i n s t e r Abbey.

22 W i l l i a m C o l l i n s : monument: d e s i g n : d e t a i l . Pen and i n k

and wash, 39.5 x 27 cms. ( w h o l e s h e e t )

23 Williams C o l l i n s : monument, 1792-95 C h i c h e s t e r Cathedral.

24 Aurora v i s i t i n g Cephalus on Mount I d a , 1789-90. Marble,

184 cms. h i g h .

25 A u r o r a v i s i t i n g C e p h a l u s on Mount I d a : i n o r i g i n a l s e t t i n g .
P l a t e 7 f r o m Thomas Hope, H o u s e h o l d F u r n i t u r e , 1807.

26 H e r c u l e s and Hebe, 1792. P l a s t e r , c o l o u r e d , 190.5 cms. high.

27 Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s . Preliminary

p e n c i l , i n k , and brown wash. 22.9 x 27 cm. Huntington
L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y .

28 T h e t i s and Eurynome R e c e i v i n g t h e I n f a n t V u l c a n . Engraving

a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 29.

29 Vulcan and C h a r e s R e c e i v i n g T h e t i s . Engraving after

F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 30.

30 A c h i l l e s Contending with the Rivers. Engraving after

F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 33.

31 The F u n e r a l P i l e of Patroclus Engraving after Flaxman

by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 35.

32 K i n g o f t h e L e s t r i g e n s S e i z i n g One o f t h e Companions o f
Ulysses. E n g r a v i n g a f t e r F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . Odyssey,
1805, P l a t e 15.

vi
33 U l y s s e s a n d H i s Dog. Engraving after Flaxman by James
P a r k e r . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 26.

34 U l y s s e s T e r r e f i e d ( s i c ) by t h e G h o s t s . Engraving after
F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 17.

35 The D e p a r t u r e of B r i s e i s from the Tent of A c h i l l e s .

E n g r a v i n g a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . IHad, 1805,
P l a t e 3.

36 The Embassy t o A c h i l l e s . Engraving after Flaxman by

Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 18.

37 M i n e r v a R e p r e s s i n g the Fury of A c h i l l e s . Engraving

a f t e r F l a x m a n by W i l l i a m B l a k e . I l i a d 1805, P l a t e 2.

38 H e c t o r ' s Body D r a g g e d a t t h e C a r o f A c h i l l e s . Engraving

a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 36.

39 Andromache F a i n t i n g on t h e W a l l . Engraving after Flaxman

by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 34.

40 U l y s s e s K i l l i n g the S u i t o r s Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by

James N e a g l e . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 31.

41 Two p r e l i m i n a r y d r a w i n g s f o r M i n e r v a R e p r e s s i n g t h e F u r y
o f A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. P e n c i l (top) : ink over p e n c i l
( b o t t o m ) s h e e t 26.7 x 21 cm. H u n t i n g t o n L i b r a r y and A r t
Gallery.

42 P r e l i m i n a r y drawing (lower) f o r Minerva Repressing the

F u r y o f A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. Ink o v e r p e n c i l . Sheet 25.4
x 20.7 cm. Hungtington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y .

43 P r e l i m i n a r y drawing (lower) f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the Fury

o f A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. P e n c i l , p a r t i a l l y erased.

44 P r e l i m i n a r y drawing f o r Minerva Repressing the Fury of

A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. Ink o v e r p e n c i l . 8.8 x 13.6 cm.

45 N a u s i c a a Throwing the B a l l . Engraving after Flaxman by

James P a r k e r . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 10.

46 The S i r e n s . Engraving after Flaxman by James Parker.

O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 19.

47 The H a r p i e s G o i n g t o S e i z e t h e Daughters of Pandarus.

E n g r a v i n g a f t e r F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . Odyssey, 1805,
P l a t e 29.

vii
48 P e n e l o p e C a r r y i n g t h e Bow of U l y s s e s to the Suitors.
E n g r a v i n g a f t e r F l a x x m a n by James N e a g l e . O d y s s e y , 1805,
P l a t e 30.

49 Ajax Defending the Greek Ships a g a i n s t the T r o j a n s .

E n g r a v i n g a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805,
P l a t e 24.

50 Neptune R i s i n g from the Sea. Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by

Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 22.

51 U l y s s e s F o l l o w i n g the Car of N a u s i c a a . Engraving after

F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 11.

52 Plate from S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton, Collection of Vases, I,

1791.

53 A c h i l l e s D r a g g i n g H e c t o r ' s Body a r o u n d t h e W a l l s o f T r o y
E n g r a v i n g by Domenico Cunego, 1766, a f t e r a p a i n t i n g by
Gavin Hamilton.

54 P l a t e XXVII from t h e Rev. Mr. Spencer's Polymetis, 1747.

55 Self-Portrait, 1779. College of Further Education,

Halesowen.

56 T h e M e e t i n g o f H e c t o r and Andromache. Engraving after

F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 14.

57 J u p i t e r S e n d i n g t h e E v i l Dream t o Agamemnon. Engraving

a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e
6.

58 I r i s A d v i s e s P r i a m t o O b t a i n t h e Body o f H e c t o r . Engraving
a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 38.

59 Otus and E p h i a l t e s H o l d i n g Mars C a p t i v e . Engraving

after F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 11.

60 The V o y a g e of the Argonauts 1799 One o f 24 designs

e n g r a v e d by Joseph Koch a f t e r d r a w i n g s by Asmus J a c o b
Carstens.

61 Mrs. Mary B l a c k s h a w (Mary L u s h i n g t o n ) : monument, 1798-99.

S t . Mary Lewishara, K e n t .

62 P e n e l o p e ' s Dream E n g r a v e d after Flaxman by James Parker.

O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 7.

63 L e u c o t h e a P r e s e r v i n g U l y s s e s Engraved after Flaxman by

James N e a g l e . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 9.

viii
64 P r e p a r a t o r y s t u d y f o r t h e K l e i n e r Morgen by Philipp Otto
Runge. Pen o v e r t r a c e s o f p e n c i l .

65 Les Sabines, by J a c q u e s - L o u i s D a v i d . (Mus6e du Louvre)

66 W a r r i o r s , by J a c q u e s - L o u i s D a v i d . From s k e t c h b o o k . (Mus6e
des B e a u x - A r t s , L i l l e . )

67 F i g h t f o r t h e Body o f P a t r o c l u s E n g r a v i n g after Flaxman

by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 26.

68a The S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s : drawing. (Henry E. H u n t i n g t o n ,

L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y , San M a r i n o , C a l i f o r n i a ) .

68b The b a t t l e s c e n e i n 68a altered to f i t the curved format

of the A c h i l l e s S h i e l d .

69 S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s , 1821. S i l v e r g i l t , 94 cms diameter.

E x e c u t e d a f t e r F l a x m a n by P h i l i p R u n d e l l .

70 A c h i 1 l e d e p l o r e 1'enterrement de B r i s e i s , by Francois
Rude. P l a s t e r r e l i e f (Musee Rude, D i j o n ) .

71 A c h i l l e d e p l o r e 1'enterrement de B r i s e i s , by F r a n c o i s
Rude. Pen and i n k , 21.5 by 37 cm. (Mus£e des B e a u x - A r t s ,
Dijon)

72 S t u d y a f t e r F l a x m a n ' s O d y s s e y , by A n t o i n e G r o s . From
s k e t c h b o o k , R.F. 2 9 9 5 5 , f . 2 8 v . P e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r
c h a l k , 16.3 by 22.5 cm. ( C a b i n e t des D e s s i n s Musee du
Louvre).

73 Study a f t e r F l a x m a n ' s O d y s s e y , by A n t o i n e G r o s . From

sketchbook, R.F. 2 9 9 5 5 , f . 2 8 . P e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r
c h a l f , 16.3 by 22.5 cm. ( C a b i n e t des D e s s i n s , Musee du
Louvre.)

74 S t u d i e s o f H o r s e s , and s t u d y a f t e r a p l a t e f r o m F l a x m a n ' s
O d y s s e y , by A n t o i n e G r o s . From s k e t c h b o o k , R.F. 29955,
f.20. P e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r c h a l k , 16.3 by 22.5 cm.
( C a b i n e t des D e s s i n s , M u s £ e du L o u v r e )

75 J u p i t e r and T h e t i s by J-A-D Ingres Pencil, 32.5 by 24.2

cm (Mus£e I n g r e s , M o n t a u b a n ) .

76 T h e t i s I n t r e a t i n g J u p i t e r t o Honor A c h i l l e s Engraved
a f t e r F l a x m a n by W i l l i a m B l a k e . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 5.

77 The C o u n c i l o f t h e Gods E n g r a v e d after F l a x m a n by Thomas

Piroli. I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 9.

ix
78 Homere D e i f i e , by I n g r e s . S i g n e d B l a c k c h a l k , pen and i n k
wash, 21 by 31 cm. (Musee du L o u v r e , P a r i s ) .

79 'I T e l l You, I Know t h e W o r l d ' by P h i l May i n F. Berkeley

S m i t h , I n L o n d o n Town London 1907.

80 D e s i g n f o r a w i n e - c o o l e r by Thomas S t o t h a r d ( 1 7 5 5 - 1 8 3 4 ) .
Pen and wash, 25.4 x 20.3 cm. B r i t i s h Museum.

81 D e s i g n f o r a wine c o o l e r a f t e r Thomas S t o t h a r d . Pen

and wash, 30.4 x 20.9 cm.

82 D e s i g n f o r a w i n e - c o o l e r (perhaps a f t e r W i l l i a m Theed, R.A.

1 7 6 4 - 1 8 1 7 ) , Pen d r a w i n g , 26.7 x 24.7 cm.

83a W i n e c o o l e r , m a k e r ' s mark o f P a u l S t o r r ( 1 7 7 1 - 1 8 4 4 ) ,

L o n d o n h a l l - m a r k f o r 1809. S i l v e r g i l t , h e i g h t 35.56 cm.
C o l l e c t i o n o f t h e M a r q u e s s o f Ormonde.

83b Detail o f wine c o o l e r .

x
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I w i s h t o e x p r e s s my a p p r e c i a t i o n to several people who

have assisted i n bringing this thesis t o completion. They a r e

Aileen Dawson o f t h e B r i t i s h Museum; D r . I a n F r a s e r , A r c h i v i s t

the L i b r a r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f K e e l e , S t a f f o r d s h i r e ; Pamela Wood,

Keeper o f A p p l i e d A r t and D a v i d P h i l l i p s , Keeper o f A r t , C i t y

of Nottingham, C a s t l e Museum; F r a n k B r o o k e s o f J o s i a h Wedgwood

and Sons, and Sharon R a t c l i f f e o f t h e Wedgwood Museum a t

Barleston.

Special t h a n k s a r e due t o : D i a n a E . M. C o o p e r , L i b r a r i a n ,

University of British Columbia - Fine Arts D i v i s i o n , f o r her

interest a n d e n t h u s i a s m ; D r . G e o r g e Knox, who p r o v i d e d both

perspectives o n what was i n I t a l y t h a t would have been o f use

to Flaxman and f r e e access to his library o f books t h a t were o

use t o me; a n d D r . R h o d r i W i n d s o r L i s c o m b e , w i t h o u t whose

guidance, encouragement and p a t i e n c e this t h e s i s would never

have b e e n s e t on paper.

xi
 CHAPTER I

Since their publication i n 1793 J o h n F l a x m a n ' s illustrations

to Homer have been o b j e c t s o f a d m i r a t i o n and s t u d y . Yet, i f

considered exclusively i n an a r t i s t i c context they are r e l a t i v e l y

minor works. They a r e n o t i m p o s i n g paintings, sculpture, or

architecture. As y e t t h e y have n o t been, a s R o b e r t Rosenblum

observed i n 1956, " t h e s u b j e c t o f a c o m p r e h e n s i v e study" 1

and

indeed such a study remains only p a r t i a l l y completed. A com-

plication i n p r e p a r i n g such a comprehensive study i s that when

Flaxman produced h i s Homer d e s i g n s the greater part of h i s

working e x p e r i e n c e had been n o t i n t h e a r t i s t i c community b u t

as a p r o d u c e r o f d e s i g n s and m o d e l s f o r J o s i a h Wedgwood a

leader of large scale commercial pottery production.2

Critical d i s c u s s i o n s o f Flaxman's engraved designs have

consistantly p l a c e d them i n a r t i s t i c contexts. T h i s began i n

1799 w i t h Johann Goethe's a r t i c l e "Uber d i e F l a x m a n i s c h e Werk"

were p u b l i s h e d i n P r o p y l a e n . 3 A.W. S c h l e g e l ' s "Uber Zeichnungen

zu Gedichten und J o h n F l a x m a n ' s U m r i s s e n " appeared i n Athenaum

t h e same y e a r . 4
I n t h i s c e n t u r y , W.G. Constable included a

discussion o f them i n h i s J o h n F l a x m a n 1755-1826.5 More

recently Gerald Bentley provided a "Bibliographical Study i n

the E a r l y Engravings o f Flaxman's C l a s s i c a l Designs." 6

In the

Dover P u b l i c a t i o n s 1977 r e p r i n t o f Flaxman's I l l u s t r a t i o n s t o

Homer R o b e r t Essick and J e n i j o y L a B e l l e have p r o v i d e d bio-

graphical and b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l information i n addition to a

commentary w h i c h d i s c u s s e s e a c h plate i n t e r m s o f what i t

represents, how t h e image p r e s e n t e d varies from the Homeric

I
text, possible sources f o r the image, and where p r e l i m i n a r y

drawings f o r each image a r e now. 7

David Bindman's J o h n Flaxman

was p u b l i s h e d as c a t a l o g u e f o r J o h n Flaxman RA an exhibition

at the Royal Academy o f A r t s i n L o n d o n , 26 October - 9 December

1979.8 T h i s work p u t F l a x m a n ' s Homer d e s i g n s i n the context

of his life's output. Finally David Irwin devoted an entire

chapter t o a l l of Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s ( C h a p t e r V pp.67 -

122) i n h i s J o h n Flaxman 1755-1826^ w h i c h c o n s i d e r s s o u r c e s ,

derivatives, methods and contemporary comments.

As a matter of h i s t o r i c a l r e c o r d , i n the w i n t e r of 1792/3

when F l a x m a n drew t h e Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s he was not an artist

of established reputation. He was a relatively obscure artist

whose most w i d e l y known work t o o k the form of designs f o r

J o s i a h Wedgwood's p o t t e r y f i r m . This industrialist's methods

were c a p a b l e of producing l a r g e numbers o f i t e m s and he was

thus i n c o n s t a n t need o f new designs.10 Flaxman s o l d designs

to t h e Wedgwood f i r m from 1775 until after the t u r n of the

century.H Indeed, w h i l e F l a x m a n was in Italy i n the early

1790's ( w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f Wedgwood) he continued to send

d e s i g n s and c a s t s o f a n c i e n t r e l i e f s c u l p t u r e s t o Wedgwoodl2

and t h e Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s were drawn i n t h e e v e n i n g s after the

d a y ' s more p r e s s i n g p r o j e c t s t o augment F l a x m a n ' s otherwise

meager income.

Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s i t s h o u l d come a s no surprise

that t h e Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s derived directly from Flaxman's

current o b s e r v a t i o n s i n Rome and earlier academic studies. In

2
illustration 31 of the Iliad series entitled Thetis Bringing

t h e Armour t o A c h i l l e s , ( F i g u r e 1) f o r example, there are five

figures. At the right the crouched woman i s i n a p o s e s t r o n g l y

resembling the central figure i n the earliest s u r v i v i n g sketch

done by Flaxman as a boy of 13 (Figure 2). The figure of a

m o u r n i n g man behind Patroclus' bier i s an academic f i g u r e to

be found i n any student artist's sketchbook. The supine

P a t r o c l u s by c o n t r a s t resembles medieval tomb f i g u r e s , while

the standing Thetis i s reminiscent i n f o r m o f Roman frieze

figures or perhaps a Greek vase f i g u r e . The members o f the

group are assembled to strengthen the i d e a of A c h i l l e s grief.

A strong diagonal line descends from left to r i g h t from the

goddess T h e t i s with head bowed t h r o u g h A c h i l l e s ' body i n tearful

embrace o f t h e dead P a t r o c l u s t o t h e figure o f t h e woman

unable to stand f o r her grief. The effect resembles the

figure of a m u s i c a l descending arpeggio and creates a persuasive

sentimental appeal.

This overt d e p i c t i o n o f e m o t i o n and the apparently varied

sources f o r the figures' p o s e s make t h e comments o f contemporaries

seem o d d l y inappropriate. U n i v e r s a l l y they regarded the Homer

illustrations, particularly their purity o f f o r m and austerity

of method, a s true ancient representations s k i l l f u l l y transported

from the p a s t . G e o r g e Romney, f o r example, remarked in 1793

that...'they are o u t l i n e s without shadow, but i n the style of

ancient art. They a r e simple, grand, and pure... They look

as i f they had been made i n t h e age, when Homer w r o t e . ' 1 3 i n

3
fact, the " o u t l i n e s without shadow" o r l i n e a r style i s itself

an anachronism - a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l mode o f c l a s s i c a l n o t

b r o n z e age o r H o m e r i c G r e e c e . 1 4
Even t h i s aside, when F l a x m a n

used ancient Greek vase p a i n t i n g — w i t h w h i c h he was f a m i l i a r

through h i s study of both ancient pieces and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

publications depicting vases 1 4

— a s an i n s p i r a t i o n f o r t h e

form o f h i s i l l u s t r a t i o n s t h e images he p r o d u c e d differ con-

siderably from a n c i e n t pieces. A useful comparison exists

between a c u p c . 500 BC by t h e S o s i a s Painter (Figure 3a) and

Flaxman's I l i a d p l a t e 31 ( h e r e a f t e r F l a x m a n ' s Homer d e s i g n s

will be r e f e r r e d t o by e i t h e r I l i a d o r O d y s s e y and t h e 1805

Longman e d i t i o n number). The c u p e x h i b i t s many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of ancient Greek p a i n t i n g . I n common w i t h Flaxman's illustrations

this s t y l e involved the a p p l i c a t i o n o f dark lines on a lighter

ground.i5 But u n l i k e F l a x m a n ' s work t h e r e i s a tendency t o

fill t h e frame o f t h e p i c t u r e w i t h d e c o r a t i o n not r e l e v a n t t o

the subject. The b a c k g r o u n d i s darkened and, w h i l e there i s

no landscape, there i s a substantial groundline. The f i g u r e s

wear h e a v i l y decorated c l o t h i n g and t h e i r faces are i n s t r i c t

profile with s i n g u l a r l y Egyptian looking frontal eyes. Frequently

the anatomy i s p o o r l y rendered such as P a t r o c l u s ' s grotesque

foot and A c h i l l e s s p i n d l y arms and l e g s . There i s a lack of

variety i n pose (here d e m o n s t r a t e d on t h e o u t s i d e o f t h e cup

Figure 3 b ) , and male f i g u r e s a r e o f t e n heavily bearded.

On t h e o t h e r hand in Iliad 31, T h e t i s B r i n g i n g t h e Armour

to A c h i l l e s f u l l y 40% o f t h e p i c t u r e a r e a i s left undecorated.

4
There i s no landscape, shading or darkened background. The

ground line i s so ambiguous t h a t i t could be a part of the

frame of the picture. Drapery is relatively undecorated. The

rendering of anatomy is significantly more c o m p e t e n t and

f i g u r e s are presented i n much more v a r i e d p o s e s . Patroclus'

long l e g s obscure the mourning a t t e n d a n t ' s g e n i t a l area something

s e l d o m done i n a n c i e n t models.

By filling the open a r e a s w i t h decorations not relevant

t o the story the Sosias painter gives the impression that he

was simply attempting to cover the vase with d e c o r a t i o n . He

presented a p i c t u r e that represents a s i n g l e moment i n t i m e as

one f i g u r e bandages the other. To form a p a r a l l e l case Flaxman

m i g h t have i s o l a t e d A c h i l l e s g r i e v i n g o v e r a dead Patroclus

but instead he depicted a s e r i e s of events to give a better

sense of the Homeric n a r r a t i v e . In this s i n g l e image F l a x m a n

reminds the viewer of the death of P a t r o c l u s and thus the loss

of the armour he had borrowed from A c h i l l e s . I t was this loss

of the o l d armour t h a t prompted the manufacture of the new

that Thetis now delivers. In a p o s e r e m i n i s c e n t of the Parthenon

A t h e n a o r B r i t a n n i a , she p e r s o n i f i e s duty calling Achilles

back to the b a t t l e that ends i n T r o y ' s defeat.

The dominant theme o f the Flaxman's d e s i g n , human grief,

is drawn f r o m t h e t e x t but the d e t a i l s of the picture are

Flaxman's i n v e n t i o n . Homer made no reference to Patroclus'

funeral b i e r , the s t o o l beside i t , nor the f e m a l e mourner.16

F l a x m a n d i d not produce a b s o l u t e l y faithful t r a n s l a t i o n s of

5
the Homeric t e x t s from literary to p i c t o r i a l imagery. Rather

as Mrs. Flaxman wrote from F r a n c e to W i l l i a m Hayley in 1802,

her husband was recognized as 'the b e s t commentator o f the

great bard Homer.' 17

Today t h e significance o f Mrs. F l a x m a n ' s remark i s obscure.

The H o m e r i c e p i c s , t h e o l d e s t g r e a t works o f w e s t e r n literature,

a r e not important i n modern e d u c a t i o n . They a r e n o t , for

example, required reading in British Columbia schools or

universities. T h i s i n c l u d e s the C l a s s i c s Department at the

University of B r i t i s h C o l u m b i a where o n l y one or the other is

required, and t h a t r e a d i n g may be in translation. 1 8

Such was

not the case i n the 18th Century.

Throughout the 18th Century the Iliad and O d y s s e y were a

fundamental p a r t of e d u c a t i o n . In a program "contrived according

t o what i s commonly p r a c t i c e d i n E n g l a n d and foreign countries;

and i s i n sundry particulars proportioned to the ordinary

c a p a c i t i e s of c h i l d r e n under f i f t e e n years of a g e " ^ 1

the

R e v e r e n d H o o l e recommended not only the '"Father of Poetry",

Homer, [but a l s o ] P i n d a r , E u r i p i d e s , Sophocles and Aristophanes

in Greek.' 2 0
Earlier the Reverend R i c h a r d Holdsworth D.D.,

fellow of S t . John's C o l l e g e , Oxford, f r o m 1613 t o 1637 had

regarded as appropriate Hesiod, h i s Theognis, Homer, Pindar,

Theocritus, P l u t a r c h and a number o f t r a g e d i e s and o r a t i o n s of

Latin authors.21 These 17th Century educators apparently set

the direction f o r the curricula throughout the f o l l o w i n g

century. Sydney S m i t h r e v i e w i n g R.L. Edgeworth's P r o f e s s i o n a l

6
Education o f 1809 w r o t e i n t h e E d i n b u r g h R e v i e w i n an e s s a y

entitled "Too Much L a t i n and G r e e k , " t h a t "a Young Englishman

goes t o s c h o o l a t s i x o r seven years o l d ; and he r e m a i n s i n a

course of education till twenty-three or twenty-four years of

age. In a l l t h a t time s o l e and e x c l u s i v e o c c u p a t i o n i s learning

Latin and G r e e k : he h a s s c a r c e l y a n o t i o n t h a t t h e r e i s any

other kind of e x c e l l e n c e . ' 2 2

F o r t h o s e who d i d n o t c o n t i n u e

to higher f o r m s t r a n s l a t i o n s o f Homer were w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e . 3 2

Thus t h e g r e a t e r m a j o r i t y o f t h e young men d e s t i n e d f o r

careers i n t h e law, p o l i t i c s , t h e armed s e r v i c e s and t h e

C h u r c h and even commerce, t r a d e , and i n d u s t r y had r e a d classical

authors including Homer o f whom a w r i t e r t o t h e G e n t l e m e n ' s

M a g a z i n e i n 1793 w r o t e : 'In Homer n o t h i n g i s casual, nothing

idle or i r r e l a t i v e , n i l molitur inepte. Every expression i s

pregnant with meaning.' 2 4

Homer was n o t r e a d i n the l a t e

18th Century merely f o r entertainment or the i n t e l l e c t u a l

discipline of learning another language but presented as a

model o f human s o c i e t y . T h e o r i s t Robert Wood had w r i t t e n some

years before that 'whatever h i s [Homer's] p l a n o f i n s t r u c t i o n ,

e i t h e r moral o r p o l i t i c a l , m i g h t have been ( f o r t o deny t h a t he

had any would he h i g h l y u n r e a s o n a b l e ) , h i s choice of characters

for the purpose never carried him beyond N a t u r e , and h i s own

experience of life'. 5 2

Homer, i t was b e l i e v e d , 'had l i v e d i n t h e most enlightened

age, and p o s s e s s e d a l l advantages f o r improving h i snatural

talents'. 2 6
In that 'most e n l i g h t e n e d a g e ' t h e G r e e k s o f

7
Homer's s t o r i e s were s e e n t o live i n an age of wealth, m i l i t a r y

p r o w e s s and refinement.27 ^nd yet, as the passage illustrated

by Flaxman's T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour t o A c h i l l e s , Iliad 31,

indicated, human v a l u e s , not material objects, were t h e subject.

The Achaean G r e e k s had not dissipated their national vigour on

the accumulation of m a t e r i a l wealth, a point not lost on those

in Britain who feared that the sudden p r o l i f e r a t i o n of consumer

goods p r o v i d e d by the Industrial Revolution would corrupt

society. In a 1774 'Essay on Luxury' appearing i n London

Magazine 'luxury [was] s a i d t o have p o i s o n e d the whole nation.' ^ 2

Five years later the i d e a was expanded to: 'But man, anxious

t o be unhappy, i n d u s t r i o u s to m u l t i p l y woe, and ingenious in

contriving new plagues, new torments, to embitter life, and .

sour every present e n j o y m e n t , has inverted the order of things,

has created wishes that h a v e no connection with h i s happiness.'29

Human s o c i e t y was h e r e s e e n as being progressively overburdened

with new p l a g u e s and torments that were o b s c u r i n g the essential

n a t u r e of mankind. In the o l d e s t known e x t e n d e d description

of any age the s o c i e t y of the Iliad and O d y s s e y was logically

the l e a s t overburdened and thus the most enlightened.

Oddly, the e n t h u s i a s m o f H o m e r i c s o c i e t y was not tempered

by an acknowledgement o f i t s more mundane a s p e c t s (which may

simply have gone u n r e c o r d e d by Homer). In fact, Homer provided

as s p a r e a p i c t u r e o f h i s s o c i e t y as d i d Flaxman. Referring

again to T h e t i s B r i n g i n g the Armour t o A c h i l l e s , Iliad 31 both

p o e t and artist might w e l l have i n c l u d e d a background. The

8
Myrmidons may h a v e been p r e s e n t e d polishing armour, sharpening

weapons, p r e p a r i n g f o o d o r e a t i n g o r even j u s t standing about

in carefully detailed material surroundings. N e i t h e r Homer

n o r F l a x m a n p r o v i d e any such details but significantly the

spare q u a l i t y of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e d e p i c t i o n s of the Iliad and

Odyssey seem t o have been r e a c h e d by different means. Robert

Wood b e l i e v e d that i t had been 'Homer's o b j e c t t o p l e a s e as

well as instruct'.30 AS S U ch, describing details familiar in

the everyday life of h i s l i s t e n e r s would have d i l u t e d the

stories' vigorous narrative. Alternatively, a late 18th

Century audience would have s e e n embellishing detail i n Flaxman's

d e s i g n s a s o b s c u r i n g Homer's p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e essential

nature o f man and human society.

The concept of the e s s e n t i a l was not derived entirely

from a p e r u s a l o f Homer o r even a n c i e n t a u t h o r s . In addition

t o Homer t h e r e was increased interest i n the severe tragedies

of A e s c h y l u s (first translated into English and French i n the

1770's), the 'iron age' works o f H e s i o d and P i n d a r , t h e Roman

historian Livy and the Greek, P l u t a r c h , b i o g r a p h e r of both

G r e e k s and Romans.31 From t h e works o f t h e s e a u t h o r s was

derived a c o n c e p t i o n o f man with uncorrupted manners and

emotions of those living close t o nature.32 Dante, Shakespeare,

and the N i b e l u n g e n l i e d presented similar visions and interest

in them was similarly revived. Recognizing the p o p u l a r i t y of

these revived authors and u s i n g Homer as a m o d e l , James M a c P h e r s o n

created the "fake" C e l t i c b a r d O s s i a n and published his Fingal

9
and Temora between 1760 and 1763. The books successfully

created c h a r a c t e r s and put them i n t o s i t u a t i o n s designed to

accommodate t h e most n o s t a l g i c visions o f human s o c i e t y d e v i s e d

by 18th Century w r i t e r s and readers. Life i n the time of

O s s i a n was 'simple, rugged, unsophisticated and a t t h e same

time, moral, rational and touched with sentiment'. 3 3

With

M a c p h e r s o n c o n s p i c u o u s by h i s absence i n discussions regarding

the a u t h e n t i c i t y o f h i s work, O s s i a n was immediately hailed as

a g r e a t a n c i e n t work. MacPherson's c o n t r i v e d work was not

unique. I t was paralleled by 18th C e n t u r y landscape gardens,

which were 'attempts to recreate the l i t e r a r y landscape which

had been s k e t c h e d by Homer, e l a b o r a t e d and populated with

love-sick shepherds by T h e o c r i t u s and the o t h e r b u c o l i c poets,

and given c l a s s i c e x p r e s s i o n by V i r g i l who transferred i t from

Sicily t o more r e m o t e A r c a d i a and V a l e o f T e m p e ' . 34

The

shepherd might d w e l l i n such a r c h i t e c t u r a l whimsies as the

Pantheon Temple a t S t o u r h e a d (Figure 4). S u c h c o n c e p t s were

fundamental t o 18th C e n t u r y thought. I t was believed that

reason, applied to c a r e f u l o b s e r v a t i o n s o f n a t u r e , would

reveal universally valid truths, laws, and principles and by

extension n a t u r e and reason could be employed f o r the g e n e r a l

benefit o f mankind. Indeed, exploration and exposition in

divers fields of i n t e r e s t characterized the 18th Century.

Even d u r i n g Flaxman's life and career, discovery, discussion

and invention extended over a broad range of endeavour: i n the

field of s c i e n c e the d i s c o v e r y of s e v e r a l of the elements

10
including hydrogen i n 1766 by C a v e n d i s h , n i t r o g e n by R u t h e r f o r d

in 1772 and Oxygen i n 1774 by P r i e s t l y ; i n geography Cook's

exploration of A u s t r a l i a i n 1770 and P a c i f i c i n 1778. These

examples should not suggest that research or i n q u i r i e s represented

only a passive interest i n the accummulation o f knowledge.

The isolation o f e l e m e n t s , f o r example, suggested t o L a v o i s i e r

their p r e v i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n a s when he e x p l a i n e d combustion i n

1777. Generally an i n c r e a s e d understanding of properties

resulted i n a greater u t i l i z a t i o n of materials i n t h e form o f

inventions of s i g n i f i c a n t social impact. Those inventions

included: Watts p i s t o n steam e n g i n e i n 1769, M i l l e r ' s circular

saw i n 1777, F r a n k l i n ' s bifocal lens ( f o r e y e g l a s s e s ) i n 1780,

Harrison's steel pen i n 1780, and M u r d o c k ' s gas l i g h t i n g i n

1792. The d i v e r s i t y of t h e contemporary intellectual arguments

is indicated by t h e t i t l e s o f b u t a few works o f t h e t i m e

ranging f r o m Edmund B u r k e ' s P h i l o s o p h i c a l Inquiry i n t o the

Origin o f o u r I d e a s o f t h e s u b l i m e and t h e B e a u t i f u l i n 1756,

Adam S m i t h ' s I n q u i r y into t h e N a t u r e and C a u s e s o f t h e W e a l t h

of N a t i o n s i n 1776, t o D a v i d Hume's D i a l o g u e s c o n c e r n i n g

Natural Religion i n 1779.

Common t o a l l t h e s e f i e l d s o f 1 8 t h C e n t u r y i n t e l l e c t u a l

e n d e a v o u r was t h e need t o c r e a t e c o n c e p t u a l models. That need

itself had been w i d e l y recognized. In h i s A n a l y s i s of Beauty

of 1753 W i l l i a m H o g a r t h , whose i n t e l l e c t u a l aspirations greatly

exceeded h i s a c t u a l accomplishments, wrote: 'The c o n s t a n t u s e

made o f l i n e s by m a t h e m a t i c i a n s , a s w e l l as p a i n t e r s , i n
describing t h i n g s upon p a p e r , h a t h e s t a b l i s h e d a conception of

them, a s i f a c t u a l l y existing on t h e r e a l forms themselves'. 3 5

T h e r e a r e two i d e a s h e r e . The f i r s t i s that line drawings

were u s e d 'in describing t h i n g s upon p a p e r . ' Hogarth's obser-

v a t i o n may have been extended f a r beyond h i s examples o f

m a t h e m a t i c i a n s and a r t i s t s t o i n c l u d e a l l s c i e n t i f i c and

technical endeavour where t h e r e was a need t o reduce observations

to general laws o r i n t h e i n s t a n c e o f i n v e n t i o n s , to visualize

something that had n o t p r e v i o u s l y existed. F o r example,

F i g u r e 5 i s a c o n c e p t u a l model o f t h e h u l l of a ship which

appeared i n William Sutherland's Ship-Builder's Assistant of

1755. I t i s not a p i c t u r e o f an e x i s t i n g o r even a proposed

hull b u t r a t h e r an i l l u s t r a t i o n o f how t o l a y o u t a h u l l .

Similarly F i g u r e 6 i s a d r a w i n g by Flaxman f o ra medallion

submitted t o Wedgwood i n 1783. I t i s not a f i n i s h e d artistic

work b u t a d e s i g n e r s c o n c e p t f o r a t r a d e s m a n to translate into

pottery. Herein l i e s Hogarth's second idea that the l i n e

d r a w i n g must c o n v e y t o the viewer the idea of the thing drawn

'as i f a c t u a l l y existing on t h e r e a l forms t h e m s e l v e s ' . Thus

the s h i p ' s h u l l , Flaxman's d e s i g n and H o g a r t h ' s mathematical

model i g n o r e solidity, colour, t e x t u r e and p e r s p e c t i v e b u t t o

the e x p e r i e n c e d v i e w e r they convey sufficient information to

explain the e s s e n t i a l concept.

A second common theme o f 1 8 t h C e n t u r y t h o u g h t was t h e

fervent belief o f e n l i g h t e n e d men b e l i e v e d that endeavour

should be d i r e c t e d to the general betterment of s o c i e t y . In

the case of the Ship-Builder's A s s i s t a n t, William Sutherland,

as the preface indicates, ' e n d e a v o u r e d t o l a y e v e r y t h i n g down

in t h e most p l a i n and p e r s p i c u o u s manner, w i t h a desire to

instructing young SHIPWRIGHTS, and t h o s e G e n t l e m e n who a r e

desirous of being acquainted with these surprising Fabrics...;

[with t h e hope] 'that every improvement made i n an A r t o f s u c h

importance to society, adds a f a r t h e r security t o t h e power,

strength and i n t e r e s t o f t h e s e kingdoms'.36 Similarly Robert

Adam i n d e d i c a t i n g h i s R u i n s o f S p a l a t r o t o King George I I I

pointed out that 'your Majesty's singular Attention to the

Arts of Elegance promises an Age o f P e r f e c t i o n ' . 3 7 The i n d u s t -

rialist J o s i a h Wedgwood, t o whom F l a x m a n s u b m i t t e d many designs

( F i g u r e 6 f o r example), saw h i s p o s i t i o n i n similar terras. In

a passage repeated i n a number o f h i s c a t a l o g u e s , Wedgwood

stated t h a t he wanted 'to d i f f u s e a good taste through the

arts' by t h e 'power o f m u l t i p l y i n g copies of f i n e things'.38

Wedgwood c o n s t a n t l y searched f o r designs f o r Jasperware,

inspired by a n t i q u e cameos. He d i d n o t , however, merely

reproduce ancient pieces. He w r o t e t o h i s f r i e n d Erasmus

Darwin, 'I o n l y p r e t e n d t o have a t t e m p t e d t o copy t h e f i n e

antique forms, but not with absolute s e r v i l i t y . I have endea-

voured to preserve the s t y l e and s p i r i t , o r i f you p l e a s e , the

elegant simplicity of the antique forms'.39 Wedgwood's impression

of the antique form h i s products e m u l a t e d was f o r m e d i n no

s m a l l measure by a r c h a e l o g i c a l p u b l i c a t i o n s many o f w h i c h were

in h i s own l i b r a r y . 4 0
The c a n d i d statement regarding h i s
products almost paraphrases the i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e Comte de

Caylus' Recueil d'antiquites egyptiennes, etrusques, e t romaines

(Paris 1757) t h e p u r p o s e o f w h i c h was ' t o shed light on t h e

past ... t o a r r i v e a t t h e s p i r i t of the antique rather than t o

copy a n t i q u e details'.41 In the p u b l i c a t i o n s o f W i l l i a m

Hamilton C o l l e c t i o n of Vases, illustrated entirely with line

engravings, there was a d e l i b e r a t e a t t e m p t t o remove detail

and extract the essence of ancient design. The p r e f a c e states

that t h e work was c o n f i n e d 'to the simple o u t l i n e of the

figures o f t h e Vases, which i s t h e e s s e n t i a l , and no u n n e c e s s a r y

Ornaments o r c o l o r i n g . . . [ a r e ] . . . i n t r o d u c e d ' . 4 2 Recalling

Figure 3 a s an example, a n c i e n t vase p a i n t e r s often included

' u n n e c c e s s a r y Ornaments' o r d e c o r a t i o n not a s s o c i a t e d with

their pictorial representations of ancient society. In a d d i t i o n ,

the r e d and b l a c k f i g u r e d v a s e s were, i n f a c t , colored. The

archaeological p u b l i c a t i o n s s u c h a s de C a y l u s and t h e H a m i l t o n

Collection were f o r many, i n c l u d i n g Wedgwood and h i s a r t i s t s ,

the c h i e f s o u r c e o f knowledge o f t h e m a t e r i a l remains of

antiquity. Significantly they presented n o t an accurate

detailed record of the ancient s o c i e t y but rather the antique

as the late 1 8 t h C e n t u r y wanted t o s e e i t .

14
NOTES TO THE TEXT

CHAPTER I
1
R o b e r t Rosenblum, The I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t y l e o f 1800 : A
S t u d y i n L i n e a r A b s t r a c t i o n (New Y o r k , 1956 and 1 9 7 6 ) ,
p. 114 fn.

2
S o u r c e s f o r t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f Wedgwood Flaxman seem t o
f a l l n a t u r a l l y i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : t h o s e c e n t e r i n g pn
the l i f e o f Wedgwood, s u c h a s ; E l i z a M e t e y a r d , The L i f e
of J o s i a h Wedgwood ( L o n d o n , 1865-66); K.E. F a r r e r , L e t t e r s
of J o s i a h Wedgwood ( L o n d o n , 1903-06); t h e more r e c e n t
A. F i n e r and G. Savage The S e l e c t e d L e t t e r s o f J o s i a h
Wedgwood ( L o n d o n , 1965); and W o l f M a n k o w i t z , Wedgwood (New
Y o r k , 1953) and t h o s e t r e a t i n g t h e works o f Wedgwood
a r t i s t s and t h e i r works a s c o l l e c t o r ' s i t e m s , s u c h a s
H.M. B u t e n , Wedgwood and A r t i s t s ( M e r i o n P e n n s y l v a n i a ,
1960).

3
J o h a n n W o l f g a n g v o n G o e t h e , "Uber d i e F l a x m a n i s c h e n werke,"
P r o p y l a e n , 1799, a l s o i n Werke, 47 (Weimar, 1896) p p . 245-46.

4
A.W. v o n S c h l e g e l , "Uber Z e i c h n u n g e n z u G e d i c h t e n und J o h n
Flaxmans U m r i s s e n , " Athenaum, 1799 a l s o i n S a m m t l i c h e
Werke ( L e i p z i g , 1 8 4 6 ) , IX, pp. 102-57.

5
W i l l i a m George C o n s t a b l e , J o h n Flaxman 1755-1826 (London,
1927).

^ G e r a l d B e n t l e y 'Notes on t h e E a r l y E d i t i o n s o f F l a x m a n ' s
C l a s s i c a l D e s i g n s ' , B u l l e t i n o f t h e New Y o r k P u b l i c
L i b r a r y , 68, ( 1 9 6 4 ) , pp. 277-307, 361-380. Published
s e p a r a t e l y a s The E a r l y E n g r a v i n g s o f F l a x m a n ' s C l a s s i c a l
D e s i g n s , (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 4 ) .

7
Robert E s s i c k and J e n i j o y L a B e l l e , Flaxman's Illustrations
t o Homer, (New Y o r k , 1 9 7 7 ) .

8
D a v i d Bindman, J o h n F l a x m a n , ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 9 ) . Appeared
p r e v i o u s l y a s Werner Hofmann, D a v i d Bindman e t a l . J o h n
F l a x m a n M y t h o l o g i e und I n d u s t r i e , (Hamburg, 1 9 7 9 ) .

9
David Irwin, J o h n Flaxman 1755-1826 ( L o n d o n , 1979)
1 0
Wedgwood's s e t o f d i s h e s f o r Empress C a t h e r i n e c o n s i s t i n g
of 952 p i e c e s c o n t a i n e d 1244 d i f f e r e n t v i e w s f o r example.
J o s i a h Wedgwood: t h e A r t s and S c i e n c e s U n i t e d (1978)
p. 50. F o r more on t h e Wedgwood f i r m ' s v o r a c i o u s a p p e t i t e
for designs see David Irwin, N e o - C l a s s i c a l Design :
i n d u s t r y p l u n d e r s a n t i q u i t y , A p o l l o ns 96 ( O c t o b e r ,
1 9 7 2 ) , pp. 289-297.

15
'An A c c o u n t Book o f J o h n F l a x m a n , R.A.' (British Library
Add. MS. 39784 B B ) , Edward C r o f t - M u r r a y ( e d . ) , W a l p o l e
S o c i e t y X X V I I I 1939-40 pp.79. The e n t r y f o r J u l y 8, 1803
i s a s f o l l o w s " J o s i a h Wedgwood E s q . A Monument s e n t by
G o d d a r d ' s Waggon ( s i c ) , C a s t l e and F a l c o n , A l d e r s g a t e S t r
73, 10, -.

M e t e y a r d , op. c i t . p. 504.

W. H a y l e y , The L i f e of George Romney ( L o n d o n , 1809), p.203.

Discussed later ch. II

See R.M. Cook, G r e e k P a i n t e d P o t t e r y ( L o n d o n , 1972),

p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t e c h n i q u e c h . 9 , pp. 240 f f .

In a d d i t i o n t o A l e x a n d e r Pope's r e n d i t i o n s o f the I l i a d
and O d y s s e y modern t r a n s l a t i o n s a r e a l s o u s e f u l and o f t e n
more r e a d a b l e . Two s u c h a r e : The I l i a d t r a n s E.V. R i e u
(Harraondsworth, 1950) and The O d y s s e y t r a n s E.V. R i e u
Harraondsworth, 1946)

MSS, A r t I n s t i t u t e o f C h i c a g o , G u r l e y C o l l e c t i o n , Mrs.
F l a x m a n t o H a y l e y , 10 December [ 1 8 0 2 ] .

The U n i v e r s i t y o f B r i t i s h Columbia 70th S e s s i o n (1984-85)

C a l e n d a r , V a n c o u v e r , 1984 p.71.

C h a r l e s H o o l e , New D i s c o v e r y o f t h e A r t o f T e a c h i n g
S c h o o l e s ( s i c ) 1660. Q u o t e d by J o h n R. M u l d e r , The Temple
o f M i n d (New Y o r k , 1 9 3 5 ) , p . 25.

Mulder ibid p. 18.

Mulder ibid p. 30.

Syndney S m i t h , 'Too Much L a t i n and G r e e k ' (a review of

R.L. E d g e w o r t h , P r o f e s s i o n a l E d u c a t i o n (1809) E d i n b u r g h
Review 1809 c i t e d i n H.C. B a r n a r d A H i s t o r y o f E n g l i s h
E d u c a t i o n f r o m 1760 ( L o n d o n , 1961) p. 17.

An i n c o m p l e t e l i s t w i l l i n c l u d e : Ten Bookes ( s i c ) o f Homers

I l i a d e s ( s i c ) , t r a n s , o u t o f t h e F r e n c h by A r t h u r H a l l
( L o n d o n , 1581); S e v e n Bookes ( s i c ) o f t h e I l i a d e s ( s i c )
o f Homer P r i n c e o f P o e t s T r a n s , a c c o r d i n g t h e G r e e k e ( s i c )
G e o r g e Chapman ( L o n d o n , 1598); A c h i l l e s S h i e l d , t r a n s . G e o r g e
Chapman (London 1598); Homer P r i n c e o f P o e t s t r a n s .
G e o r g e Chapman ( L o n d o n , 1610); The Whole Works o f Homer,
P r i n c e o f P o e t s , i n h i s I l i a d e s ( s i c ) and O d y s s e s ( s i c )
t r a n s . G e o r g e Chapman ( L o n d o n , 1612); Homers O d y s s e s ( s i c )
trans. G e o r g e Chapman ( L o n d o n , 1614); The Whole Works o f
Homer; P r i n c e o f P o e t t s ( s i c ) i n h i s I l i a d s ( s i c ) and

16
 O d y s s e y s ( s i c ) t r a n s . G e o r g e Chapman ( L o n d o n , 1616); The
F i r s t T h r e e Books o f Homer's I l i a d t r a n s . Thomas G r a n t h a m
( L o n d o n , 1 6 6 1 ) ; The T r a v e l s o f U l y s s e s ; As t h e y were
r e l a t e d by h i m s e l f i n Homer's N i n e t h , T e n t h , E l e v e n t h and
T w e l f t h Books o f h i s Odysses ( s i c ) t o A l c i n o u s K i n g o f
Phaeacia trans. Thomas Hobbs Malmessby ( L o n d o n , 1 6 7 3 ) ;
and o c c a s i o n a l a p p e a r a n c e s o f amateur t r a n s l a t o r s s u c h a s
t h a t o f an u n i d e n t i f i e d p e r s o n who s u b m i t t e d 'A T r a n s l a t i o n
o f a P a r t o f t h e 22nd Book o f Homer's I l i a d i n t o B l a n k v e r s e
made a l m o s t l i t e r a l l y , ' G e n t l e m e n ' s M a g a z i n e Dec. 1797
p. 1052.

2 4
Gentlemen's Magazine, (July 1793) p. 623.
2 5
R o b e r t Wood, An E s s a y on t h e O r i g i n a l G e n i u s o f Homer
(1769; New Y o r k , 1 9 7 1 ) , p . 298.
2 6
A l e x a n d e r G e r a r d , An E s s a y on G e n i u s (1774; Munchen,
1966) p. 11.
2 7
J.V. L u c e , Homer and the Homeric Age (London, 1975)
p. 181.
2 8
London Magazine, XLII ( O c t o b e r , 1774) p. 481.

2 9
London Magazine, XLVIII (1779) p. 537.
3 0
R o b e r t Wood, op. c i t . , p. 30.
3 1
Hugh Honour, N e o - c l a s s i c i s m (Harmondsworth, 1968) p. 64.

3 2
Ibid., p. 142.
3 3
Ibid., p. 66.

3 4
Ibid., p. 161.
3 5
William Hogarth, A n a l y s i s of Beauty (London, 1753) p. 37.

3 6
W i l l i a m S u t h e r l a n d , The S h i p - B u i l d e r ' s A s s i s t a n t , or
M a r i n e A r c h i t e c t u r e (London, 1755), p . i i i .

3 7
R o b e r t Adam, R u i n s o f t h e P a l a c e o f t h e Emperor Diocletian
a t S p a l a t r o ( L o n d o n , 1764) p . I V .
3 8
Noted by D a v i d I r w i n , op. c i t . , p . 19.

3 9
Wedgwood t o Erasmus D a r w i n , 28 J u n e 1789.

4 0
F o r more on t h i s p o i n t and i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s s e e D a v i d
Irwin, 'Neo-classical design: industry plunders a n t i q u i t y , '
A p o l l o ns 96: 289-297, O c t o b e r 1972.

17
Comte de C a y l u s , R e c u e i l d' a n t i q u i t ^ s £ g y p t i e n n e s , 6trusques
e t r o m a i n ( P a r i s 1752-67) I pp. X l l f f .

S i r William Hamilton, A n c i e n t Vases (1791-95) u n p a g i n a t e d

preface.

18
 CHAPTER II

Flaxman's c o n t e m p o r a r i e s g e n e r a l l y believed that his

engravings of the Iliad and Odyssey embodied the artistic

principles of 'the age when Homer w r o t e ' . However, as has

been s u g g e s t e d , F l a x m a n ' s d e s i g n s b e a r o n l y superficial resem-

blance to ancient works. The apparent v a r i e t y of sources for

the poses of the f i g u r e s , t h e i r more a c c u r a t e anatomy, the

more c a r e f u l l y d e t e r m i n e d use of the p i c t u r e space, the depiction

of consecutive e v e n t s and the deliberate depiction of Homeric

society as an uncluttered conceptual model, r e v e a l an artist

whose e x p e r i e n c e was much w i d e r t h a n any ancient artist's

could p o s s i b l y have b e e n .

Flaxman's e a r l i e s t exhibited works met with success.

When o n l y 11 years of age he won a First Prize from the Society

of A r t s f o r a medal m o d e l l e d in clay. In 1769 he gained

another F i r s t Prize f o r a model i n c l a y and i n 1770 he won the

Society of A r t s Gold P a l e t t e f o r a f i g u r e of G a r r i c k . 1
Flaxman's

precosity at modelling i s , in part at least, explained by the

milieu of h i s f a t h e r ' s shop and business.

J o h n Flaxman S e n i o r 2
opened h i s London p r e m i s e s i n New

Street Covent Garden i n 1755 and l a t e r moved t o t h e Strand

carrying on business u n t i l a f t e r the turn of the century as a

c a s t maker. He was directly involved i n the restoration and

repair of classical sculpture and gems as well as the making

of p l a s t e r c a s t reproductions of classical sculpture and gems

that were b e i n g imported i n l a r g e numbers t o E n g l a n d . His

clients thus ranged from a r t i s t s s u c h as the sculptors Louis

19
Francois Roubiliac and P e t e r Scheeraakers, t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l -

i s t s Matthew B o u l t o n and J o s i a h Wedgwood. Nor was F l a x m a n ' s

f a t h e r m e r e l y a c a s t maker. He o c c a s s i o n a l l y e x e c u t e d original

works, s u c h a s t h e f i g u r e r e p r e s e n t i n g Architecture (Figure 7)

in a l a t e Baroque s t y l e , somewhat a f t e r t h e manner o f h i s most

illustrious customers R o u b i l i a c and Scheeraakers. The d e e p l y

cut drapery folds of Architecture along with i t s t o r s i o n and

outward gaze a r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e s t y l e h i s son would

d e v e l o p and employ f o r t h e Homer designs.

With only the a c t i v i t i e s around h i s f a t h e r ' s shop a s

teacher t h e y o u n g e r F l a x m a n was d e v e l o p i n g an a r t i s t i c style

o f h i s own. 3
He drew The D e a t h o f C a e s a r (Figure 2) a t a b o u t

the t i m e he e x h i b i t e d t h e p r i z e winning models a t t h e F r e e

Society of A r t i s t s . I t s theme i s c l a s s i c a l l y i n s p i r e d but i t s

style i s less distinctly classical than the l a t e r Homer illus-

trations, even t h o u g h , a s a l r e a d y noted, there is a similarity

between t h e c e n t r a l f i g u r e i n The D e a t h o f C a e s a r and t h e

m o u r n i n g woman i n t h e T h e t i s B r i n g i n g t h e Armour t o A c h i l l e s ,

Iliad 31 d e s i g n . In f a c t , one m i g h t a l m o s t imagine i t being

the same f i g u r e d e p i c t e d a few s e c o n d s l a t e r when collapsed

i n t o deeper grief.

The Death o f Caesar p r o v i d e s an i d e a o f Flaxman's artistic

d e v e l o p m e n t and k n o w l e d g e a t t h e age o f 13 o r 14 y e a r s . He

was q u i t e capable of rendering anatomy i n remarkably varied

and vigorous poses. He knew how t o c r e a t e spatial perspective

using overlapping, shading, and v a r i e d f i g u r e s i z e and d e t a i l .

20
He knew how t o d i r e c t the viewers attention towards t h e c e n t r e

o f a c t i o n by h a v i n g the figures n e a r e r t h e edge o f t h e f r a m e

less detailed than those nearer the c e n t r e . Although he had

at that time no a r t i s t i c instruction o t h e r than i n h i s father's

shop Flaxman had w e l l developed artistic sensibilities. He

appreciated the p i c t o r i a l and d r a m a t i c p o t e n t i a l of the subject

matter and had t h e m e c h a n i c a l means o f s e t t i n g a d e s i g n on paper.

In h i s f a t h e r ' s shop F l a x m a n met two p e o p l e who were t o

exert a significant i n f l u e n c e upon h i s d e v e l o p m e n t . The

first, t h e Reverend Anthony Stephen Matthew 4

entered John

F l a x m a n S e n i o r ' s shop a b o u t 1768 and, f i n d i n g young Flaxman

attempting t o read a L a t i n text, promised to give the l a d

something more s u i t a b l e . His wife Henrietta, who r e a d Homer

in translation t o Flaxman, a l s o i n t r o d u c e d h i m t o members o f h e r

'blue s t o c k i n g ' literary group. Brief biographical n o t e s o f some

of them i n d i c a t e the i n t e l l e c t u a l horizons that t h e n opened t o

t h e young F l a x m a n . Anna L e t i t i a Barbauld had m a s t e r e d French

and Italian and had a k n o w l e d g e o f L a t i n and G r e e k and was

later to operate a very s u c c e s s f u l school at Palgrave i n

Suffolk. E l i z a b e t h C a r t e r s p o k e s i x modern l a n g u a g e s b u t was

b e s t known a s a s c h o l a r o f a n c i e n t G r e e c e with a great interest

in ancient history and g e o g r a p h y . I n 1739 s h e had p u b l i s h e d

her own t r a n s l a t i o n from t h e F r e n c h o f M. C r o u s a z An Examination

o f Mr. P o p e ' s E s s a y o f Man. 5

H e s t e r Chapone w r o t e , i n 1772,

Letters on t h e Improvement o f t h e M i n d . 6
Finally, at the

centre of a c t i v i t i e s was E l i z a b e t h Montagu who b o l d l y proclaimed,

'I never invite idiots t o my h o u s e ' . 7
She d i d e n t e r t a i n Horace

W a l p o l e , D r . J o h n s o n , Edmund B u r k e , D a v i d G a r r i c k and S i r

Joshua R e y n o l d s . 8
The p o e t W i l l i a m Cowper w r o t e o f E l i z a b e t h

Montagu, 'I no l o n g e r wonder t h a t M r s . Montagu s t a n d s a t t h e

head o f a l l t h a t i s called learned.' 9

Out o f t h i s circle came

Flaxman's f i r s t c o m m i s s i o n - a s e t o f s i x s k e t c h e s b a s e d on

Homer f o r J e r e m i a h C r u t c h l e y , M.P. 10

The second person o f s u s t a i n e d importance to h i s career

that F l a x m a n met i n h i s f a t h e r ' s shop was G e o r g e Romney. The

meeting took p l a c e i n 1775 soon a f t e r Romney had r e t u r n e d from

a period of study i n Rome. On a t l e a s t one o c c a s i o n , Romney

F l a x m a n and t h e i r m u t u a l friend William Hayley, s p e n t an

afternoon and e v e n i n g together i n 1783 l o o k i n g at the sculpture

in Westminster A b b e y . 1 1
Shortly a f t e r Romney's d e a t h i n 1802,

F l a x m a n , by t h e n an e s t a b l i s h e d artist i n h i s own r i g h t , w r o t e

to Hayley recalling that Romney had ' f i r s t come t o s e e my father's

casts. I was a l i t t l e boy, and a s he f r e q u e n t l y found me

employed i n modelling, he would stand by me a l o n g while

together g i v i n g me e n c o u r a g e m e n t i n a manner s o o b l i g i n g and

affectionate that he won my h e a r t , and c o n f i r m e d my deter-

mination i n the p u r s u i t of s c u l p t u r e ' . 1 2

As l a t e a s 1821,

Flaxman t o l d Romney's s o n t h a t h i s father's earlier 'original

and striking conversation' continued t o be o f b e n e f i t to h i s

sculptural works.13 F l a x m a n ' s words t h a t Romney had 'frequently

f o u n d me employed i n modelling' i n d i c a t e how t h e a s p i r i n g

sculptor acquired the s k i l l t o p r o d u c e t h e medal i n c l a y and

22
figure o f G a r r i c k t h a t won f o r him p r i z e s f r o m t h e S o c i e t y o f

Arts and a p l a c e f o r him i n t h e t h e n one y e a r o l d Royal Academy.

Throughout t h e d u r a t i o n o f Flaxman's y e a r s as s t u d e n t a t

the Royal Academy i n s t r u c t i o n was d i r e c t e d by J o s h u a Reynolds.14

The principles he u s e d to direct t h e s t u d i e s o f t h e many

students there (then including a number o f a r t i s t s who later

won r e c o g n i t i o n : the p a i n t e r W i l l i a m Hamilton, s c u l p t o r Thomas

B a n k s , t h e e l d e r J o h n B a c o n , James T a s s i e and Thomas Stothard)15

were e n s h r i n e d i n the annual l e c t u r e s he a d d r e s s e d to the

a s s e m b l e d members and s t u d e n t s of the Royal Academy. The

collected l e c t u r e s a r e known a s t h e D i s c o u r s e s on A r t .

In h i s D i s c o u r s e s R e y n o l d s s e t o u t a p l a n t o be f o l l o w e d

by the students and t h e o b j e c t i v e s t o be p u r s u e d by t h e a r t i s t .

To develop the required s k i l l s , instruction a t t h e Academy was

t o be g i v e n i n three stages - the rudiments of drawing, modelling

and the use of c o l o u r , the examination o f t h e works o f p a s t

artists, the production o f new works o f a c c o r d i n g t o t h e newly

acquired educated judgement.! 6

To accommodate t h e s e c o n d

stage t h e Academy became a r e p o s i t o r y o f f i n e a r t i n t h e form

i

o f b o r r o w e d works and, o f p a r t i c u l a r relevance t o Flaxman t h e

aspiring s c u l p t o r , casts of ancient sculpture.1?

With the c r e a t i o n of the Royal Academy R e y n o l d s envisioned

a general amelioration of natural B r i t i s h t a s t e and d e s i g n .

If an i n s t i t u t i o n such as the Royal Academy h a s 'an o r i g i n no

higher [than merely mercantile] no t a s t e c a n e v e r be f o r m e d

i n manufactures; but i f the higher A r t s of Design flourish,

23
these inferior ends w i l l be a n s w e r e d of c o u r s e . ' 1 8
H i s idea

was n o t s i m p l y to provide Britain's industrial revolution with

artistically aware and c o m p e t e n t d e s i g n e r s . The g o a l he

envisioned was much l o f t i e r . He d e c l a r e d , "the wish of the

g e n u i n e p a i n t e r . . . i s t o 'improve' mankind 'by t h e g r a n d e u r o f

his ideas' and t o s t r i v e f o r fame, 'by c a p t i v a t i n g t h e i m a g i n a -

tion'. 1 9
Although himself a painter of fashionable portraits,

Reynolds d i r e c t e d a s p i r i n g a r t i s t s to History Painting which

he regarded the noblest of a l l forms. H i s t o r y P a i n t i n g had

the advantage t h a t a s u b j e c t could be a ' g e n e r a l one' ( t h a t

is, of general appeal), drawn f r o m 'the g r e a t events of Greek

and Roman f a b l e and h i s t o r y , w h i c h e a r l y e d u c a t i o n , and t h e

usual course of reading, h a v e made f a m i l i a r and i n t e r e s t i n g t o

all Europe'. Of s i m i l a r broad appeal were t h e c h i e f subjects

of B i b l i c a l history.20

The methods and i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e p o r t r a i t p a i n t e r and

History painter necessarily differed. Reynolds attempted t o

create an image t h a t d e p i c t e d t h e a p p e a r a n c e and e v o k e d a

recollection of h i s s i t t e r . However, no c o n t e m p o r a r y whatever

had seen the c h a r a c t e r s immortalized by Homer. R e y n o l d s was aware

of t h e p r o b l e m when he r e c o u n t e d the story of Phidias s c u l p t i n g

a figure of J u p i t e r . ' P h i d i a s ' , he w r o t e , 'when he f o r m e d h i s

Jupiter, d i d n o t c o p y an o b j e c t ever presented to h i s sight;

but contemplated only that image w h i c h he c o n c e i v e d in his

mind f r o m Homer's d e s c r i p t i o n . ' 2 1

An a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e

principle i s demonstrated by F l a x m a n ' s v e r s i o n o f A c h i l l e s

24
shield in Figure 1 Thetis Bringing the Armour t o A c h i l l e s

Iliad 31 which i s a c o n v i n c i n g conceptualization of Homer's

description.

To draw p i c t u r e s f r o m d e s c r i p t i o n s by ancient authors

required familiarity with the texts and some h i s t o r i c a l per-

spective. T h e s e R o y a l Academy e n d e a v o r e d to instill through

its library and i t s Professors of A n c i e n t Literature and

Ancient History. D u r i n g Flaxman's student period these honorary

p o s i t i o n s were h e l d r e s p e c t i v e l y be men of no less a stature

t h a n Samuel J o h n s o n (1770-1784) and O l i v e r Goldsmith (1770-

1774). 2 2
Considering Flaxman's l a c k of formal education, the

fact t h a t Mrs. Matthew had read Homer t o him must a l s o have

been of great value.

By including ancient literature and h i s t o r y i n the Royal

Academy's c o u r s e o f s t u d i e s Reynolds assured that his students

had the means t o a v o i d 'that r i d i c u l o u s s t y l e w h i c h has been

practised by some p a i n t e r s , who have g i v e n to Grecian Heroes

the airs and graces p r a c t i s e d i n the court of Lewis (sic) the

Fourteenth; an absurdity almost as great as i t w o u l d have been

t o have d r e s s e d them a f t e r t h e fashion of that court.' 2 3

These anachronisms appeared i n c r e a s i n g l y absurd as ancient

artifacts became more common i n c o l l e c t i o n s and were illustrated

in archaeological publications. Yet, R e y n o l d s was not simply

seeking archaeological detail but rather a reflection of

current c o n c e p t i o n s of the ancient world. 'We must have

recourse to the Ancients as i n s t r u c t o r s , ' he wrote, 'to a t t a i n

25
t o the real simplicity of nature [as] t h e y had probably little

or nothing to unlearn, as t h e i r manners were n e a r l y approaching

this desireable (sic) simplicity; while the modern a r t i s t , before

he can see the t r u t h of things, i s obliged t o remove t h e veil,

w i t h which the fashion of the t i m e s has thought proper to

cover h e r . ' 2 4
I t would seem t h a t R e y n o l d s not only thought

the simplicity of the ancient world t o have been a reality,

but that i t was also a desirable aesthetic ideal. 'Truth of

things', the universally valid c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of human b e i n g s

and human s o c i e t y , was divorced from fashion. When d e p i c t i n g

human s o c i e t y t h e artist should 'get above a l l s i n g u l a r forms,

local customs, p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s and d e t a i l s of every kind.'25

To depict the universally valid 'the historical painter never

enters i n t o the d e t a i l s of colours, so neither d o e s he debase

his c o n c e p t i o n s with minute a t t e n t i o n to the discriminations

of Drapery. W i t h him cloathing (sic) i s neither woolen, nor

linen, nor silk, sattin (sic), or v e l v e t : i t i s drapery; it is

nothing more.'26

A l w a y s an exponent of learning from the best artists,

Reynolds suggested that 'The more e x t e n s i v e . . . your acquaintance

is with the works o f t h e s e who have e x c e l l e d , the more extensive

will be y o u r powers o f invention.'27 i n his Discourses he

praised the consistency of the s t y l e s o f Rubens and Poussin,

for example, by noting that both "always p r e s e r v e d a perfect

c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between a l l t h e parts of their respective

manners..."28 As a form of exercise he recommended h i s students

26
to "consider with y o u r s e l f how a M i c h a e l Angelo or a R a f f a e l l e

w o u l d have t r e a t e d ( y o u r ) s u b j e c t : and work y o u r s e l f i n t o a

belief t h a t y o u r p i c t u r e i s t o be s e e n and c r i t i c i s e d by them

when completed." ^ 2

In d e v e l o p i n g t h e i r mechanical skills and s t u d y i n g t h e

accomplishment o f worthy a r t i s t s , the student also created

their own w o r k s . Reynolds o f f e r e d d i r e c t i o n i n this regard

too. He w r o t e t h a t 'the p a i n t e r ... i s t o e x h i b i t distinctly,

and with precision, the general forms o f t h i n g s . A f i r m and

determined o u t l i n e i s one o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the great

style in painting... 3 0
Instead of copying the touches (i.e. the

brush strokes, etc.) of [the] g r e a t masters, copy o n l y their

conceptions.' 3 1
In h i s Discourses he r e p e a t e d l y pursued the

theme o f e x t r a c t i n g and i l l u s t r a t i n g from a s i t u a t i o n with

artistic potential only the single dominant idea. Referring

to P l i n y ' s account of Euphranor's Statue of P a r i s with i t s ,to

him, confused theme, R e y n o l d s w r o t e : 'A s t a t u e i n which you

endeavor t o u n i t e s t a t e l y dignity,, youthful elegance, and

stern v a l o u r , must s u r e l y possess none o f t h e s e t o any e m i n e n t

degree 3 2
... t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f a mixed p a s s i o n ... a p p e a r s t o

me o u t o f t h e r e a c h of our a r t . ' 3 3
D e t a i l s added to embellish

a theme o r make i t more s a t i s f y i n g by v i r t u e of i t s increased

complexity only 'serve to d i v i d e the a t t e n t i o n of the specta-

tor.' 3 4
In t h e end, a p a i n t i n g s h o u l d appeal 'not t o t h e e y e

but t o t h e mind' and s o d o i n g 'entitles i t t o t h e name o f a

Liberal A r t , and r a n k s i t as a s i s t e r of p o e t r y . ' 3 5

27
 Upon h i s g r a d u a t i o n from t h e R o y a l Academy o f 1775 Flaxman

attempted t o s e t up a p r a c t i c e as a s c u l p t o r i n London. Com-

missions were modest i n number and size: monuments t o Ann

Russell and her son H e n r y who died, i n 1780-81, in A l l Saints

at Lydd i n Kent (with angels p e r h a p s i n s p i r e d by a plate from

Stuart and Revett A n t i q u i t i e s of Athens, 1762 ( F i g u r e s 8a and

b respectively)); i n memory o f B a r b a r a B o u r c h i e r , who died in

1784, ( i n S t . Mary, Newent, G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e (Figure 9)); for

Mrs. S a r a h M o r l e y , who also died i n 1784, (Gloucester Cathedral

(Figure 10)), and f o r t h e R e v e r e n d Thomas and Mrs. Ball (1784-86

in Chichester Cathedral (Figure 11)). Thus t o s u p p o r t himself

F l a x m a n was forced to r e l y upon h i s e s t a b l i s h e d r e l a t i o n s h i p

with t h e J o s i a h Wedgwood p o t t e r y firm.

Wedgwood q u i c k l y a p p r e c i a t e d Flaxman's a b i l i t i e s . The

industrialist wrote to h i s p a r t n e r Thomas B e n t l e y in early

1775, soon a f t e r t h e young a r t i s t started submitting designs,

praising F l a x m a n as "valuable".36 The majority of Flaxman's

Wedgwood d e s i g n s were f o r t h e most famous o f Wedgwood's products

- jasperware. I t was (and r e m a i n s ) a p o t t e r y ware made i n

imitation of the stone jasper, cut since classical times to

p r o d u c e cameos and partial medallions. In the cameos and

jasperware the f i g u r e s appear c o n t r a s t e d in colour to the

ground. The s u b j e c t s were o f g r e a t variety including "illustrious

moderns" ( n o t a b l e p e o p l e ) s u c h as the a c t r e s s Mrs Siddons

(Figure 12) as w e l l as a c h e s s s e t f o r w h i c h Flaxman was the

principal designer (Figure 13).

28
 Wedgwood h a d more t h a n one c o n c e r n i n the production of

jasperware. Of u t m o s t importance, the designs submitted t o

him had t o be c a p a b l e o f e x e c u t i o n i n j a s p e r w a r e . In the

p r o c e s s he d e v e l o p e d , a model was n o r m a l l y made o f wax applied

to a supporting plaque from which a plaster o f p a r i s mould was

made. T h a t mould was f i l l e d with clay t o form a f i g u r e which,

when d r y , was f i r e d . This firing caused a one s e v e n t h reduction

in the s i z e of the clay figure. By r e p e a t i n g the process, a

design, executed a s a wax model t h e d i a m e t e r of a dinner

plate, could be u s e d f o rjasperware products ranging from

six-sevenths the s i z e of the o r i g i n a l t o items as s m a l l as

buttons. The mould c o u l d a t any s t a g e be u s e d t o form t h e

f i g u r e s which were a p p l i e d , l e a t h e r h a r d , t o a c o l o u r e d body

of an a r t i c l e such as a d i s h or vase. When t h e body and

applied d e c o r a t i o n were f i r e d t h e y were p e r m a n e n t l y bonded.

The artist's appreciation of the technical problems

addressed by t h e t r a d e s m e n who a c t u a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d t h e models

i n t o j a s p e r w a r e was ( a n d s t i l l i s ) fundamental. F i g u r e s made

f r o m wax m o d e l s needed t o be t h i c k enough f o r e a s e of handling

during the application t o t h e body and y e t t h i n enough t o l e t

the colour o f t h e body e n h a n c e t h e m o d e l l e d effects. To

produce successful jasperware pieces, standards could n o t be

relaxed. Even after s u b m i t t i n g many d e s i g n s t o Wedgwood,

Flaxman produced models f o r j a s p e r w a r e which the potter found

unuseable. Wedgwood w r o t e t o B e n t l e y : "Mr. F l a x m a n ' s model i s

too flat i n several parts ... I n some t h i n g s t h e b l u e shade

29
which our ground i s so a p t t o c a s t through the t h i n p a r t s of

the w h i t e may be o f a d v a n t a g e t o t h e s u b j e c t ... B u t when t h e

naked p a r t of the Figure i s penetrated with the colour of the

ground, i t i s generally injurious. See t h e p o o r Queen's nose

and many o t h e r Cameos."37

Also of concern t o Wedgwood, t h e j a s p e r w a r e needed t o be

of a consistent and d i s t i n c t i v e f o r m even when a v a r i e t y o f

artists and s o u r c e s o f i n s p i r a t i o n were u s e d . He provided

books o f e n g r a v i n g s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l materials t o h i s many

artists a s he s t a t e d in a letter to Bentley concerning jasperware

pieces. 'I a p p r e h e n d we s h a l l model them much c h e a p e r than

F l a x m a n and p e r h a p s a s w e l l i n other respects, provided we

have F i n e P r i n t s or impressions f r o m Gems t o model from, b u t I

w i s h you would g i v e F l a x m a n a head o r two t o model a s i t may

excite our modelers' [at E t r u r l a ] emulation and a c q u a i n t us w i t h

the p r i c e s f o r which those t h i n g s may be done i n L o n d o n . ' 3 8

This last comment r e v e a l s Wedgwood's t h i r d and o v e r r i d i n g

consideration, t h e need t o make a p r o f i t . Hence h i s p r o d u c t s

must be s a l e a b l e . Wedgwood w r o t e , this time t o Flaxman, o f a

design depicting t h e Judgement o f P a r i s t h a t " i t i s absolutely

n e c e s s a r y " t o d r a p e nude f i g u r e s , f o r t h o u g h " s o g e n e r a l i n

the works o f t h e a n c i e n t s , none e i t h e r male o r f e m a l e o f t h e

present generation will take or apply them a s f u r n i t u r e i f t h e

figures are naked." 3 9

Wedgwood d i d i n d e e d seek t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c r e d i b i l i t y o f

h i s products with p o t e n t i a l customers. In h i s a d v e r t i s i n g

30
c a t a l o g u e s he p r o c l a i m e d that h i s "Painted Etruscan Vases"

were " c o p i e d from the antique with t h e utmost exactness: as

they a r e t o be f o u n d i n Dempster, G o r i , Caylus, P a s s e r i , but

more e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e most c h o i c e and c o m p r e h e n s i v e collection

of S i r William Hamilton". 4 0
The works t o w h i c h he was referring

(Thomas D e m p s t e r ' s De E t r u r i a R e g a l i (1723-1726), Antonio

Francesco G o r i ' s Museum E t r u s c u m ( 1 7 3 7 - 1 7 4 3 ) , t h e comte de

Caylus's Recueil d'Antiquites Egyptiennes, Etrusques e t Romaines

( 1 7 5 2 - 1 7 7 0 ) , and P a s s e r i ' s L a P e i n t u r e a 1 ' E n c a u s t i q u e (1775)

were p a r t o f t h e e x p a n d i n g corpus of p u b l i c a t i o n s of antiquarian

interest being purchased by e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s such as

the Royal Academy and by g e n t l e m e n who h a d been on t h e G r a n d

Tour. Wedgwood had p u r c h a s e d them i n o r d e r that h i s a r t i s t s

might d e r i v e i n s p i r a t i o n f o r works t h a t w o u l d then seem somewhat

familiar t o h i s customers. The f a c t o r y library also contained

d'Hancarville's Cabinet o f t h e Hon. W i l l i a m H a m i l t o n (1766-1767)

a plate from which ( F i g u r e 14) p r o v i d e d the i n s p i r a t i o n f o r

one o f F l a x m a n ' s most p o p u l a r J a s p e r w a r e d e s i g n s The C r o w n i n g

of a Kitharist (Figure 15).

Despite h i s f a m i l i a r i t y with the production process

F l a x m a n d i d n o t work a t t h e p o t t e r y u n l i k e most o f Wedgwood's

artists and m o d e l l e r s . He c h o s e t o r e m a i n i n London where he

could maintain h i s Royal Academy a s s o c i a t i o n s and b u i l d a

practice as a s c u l p t o r . Although the jasperware designs

represented the bulk o f h i s work a t t h e t i m e , Wedgwood's

catalogues d i d n o t name t h e a r t i s t s who p r o v i d e d d e s i g n s and

as a r e s u l t Flaxman c o u l d a c q u i r e n e i t h e r a r e p u t a t i o n nor

important commissions. In a d d i t i o n , d e s p i t e the wide distribution

of h i s designs as j a s p e r w a r e , t h e c o m m i s s i o n s he received from

Wedgwood p r o v i d e d insufficient income f o r F l a x m a n t o accumulate

the r e s o u r c e s to t r a v e l and study at f i r s t hand t h e antiquities

that so o f t e n s e r v e d as h i s inspiration.

The v a l u e of d i r e c t l y examining the remains of the ancient

world must have been f o r e m o s t i n F l a x m a n ' s mind. As early as

1771 a Mr. Freeman r e p o r t e d t o Wedgwood t h a t he had suggested

t o John Flaxman S r . t h a t he send h i s son t o Rome t o develop

his t a l e n t s but Flaxman S e n i o r ' s b u s i n e s s was never able to

support such an expense.41 At about the same t i m e , i n Flaxman's

second year at Royal Academy, t h e c o v e t e d G o l d M e d a l and i t s

attendant travelling p r i z e was awarded t o Thomas E n g l e h a r t .

According to Constable, R e y n o l d s had 'used his influence

against Flaxman.' 4 2
R e y n o l d s may have f o u n d Flaxman annoyingly

precocious. The young a r t i s t ' s manner had been n o t e d by

Wedgwood i n u n f l a t t e r i n g terms. In a l e t t e r to partner Bentley

in 1775 he commented t h a t i t was 'but a few years since [Flaxman]

was a most supreme C o x c o m b . ' 43

In f a c t , R e y n o l d s was never really

sympathetic towards s c u l p t o r s . I n d e e d , he r e s e r v e d h i s most

specific suggestions for sculptors until h i s tenth Discourse,

delivered 5 years a f t e r F l a x m a n had left t h e Academy and then

h i s comments were b r i e f . In the h i g h e s t or 'grand style' of

sculpture the ornamental was ruled out, modern d r e s s must

never be used, architectural b a c k g r o u n d s i n p e r s p e c t i v e were

32
to be avoided, and t h e r e were t o be no picturesque contrasts

but r a t h e r a symmetrical b a l a n c i n g of p a r t s . 4 4
He might well

have been d e s c r i b i n g a two dimensional image r a t h e r t h a n a

three dimensional sculpture.

Reynolds remained unsympathetic t o Flaxman's cause. When

Flaxman attempted to o b t a i n funds t o go t o Rome i n 1784 he

approached Reynolds with the idea that he, the eager young

sculptor, with experience gained in his father's cast shop and

trained at the Royal Academy s c h o o l s w h i c h R e y n o l d s still headed,

could become a Rome-based s u p p l i e r of c a s t s to the Academy.

Reynolds declined the offer. 4 5

U n d a u n t e d , F l a x m a n and h i s w i f e Nancy e v e n t u a l l y l e f t for

Rome i n t h e autumn o f 1787 hoping t o s t a y two years. They

were a s s i s t e d by Romney who accepted Flaxman's o f f e r of c a s t s

sent from Rome i n e x c h a n g e f o r money p a i d b e f o r e t h e y left, 4 6

by N a n c y ' s p a r e n t s 4 7
and by Wedgwood who p a i d t o have their

heavy luggage s e n t on to Rome. 48

The Flaxman's c r o s s e d to

Dieppe, travelled through France and in late 1787 arrived i n Rome.

During their j o u r n e y Flaxman r e c o r d e d i n j o u r n a l s and

letters h i s impressions of those t h i n g s he saw and believed he

might later find useful. His notes suggest that although much

of what he was s e e i n g was new t o him, h i s r e a c t i o n s were

ultimately based on a few firm principles. At V e r s a i l l e s , as

he wrote i n a l e t t e r t o h i s p a r e n t s , he considered that the

t h e a t r e was 'wonderfully r i c h ' ^ 4

while i n h i s own journal he

described i t as 'barbarous.' 5 0
Ornamentation m i g h t be pretty

33
to l o o k a t b u t be c o u l d n o t f o r e s e e i t s b e i n g suitable f o rh i s

own work. In I t a l y he f o u n d the Baroque p a l a c e s i n T u r i n

tainted with t h e 'bad t a s t e o f a r c h i t e c t u r e w h i c h succeeded

t h e age o f M i c h e l a n g e l o ' , their carved f a c a d e s and interiors

being 'as r i c h i n gold, s i l v e r and f i n e m a r b l e a s t h e y were

poor in taste.' 5 1
In s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t were h i s r e a c t i o n s t o

t h e Venus de M e d i c i and t h e N i o b e he a d m i r e d in Florence.

Where t h e t h e a t r e i n V e r s a i l l e s was 'barbarous' these s c u l p t u r e s

were done w i t h 'wonderful attention to nature without exaggera-

tion, there [was] no a f f e c t a t i o n of s t y l e , beautiful nature

was chosen by t h e A r t i s t and c o p i e d w i t h s o much spirit,

judgment...' Where t h e B a r o q u e p a l a c e s were 'rich i n gold

silver and f i n e m a r b l e ' and t h u s 'poor i n taste' the c l a s s i c a l

works showed ' t r u t h o f anatomy and o u t l i n e w i t h a d e l i c a c y o f

execution t h a t when s e e n i n proper light t h e naked p a r t s seem

capable of motion, the d r a p e r i e s are of f i n e cloths, light,

beautifully disposed t o c o n t r a s t t h e l i m b s and shew them, a s

well a s t o add d i g n i t y to the f i g u r e s . ' 5 2

Flaxman a l s o sketched extensively. Of p a r t i c u l a r interest

here i s the v a r i e t y o f t h e t y p e and s t y l e o f m o t i f s he selected.

Figure 16 i s a s t u d y from life rendered i n a manner suggestive

of t h e Homer d e s i g n s w i t h i t s pure outline and p a r a l l e l hatching

in the background. F i g u r e 17 i s F l a x m a n ' s s k e t c h o f a detail

of S i g n o r e l l i ' s B a t t l e o f t h e Nudes ( F i g u r e 18) i n t h e Duomo

in O r v i e t o . 5 3
The r e d u c t i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l to o u t l i n e with

only slight shading and t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of the background has

34
given that sketch a two dimensional aspect that i s not stressed

in Signorelli's version. Flaxman has a l s o a l t e r e d and corrected

the anatomy o f the figures. In a third sketch, this of an

antique r e l i e f i n the Vatican depicting the B a t t l e of the

Amazons, (Figure 19), F l a x m a n has again reduced the figures to

slight outline pencil lines. These s k e t c h e s from varied

sources, with figures in varied poses but with little detail,

are representative of Flaxman's attempts to accumulate images

that could be reasembled i n new compositions.

On his peregrinations about Italy, F l a x m a n came i n t o contact

with a several members o f the artistic community. In a letter

to h i s p a r e n t s from 1790 he commented, 'I have b e e n treated

with p a r t i c u l a r attention by most o f the artists of the first

e m i n e n c e , b o t h E n g l i s h m e n and foreigners'.54 A number became

s u c h good friends that they c o n t r i b u t e d s k e t c h e s t o one of

Flaxman's s k e t c h b o o k s . 5 5
Among them were C h a r l e s Percier who

Flaxman d e s c r i b e d as 'a F r e n c h a r c h i t e c t o f the first talent'. 5 6

The French landscape p a i n t e r Ducros c o n t r i b u t e d a watercolour.

The Flaxman's c i r c l e of friends also included the Irish por-

trait-painter Hugh D o u g l a s H a m i l t o n , 5 7
the English History

Painter Guy Head, and the Italian sculptor Antonio Canova.

And he wrote a letter of introduction f o r James Playfair,58

the English a r c h i t e c t , to S i r William Hamilton, the British

Ambassador to the Court a t N a p l e s , w i t h whom F l a x m a n had been

acquainted f o r some t i m e . In 1790 Flaxman c o r r e s p o n d e d with

Hamilton, asking him for 'some few p a r t i c u l a r s of the Greek

35
stories represented on these beautiful Etrusean vases which

you have added t o y o u r collection s i n c e I was last at Naples

and which I have so g r e a t a l o n g i n g t o s e e . ' 5 9

H i s most

important sculptural c o m m i s s i o n was the Fury o f Athamas ( F i g u r e

20) w h i c h came on the recommendation of h i s f r i e n d Antonio

C a n o v a , and l e d t o the commissions f o r the Homeric designs.

The precise history o f t h e H o m e r i c c o m m i s s i o n s was recounted

by F l a x m a n i n 1824 to h i s f r i e n d the architect Charles Robert

Cockerell who recorded their conversation i n his diary:

F l a x m a n had r e c e i v e d L600 f o r t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f
Athamas i n 1790 b u t t h e m a r b l e , t i m e and e x p e n s e s
( s i c ) had c o s t so much t h a t t h i s work "had b e g g a r e d
him" ( h i s own p h r a s e ) [;] he was g l a d b e i n g t h u s
named t o a c c e p t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t o e x e c u t e t h e
d e s i g n s o f Homer f o r Mr. [ H a r e - ] N a y l o r . Flaxman
composed t h e D a n t e a t Mr. Hope's i n v i t a t i o n . 6 0

I n d e e d The Fury o f Athamas had not been a f i n a n c i a l success

but F l a x m a n had an ulterior motive. He w r o t e t o Romney i n

April o f 1790 e x p r e s s i n g t h e hope t h a t t h e work 'might establish

my r e p u t a t i o n as a s c u l p t o r ' . ! 6
In a l e t t e r , w r i t t e n to h i s

parents i n October of the same y e a r , he was even more specific:

'if I ever expect t o be employed on g r e a t works, i t i s but

reasonable that I should show t h e w o r l d some p r o o f o f ray

abilities, otherwise I cannot reasonably expect employment of

that kind,' 2 6
.

In f a c t , i t was on F l a x m a n ' s i n s i s t e n c e t h a t the commission

had grown f r o m what L o r d B r i s t o l wanted - a f i v e foot by eight

or nine foot bas-relief based on an existing terracotta - to

the free standing four figure group over seven feet tall

36
Flaxman f i n a l l y delivered. As he worked on t h e Athamas i t

became o b v i o u s t h a t h i s other a r t i s t i c activities could not

support the costs of production. He was f o r c e d t o ask f o r

more money b u t o n l y L100 i n a d d i t i o n to the o r i g i n a l l y agreed

upon L500 was f o r t h c o m i n g . By c o m p a r i s o n , f o rthe rather more

successful Lord Mansfield monument o f 1794 ( F i g u r e 2 1 ) .

Flaxman's s c u l p t o r ' s f e e a l o n e was L 2 0 0 0 . 6 3

Flaxman was

certainly aware o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o s t s . The c o n c e p t for a

monument f o r t h e p o e t W i l l i a m C o l l i n s (Figure 22) was abandoned

for t h e l e s s e x p e n s i v e one F l a x m a n d e l i v e r e d (Figure 23). 6 4

Lord B r i s t o l had a r e p u t a t i o n f o r being " e c c e n t r i c and

mean" 8 5
and had t r e a t e d other a r t i s t s rather shabbily. For

example, i n 1778 t h e a r c h i t e c t J o h n Soane a r r i v e d i n Rome t o

begin a period of study only to leave prematurely i n the

following year lured away by L o r d B r i s t o l ' s p r o m i s e o f t h e

commission f o r h i s new m a n s i o n a t I c k w o r t h . When Soane returned

Lord Bristol failed t o honour h i s p r o m i s e . 6 6

Soane was n e v e r

t o resume h i s I t a l i a n studies. In Flaxman's case, i t would

seem t h a t Lord B r i s t o l was t a k i n g advantage o f the s c u l p t o r ' s

desire to e s t a b l i s h himself t o guarantee the completion of the

project.

For a l l h i s i n d i f f e r e n c e t o Flaxman's f i n a n c i a l plight,

Lord B r i s t o l d i d not h e s i t a t e to praise t h e man o r h i s work.

After a l l , no l e s s a f i g u r e t h a n A n t o n i o C a n o v a had s u g g e s t e d

that F l a x m a n was c a p a b l e o f d e l i v e r i n g e x c e l l e n t work. 6 7

Furthermore, Lord B r i s t o l mentioned in a letter t o Lady Erne

37
that he had sent a message t o F l a x m a n ' s f a t h e r saying that the

young man would 'rise t o be the first sculptor in Europe'. 6 8

He hoped he was g e t t i n g Flaxman's g r e a t e s t work j u s t before

the s c u l p t o r ' s name became a h o u s e h o l d word. To have p u r c h a s e d

s u c h a m a j o r work, t h e product of three y e a r s work, f o r only

600 g u i n e a s would have d e m o n s t r a t e d L o r d Bristol's business

acumen as w e l l as his refined tastes. I n d e e d , he personified

Reynolds' observation that 'there i s a general desire among

our N o b i l i t y t o be distinguished as l o v e r s and judges of the

Arts', 6 9

As i t transpired The Fury of Athamas was an artistic

failure, i n no small part because i t i s r e a l l y only compre-

hensible when v i e w e d from the one side shown i n F i g u r e 20.

But even t h e n i t s dramatic impact i s subdued and the faces of

the figures passionless. The p a r t i c i p a n t s seem c u r i o u s l y

divorced from the action. One might imagine that as Flaxman

toiled on, without compensation, h i s e n t h u s i a s m was similarly

divorced from the work.

Flaxman's r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the H a r e - N a y l o r s , who com-

missioned the Homer d e s i g n s , could not have been more d i f f e r e n t .

They were n o t simply fellow v i s i t o r s to Italy but personal

friends. Mrs. Hare-Naylor embroidered a carpet f o r the Flaxmans 7 0

and Flaxman's s i s t e r was the governess of the Hare-Naylor's

four sons.71 The Hare-Naylor's f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n did not

permit them t o g i v e F l a x m a n an outright gift without at least

the hope o f a return and had t h e y o f f e r e d him a loan Flaxman

38
p r o b a b l y would have r e f u s e d . He had been v e r y r e l u c t a n t to

a c c e p t money f r o m Romney t o a s s i s t w i t h expenses for his trip

to Rome and only agreed t o a c c e p t money i n e x c h a n g e f o r c a s t s . 7 2

F l a x m a n had already demonstrated h i s t a l e n t s as a d r a u g h t s -

man. As early as 1788 he had related that 'my drawings have

surprised some o f t h e b e s t E n g l i s h artists here ( i n Rome), who

thought t h e y were c o p i e d from the s t o r i e s on G r e e k vases'. 7 3

Apparently even at t h i s t i m e he was able to take subjects from

life, a r t works a n c i e n t and modern, and expressly from Greek

v a s e s and produce f r o m them o r i g i n a l drawings r e m i n i s c e n t of

the line drawings on a n c i e n t vases. Further, h i s words 'copied

from the s t o r i e s on G r e e k vases' suggest that his drawings

were b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d with passages from a n c i e n t literature.

The t e x t s Mr. Hare-Naylor proposed that Flaxman s h o u l d

illustrate, the I l i a d and O d y s s e y , also offered a promise of

success since the e p i c n a r r a t i v e s had inspired a number o f

significant works i n t h e s e c o n d half of the 18th Century. In

the course of i n v e s t i g a t i n g o v e r 300 works b a s e d on subjects

from the I l i a d , Dora Wiebenson f o u n d t h a t w h i l e o v e r 200 date

from the p e r i o d 1750 t o 1825 fewer t h a n 40 a r e from the preceeding

three c e n t u r i e s . 7 4
She identified two factors that contributed

to t h e sudden increase in popularity.

The first factor i s a change i n a t t i t u d e of literary

critics toward the Homeric epics. B e f o r e 1750, they censured

"Homer's common l a n g u a g e , long d i g r e s s i o n s which left his

poems w i t h l i t t l e formal structure, his realistic and vulgar

39
descriptions, ordinary, unideal actions and unheroic heroes,

and the l a c k of allegorical structure of the poems". 7 5

The

vigour o f h i s n a r r a t i v e was ignored by literary critic and

artist a l i k e such t h a t , on the rare occasions when H o m e r i c

subjects were d e p i c t e d , e m p h a s i s was placed on d i d a c t i c purpose

rather than a c c u r a t e representation of the text. The most

notable s e r i e s of the earlier period, eight tapestry designs

by Rubens ( c . 1 6 3 0 ) , f o c u s e d on a depiction of the life of

Achilles not on a recounting of the events of the Trojan War.

Included are a Wrath o f A c h i l l e s ( c f . F l a x m a n ' s M i n e r v a Repressing

the Fury of A c h i l l e s ( I l i a d 2, Figure 37)) and the earliest

known R e t u r n o f B r i s e i s ( n o t illustrated by Flaxman). The

painter has u s e d Homer's w e l l known c h a r a c t e r s to present

visual metaphors of two themes — the i n f l u e n c e of the gods

upon men and the dominance of love. 7 6

In the first half of

the 18th century d i d a c t i c p u r p o s e was subordinated to spectacular

visual image. In h i s v e r s i o n of the Wrath o f A c h i l l e s (one of

three designs for Gobelins t a p e s t r i e s 7 7

(1721-1725)) A n t o i n e

Coypel s e p a r a t e s m o r t a l s and g o d d e s s by p l a c i n g Minerva in a cloud

only visible to A c h i l l e s ; yet, consistant w i t h works o f the

period, the c e n t r a l f i g u r e s i n the a c t i o n are located in an

expansive landscape completed with f o l i a g e , ships in a harbour

and a fully described m i l i t a r y encampment p o p u l a t e d by many

colorfully costumed figures.

The second f a c t o r i n the increased popularity of Homeric

subjects was the p u b l i c a t i o n o f T a b l e a u x t i r £ s de I'Iliad, de

40
I ' 0 d y s s 6 e d'Homere e t de l'Eneide de Virglle, a v e c des observa-

t i o n s g£nerales sur l e costume i n 1757. I t s author, the Comte

de Caylus, considered at l e n g t h how and which scenes might be

used to s u c c e s s f u l l y i l l u s t r a t e the epics. This analytical

work s u g g e s t e d , f o r example, t h a t as B r i s e i s departure was a

consequence of the same e v e n t that p r e c i p i t a t e d A c h i l l e s '

wrath the two images s h o u l d logically appear t o g e t h e r . In

addition, by p a i r i n g them, b o t h the public o f f i c i a l and the

private domestic s i d e s of the hero's character could be exposed.

Before de Caylus' Tableaux the s u b j e c t s had been associated

only once but after 1757 they were r e n d e r e d together often.

Among t h e artists who d i d so were: G i a m b a t t i s t a Tiepolo for

h i s Valmarana s e r i e s p a i n t e d i n 1757 only a few months a f t e r the

publication of the Tableaux,78 Tobias Sergei i n the 1760's, 7 9

J.H. Tischbein i n the 1770's,80 J o s e p h - M a r i e V i e n , de Caylus'

prot£g6, i n the 1780*s, 8 1

and Flaxman i n the 1790's. While

each c o n t a i n s details i n s p i r e d by de Caylus, 8 2

Flaxman's

(Iliad 2 and 3, Figures 37 and 35 r e s p e c t i v e l y ) are set apart

from a l l p r e v i o u s t r e a t m e n t s as he revealed Achilles character

using fewer f i g u r e s i n simple frieze-like compositions with

virtually no setting. ,

Wiebenson a l s o r e c a l l s de Caylus' activities i n a movement

"which s t r e s s e d a r e t u r n t o the classical i d e a l s of 17th

century French a r t , notably to the a r t of Poussin."83 it was

from e n g r a v i n g s of this artist's works t h a t G a v i n Hamilton

derived the compositions f o r at least three o f h i s works —

41
Hector's Farewell, P r i a m and A c h i l l e s and Andromache M o u r n i n g .

A f o u r t h work A c h i l l e s D r a g g i n g H e c t o r ' s Body a r o u n d the Walls

of Troy (Figure 53) i s b a s e d on an e n g r a v i n g by P l e t r o T e s t a a

member o f P o u s s i n ' s c i r c l e i n Rome. Years before F l a x m a n had

borrowed a scene o f t h e s u b j e c t f r o m an a n t i q u e gem illustrated

in Gori's Museum E t r u s c u m 8 4
t o produce a Jasperware design f o r

Wedgwood b u t he c h o s e n o t t o r e v i v e i t f o r t h e Homer c o m m i s s i o n .

Instead, he u s e d an e n g r a v i n g f o r Hamilton's p a i n t i n g as a

model f o r h i s H e c t o r s ( s i c ) Body D r a g g e d a t t h e C a r o f A c h i l l e s ,

Iliad 36 ( F i g u r e 3 8 ) .

T h e r e was a l r e a d y a well e s t a b l i s h e d market f o r depictions

of the ancient world with the steady flow of people through

Rome on t h e G r a n d T o u r . 8 5
Flaxman h i m s e l f had f o u n d Piranesi's

images o f Rome an added incentive to t r a v e l there. The t o u r i s t s

were a c t i v e l y engaged i n collecting a n t i q u i t i e s and d e p i c t i o n s

of ancient art. F l a x m a n was w e l l acquainted with them, acting

as a guide t o s i t e s of antiquarian i n t e r e s t with such frequency

that, as Mrs. Flaxman wrote t o h e r s i s t e r , the v i s i t o r s 'almost

hurried him o f f h i s l e g s ' . 8 6

This contact was n o t w i t h o u t

effect. He w r o t e t o h i s f a t h e r 'I f i n d f r o m what I s e e o f t h e

English nobility and g e n t r y here that the taste increases i n

England f o rplaster casts as well as other articles of sculp-

ture'. 8 7
Accordingly he s u g g e s t e d that Flaxman S r . i n c r e a s e

his stock of casts. F l a x m a n , w i t h H a r e - N a y l o r , must have

believed that newly c r e a t e d classically inspired designs would

be an a t t r a c t i v e s u p p l e m e n t to the c o l l e c t i n g p r o c l i v i t i e s of

42
the Grand T o u r i s t s p a r t i c u l a r l y i f the subject matter were

familiar, the form a p p r o p r i a t e and the volumes affordable.

At this juncture, i t would seem a p p r o p r i a t e to note the

circumstances that surrounded Flaxman's a s s o c i a t i o n with

Thomas Hope and the s i g n i f i c a n c e of h i s Dante commission which

entered into his later discussions with Cockerell.

F l a x m a n ' s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Thomas Hope had begun some

years before the D a n t e d e s i g n s were e v e n c o n s i d e r e d . In the

winter of 1789-90 F l a x m a n had been w o r k i n g on a group titled

Aurora v i s i t i n g C e p h a l u s on Mount Ida (Figure 24) which was

originally t o be cast i n bronze but finally executed i n marble.88

It was t o be the focal point of a s o - c a l l e d Flaxman o r Star

room i n Hope's t h e n newly f u r n i s h e d house i n Duchess S t r e e t in

London. A good i n d i c a t i o n o f how the room was t o be arranged

with the sculpture and other works i s shown i n t h e 1807 edition

o f Hope's H o u s e h o l d Furniture (Figure 25). In 1792 Hope

advanced F l a x m a n L341 o f an a n t i c i p a t e d L700 f o r an as yet

unexecuted r e c r e a t i o n of an ancient g r o u p t o be b a s e d upon the

Torso Belvedere89 a n c j to represent the marriage of H e r c u l e s and

Hebe. The work was never attemped, as intended, i n a marble

comparable to that of the original Torso Belvedere. Apparently

Flaxman f e l t h i s design could not be successfully translated

into stone.90 He may well have b e e n c o r r e c t . A conspicuous

fault i n the s u r v i v i n g p l a s t e r model (Figure 26) i s that the

figure o f Hebe i s so disproportionately small that she appears

t o be a young g i r l rather than a b r i d e of Hercules.

43
 At least two c o n s i d e r a t i o n s had prompted Hope t o c o m m i s s i o n

the Dante illustrations. His intention, on t h e one hand, was

to g i v e engraved v e r s i o n s to close f r i e n d s as g i f t s . This

idea of a very p e r s o n a l and e x p e n s i v e g i f t was not new.

Wedgewood had p r o v i d e d Jasperware p o r t r a i t medalions of i n -

dividuals for similar disposition w h i l e F l a x m a n was in his

employ.91 T h e r e had a l s o been an i n c r e a s e d interest i n Dante

in England. As r e c e n t l y a s 1781 Thomas Warton had published

his History of E n g l i s h Poetry i n w h i c h D a n t e ' s g e n i u s had been

explored and W i l l i a m H a y l e y had c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o e t ' s work i n

T r i u m p h o f Temper and h i s E s s a y on E p i c P o e t r y . I n t h e same

y e a r H e n r y Boyd p r o v i d e d the f i r s t English translation of the

D i v i n e Comedy." I t was this translation w h i c h was to provide

the English text t o Flaxman's illustrations.

Just a s t h e r e had been little literary criticism to which

he c o u l d refer t h e r e was also very little specific contemporary

pictorial imagery f o r Flaxman t o use f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . Prior

to Flaxman's u n d e r t a k i n g t h e Dante Commission t h e most recent

series of i l l u s t r a t i o n s f o r t h e D i v i n e Comedy was the late

15th Century c o l l e c t i o n by S a n d r o B o t t i c e l l i . 9 3
As these

d e s i g n s were a l s o rendered i n the l i n e t h e y w o u l d have been o f

obvious i n t e r e s t t o Flaxman. However, t h e B o t t i c e l l i manuscript

vanished i n the 16th Century only t o r e a p p e a r i n 1803 in a

Scottish collection. 9 4
while i t i s unlikely that Flaxman had

access to t h i s I t a l i a n ' s work i t i s p o s s i b l e that both artists

consulted a common s o u r c e , Italian late Gothic illuminated

44
m a n u s c r i p t s of the D i v i n e Comedy o v e r thirty of which survive. y £ )

Rather unexpectedly, i n 1773, R e y n o l d s became t h e first artist

to e x h i b i t a Dante s u b j e c t at t h e R o y a l Academy, an Ugolino.

Similarly, when A n t o n i o Z a t t a p u b l i s h e d an illustrated edition

of the D i v i n e Comedy i n V e n i c e i n 1757 i t was the first since

1596. 9 6
The dearth o r works a s s o c i a t e d specifically with Dante

to which Flaxman c o u l d r e f e r meant t h a t he was forced to rely

upon h i s own resources. Thus, perhaps f o r the l a c k of a v a i l a b l e

pictorial precents, the Dante d e s i g n s became " h i s most consis-

tently original s e r i e s of illustrations." 9 7

To r e t u r n to the subject of t h e Homer d e s i g n s , from

Flaxman's p o i n t of view the c o m m i s s i o n had conspicuous advant-

ages. It could e x p l o i t the artistic skills he had previously

demonstrated. In 1792, he apparently regarded design (as

opposed execution of s c u l p t u r e , f o r example) as h i s most

highly developed skill. A f t e r h i s discussions with Cockerell

the a r c h i t e c t noted that 'It i s a great h a p p i n e s s t o an artist

to be called i n t o a c t i o n by someone who knows he appreciates

his particular forte', 9 8

No less importantly F l a x m a n was to

apply these skills to a story with w h i c h he was long familiar.

Mrs. Matthew had read t h e Homer s t o r i e s in translation to

him. His first c o m m i s s i o n had been f o r d r a w i n g o f Homeric

subjects f o r Jeremiah Crutchley a friend of the Matthews. The

materials and l a b o r c o s t s would be small compared w i t h Flaxman's

sculptural works. The duration of the work on the Homeric

illustrations was t o be considerably shortened because the

45
final v e r s i o n s were t o be e n g r a v e d and p r e s e n t e d f o r s a l e by

someone e l s e , t h e e n g r a v e r Thomas P i r o l i . Expediting Piroli's

task, the designs were t o be p u b l i s h e d as books o f e n g r a v i n g s

dispensing with t h e need f o r securing t h e r i g h t s t o an accom-

panying t e x t on t r a n s l a t i o n . Finally, the chosen form, line

engraving, was, a s S i r W i l l i a m H a m i l t o n had n o t e d inhis

Collection o f V a s e s o f 1791, an i n e x p e n s i v e form o f illustration.

For a l l those involved, Hare-Naylor, F l a x m a n , and P i r o l i , the

project promised an e a r l y and s u c c e s s f u l conclusion.

46
NOTES TO THE TEXT

CHAPTER I I

J o h n Thomas, 'John Flaxman, R.A. ( 1 7 5 5 - 1 8 2 6 ) ' , Journal

o f t h e R o y a l S o c i e t y o f A r t s , ( 9 t h December 1 9 5 5 ) , p.43

R . G u n n i s , D i c t i o n a r y o f B r i t i s h S c u l p t o r s ( L o n d o n 1953;
and r e v i s e d e d i t i o n 1968) g i v e s as c o m p l e t e a b i o g r a p h y
as i s p o s s i b l e f o r J o h n F l a x m a n S r whose c a r e e r was
a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y o v e r s h a d o w e d by h i s s o n ' s .

F l a x m a n ' s s i s t e r - i n - l a w M a r i a Denman s a i d i n The B u i l d e r

(24 J a n u a r y 1863) p. 60 t h a t F l a x m a n r e c e i v e d no t r a i n i n g .
T h i s c o n t r a d i c t s A l l a n Cunningham, L i v e s o f t h e Most
E m i n e n t B r i t i s h P a i n t e r s S c u l p t o r s and A r c h i t e c t s , 2nd
edition. ( L o n d o n , 1830-1833) v o l . I l l p . 61. N o t e d by
I r w i n op. c i t . p. 213 f n 26.

F o r t h e most c o m p l e t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f Rev. and M r s . Mathew

see G e r a l d B e n t l e y , ' P a t r o n o f F l a x m a n and B l a k e , ' N o t e s
and Q u e r i e s , 203, 1958, pp. 168-178.

G e o r g e -Smith The D i c t i o n a r y o f N a t i o n a l B i o g r a p h y e d . S i r
L e s l i e S t e p h e n and S i r S i d n e y L e e ( L o n d o n , 1 9 3 8 ) , v o l . I l l
p.1104.

6 Ibid., v o l IV p.59.

7
Ibid., v o l XIII p.688.

8
Ibid., v o l XIII p.688.

9
Ibid., v o l XIII p.689.
1 0
The f i r s t p a t r o n o f F l a x m a n as a p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i s t was
p r o b a b l y Edward K n i g h t s e n i o r c o u s i n o f R i c h a r d Payne
Knight. See E l l a H e n d r i c k s , 'The F i r s t p a t r o n o f J o h n
F l a x m a n ' B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e O c t o b e r 1984 pp. 618-625.
Mr. C r u t c h l e y ' s s i x b l a c k c h a l k d r a w i n g s a r e now l o s t .
I r w i n op. c i t . , p . 220, n. 51.

1 1
W i l l i a m H a y l e y , Memoirs (London 1823). I. p.309.

1 2
MSS, P i e r p o n t Morgan L i b r a r y , New York, Flaxman to Hagley,
24 A u g u s t 1803.

1 3
J . Romney, Memoirs o f G e o r g e Romney (London 1830), p.203.

1 4
S i d n e y C. H u t c h i s o n The H i s t o r y o f t h e R o y a l Academy
1768-1968 ( L o n d o n , 1968); James N o r t h c o t e , E s q . The
L i f e o f S i r J o s h u a R e y n o l d s ( L o n d o n , 1818) p. 164 f f .

47
1 5
S i d n e y C. H u t c h i s o n , 'The R o y a l Academy S c h o o l s , 1768-1830',
W a l p o l e S o c i e t y , X X X V I I I , 1960-1962, p.134.

16 S i r J o s h u a R e y n o l d s , D i s c o u r s e s on A r t e d . R o b e r t R. Wark
(San M a r i n o , C a l i f o r n i a , 1959) D i s c o u r s e I I 1 1 . 1 8 f f .

1 7
Hutchison op. c i t . , p.102.
1 9
Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11. 23-27.
2 0
Reynolds, Discourse I V , 11. 27-33.

2 1
Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11. 45-47.
2 2
S i d n e y C. H u t c h i s o n , The H i s t o r y of the Royal Academy
1768-1968 ( L o n d o n , 1968) p . 237.
2 3
* Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11. 242-246.
2 4
Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11. 256-265.
2 5
Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11. 103-105.
2 6
Reynolds, Discourse IV, 11. 167-171.
2 7
Reynolds, Discourse I I , 11. 97-99.
2 8
Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e V, 11. 312-316.
2 9
Reynolds, Discourse I I , 11. 188-191.
3 0
Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11. 355-361.
3 1
Reynolds, Discourse I I , 11. 184-185.

3 2
Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e V, 11. 70-75.
3 3
Reynolds, D i s c o u r s e V, 11. 45-52.

3 4
Reynolds, Discourse I V , 11. 34-36.
3 5
Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11. 300-301.
3 6
Wedgwood t o B e n t l e y 14 J a n u a r y 1775 i n E . M e t e y a r d , Life
o f Wedgwood (London 1 8 6 5 - 1 8 6 6 ) , I I p . 321.
3 7
Wedgwood t o B e n t l e y 9 J u l y 1776 i n M e t e y a r d , op. cit.,
I I p . 366.
3 8
Wedgwood t o B e n t l e y , 14 F e b r u a r y 1776 i n C o n s t a b l e ,
op. c i t . , p . 10.

48
3 9
Wedgwood t o F l a x m a n , 11 F e b r u a r y 1790, i n M e t e y a r d ,
op. c i t . , p . 589.
4 0
The whole i s s u e o f i n d u s t r y d r a w i n g upon a n c i e n t w o r k s
f o r i n s p i r a t i o n was c o n s i d e r e d by D a v i d I r w i n , "Neo-
c l a s s i c a l D e s i g n : I n d u s t r y P l u n d e r s A n t i q u i t y " , A p o l l o ns
96: pp.283-297.
4
1 Noted i n a l e t t e r Wedgwood t o B e n t l e y 7 September 1771 i n
Finer and Savage op. c i t . , p . 114. *
4 2
C o n s t a b l e , op. c i t . , p . 7 .
4 3
Wedgwood t o B e n t l e y 14 J a n u a r y 1775 i n C o n s t a b l e , o p . c i t . ,
p. 8.
4 4
J o s e p h B u r k e , E n g l i s h A r t 1714-1800 ( O x f o r d , 1976),
p. 259.
4 5
C o n s t a b l e , op. c i t . , p . 7.
4 6
W i l l i a m H a y l e y , The L i f e o f G e o r g e Romney E s q . (London,
1809) p.313 and J . Romney, op. c i t . , p .
4 7
British Library, MS. 39784, A., Flaxman a c c o u n t book
entries.
4 8
E . M e t e y a r d op. c i t . , p . 506 i n c l u d e s a f a c s i m i l e o f a
l i s t w r i t t e n by F l a x m a n o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f a box o f t h e
F l a x m a n s s e n t by Wedgwood ' t o t h e c a r e o f Mess, M i c a l i
and Son L e g h o r n . '
4 9
B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MSS. 39780 f . 38v, Flaxman to h i s
p a r e n t s , f r o m P a r i s 1 O c t o b e r 1787.
5 0
D a v i d I r w i n , J o h n Flaxman 1755-1826 (London, 1979),
p. 3 1 .
5 1
I b i d . , p 31 a l s o D a v i d I r w i n , 'Flaxman: I t a l i a n J o u r n a l s
and C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ' B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e , C l (1959)
pp. 212-213.
5 2
Q u o t e d a t l e n g t h by D a v i d I r w i n , 'Flaxman I t a l i a n J o u r n a l s
and C o r r e s p o n d e n c e ' a s i n p r e v i o u s f o o t n o t e p . 213.

5 3
The c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f t h e s e two images i s noted i n David
I r w i n , J o h n Flaxman 1755-1826 ( L o n d o n , 1979), p. 41.

5 4
B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , A d d . MS. 3 9 J 8 0 , f . 47v, F l a x m a n t o
p a r e n t s , Rome, 26 J a n u a r y [-4790].

49
J o h n M u r r a y L t d London, F l a x m a n s k e t c h b o o k 435. N o t e d i n
D a v i d I r w i n , J o h n Flaxman 1755-1826 ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 9 ) ,
p. 49, 223 n.52

C o l l e c t i o n of Autograph l e t t e r s . . . A l f r e d Morrison.
H a m i l t o n and N e l s o n p a p e r s , I L e t t e r 237.

B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , A d d . MS. 39780, f . 179, M r s . F l a x m a n t o

s i s t e r , [Rome], 22 J u l y 1788 w h e r e i n H a m i l t o n i s d e s c r i b e d
a s F l a x m a n ' s ' b e s t f r i e n d i n Rome.'

Bodleian Library, MSS. A u t o g r a p h d. I I , f f . 319-20, Rome,

13 March 1792.

Flaxman t o S i r W i l l i a m H a m i l t o n , u n d a t e d [ 1 7 9 0 ] , p r i n t e d
i n C o l l e c t i o n of Autograph l e t t e r s . . . A l f r e d Morrison.
H a m i l t o n and N e l s o n P a p e r s ( 1 8 9 3 ) , I , L e t t e r 237.

Charles Robert C o c k e r e l l , Diaries, 2 7 t h November 1824.

F l a x m a n t o Romney, Rome, 15 A p r i l 1790 i n J . Romney,

op. c i t . , p 208.

F l a x m a n t o p a r e n t s , Rome, 7 O c t o b e r 1790 i n B r i t i s h
L i b r a r y Add. MS. 39780 f . 50.

S a r a h Symmons, The S p i r i t o f D e s p a i r : P a t r o n a g e , P r i m i t i v i s m
and t h e A r t o f J o h n F l a x m a n ' , B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e , C X V I I ,
1975, p . 647.

The r e j e c t e d v e r s i o n w o u l d have c o s t a b o u t L 2 2 5 . The

d e l i v e r e d one d i d c o s t L90 D. I r w i n J o h n F l a x m a n 1755-1826
( L o n d o n 1 9 7 9 ) , p 63.

Ibid., p . 54.

P i e r r e de l a R u f f i n i e r e du P r e y i n h i s J o h n S o a n e ' s A r c h -
i t e c t u r a l E d u c a t i o n 1753-80 (New Y o r k , 1977) h a s s u g g e s t e d
t h a t L o r d B r i s t o l m i g h t have b e e n j u s t i f i e d i n h i s u l t i m a t e
r e j e c t i o n o f Soane's d e s i g n . Du P r e y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f rooms would have made t h e m a n s i o n an
" i n c o n v e n i e n t hodgepodge" due m o s t l y t o t h e " t a m p e r i n g o f
t h e a r c h i t e c t - B i s h o p and h i s s e l f - o p i n i o n a t e d amanuen-
s i s " , p.285 I n a d d i t i o n , t h e b u i l d i n g seems t o have been
d e s i g n e d w i t h no p a r t i c u l a r s i t e i n mind. p.286.

L e t t e r f r o m F l a x m a n t o Romney 15 A p r i l 1790 i n J o h n
Romney, Memoirs o f t h e L i f e and Work o f G e o r g e Romney
( L o n d o n , 1830) pp. 204-207.

50
L o r d B r i s t o l t o L a d y E r n e , 26 M a r c h 1792 i n W i l l i a m S
C h i l d e P e m b e r t o n , The E a r l B i s h o p [1924] V o l , I I , p. 439.

Reynolds, Discourse I, 11. 30-32.

Mrs G. H a r e - N a y l o r t o Mrs F l a x m a n 8 November 1794.

B r i t i s h L i b r a r y Add. MS. 39781 f . 386.

Irwin, op. c i t . , p. 138.

W i l l i a m H a y l e y , The Life o f G e o r g e Romney, E s q . (Chichester,

1 8 0 9 ) , p.313.

F l a x m a n t o Romney 25 May 1788 i n J . Romney op. c i t . ,

p. 204.

D o r a W i e b e n s o n , " S u b j e c t s f r o m Homer's I l i a d in Neoclassical

A r t " , A r t B u l l e t i n v.46, 1964; pp.23-37.

Ibid., p. 23.

Kerry Downes, Rubens, (London, 1980), pp.90-2.

W i e b e n s o n , op. c i t . , p.25. The o t h e r two designs were a

H e c t o r ' s F a r e w e l l and A c h i l l e s ' Revenge.

M i c h a e l Levey, " T i e p o l o ' s Treatment of the C l a s s i c a l

S t o r y at the V i l l a Valmarana; A Study i n E i g h t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y I c o n o g r a p h y and A e s t h e t i c s , " J o u r n a l o f t h e
Warburg and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s , 1957, pp.298-317 n o t e s
t h a t i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum t h e r e i s a copy o f t h e T a b l e a u x
which c o n t a i n s the b o o k - p l a t e of Consul Joseph Smith to
w h i c h T i e p o l o may have a c c e s s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e book was
r e g i s t e r e d as a p p r o v e d a t P a r i s f o r p u b l i c a t i o n A u g u s t
3.1, 1756 and t h u s T i e p o l o may mave had t i m e t o s t u d y i t .
p.302 f o o t n o t e .

H a r a l d B r i s i n g , " S e r g e l s t e c h n i n g e r t i l l Homeros och

V i r g i l i u s " , T i d s k r i f t f o r K o n s t v e t e n s k a p , 1917 d a t e s the
d e s i g n s t o 1766-1767. p.139.

W i e b e n s o n , op. c i t . , p. 25.

V i e n p a i n t e d f i v e o t h e r s u b j e c t s i n the s e r i e s . They
were: V e n u s Wounded ( S a l o n 1 7 7 5 ) , H e c t o r R e p r o a c h i n g
P a r i s ( S a l o n 1 7 7 9 ) , P r i a m D e p a r t i n g f o r t h e G r e e k Camp
( S a l o n 1783, A n g i e r s ) , P r i a m R e t u r n f r o m t h e G r e e k Camp
( S a l o n 1785) and H e c t o r D e p a r t i n g (1786, S a l o n 1791,
Eplnal).

W i e b e n s o n , op. c i t . , pp. 25-27.

51
Wiebenson, op. c i t . , p.32.

See A n t o n i o F r a n c e s c o G o r i , Museum F l o r e n t i u m , I I , Gemmae

a n t i q u a e , F l o r e n c e , 1731-1732, p. 60, p i . xxv, no. 1.
F l a x m a n ' s Wedgewood p l a g u e i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n R o d e r i c k
Cameron, "Flaxman e t Wedgwood", L ' O e i l , May, 1959, p.54.

U s e f u l d i s c u s s i o n s of the Grand T o u r l a n d i t s t o u r i s t a r e :
W i l l i a m Edward Mead The G r a n d T o u r i n t h e 1 8 t h C e n t u r y
( B o s t o n and New Y o r k , 1914) and C h r i s t o p h e r H i b b e r t , The
G r a n d T o u r (New Y o r k , 1969)

M r s . F l a x m a n t o h e r s i s t e r M a r i a Denman [Rome] 24 April

1792. B r i t i s h L i b r a r y Add. MS. 39780 f . 53.

F l a x m a n t o p a r e n t s [Rome] 3 M a r c h 1792 British Library

Add. MS. 39780 f . 57.

B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MS.39780, f , 4 7 v , F l a x m a n to parents,

Rome, 26 J a n u a r y 1790.

F l a x m a n b a s e d t h i s two f i g u r e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n on a s u g g e s t i o n
of d ' H a n c a r v i l l e . MSS. B o d l e i a n L i b r a r y , A u t o g . d. 1 1 , f . 3 1 9 ,
F l a x m a n t o S i r W i l l i a m H a m i l t o n , Rome, 13 M a r c h 1792.

A f t e r A.W. von S c h l e g e l v i s i t e d F l a x m a n i n 1820's t h e

German c r i t i c was p r o m o t e d t o i n c l u d e t h i s s u g g e s t i o n i n
t h e 1828 e d i t i o n o f h i s 1799 a r t i c l e . S c h e g e l , op. c i t . ,
p.154.

R o b i n R e i l l y and G e o r g e S a v a g e , Wedgwood t h e P o r t r a i t
M e d a l l i o n s , ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 3 ) , p.29.

F l a x m a n ' s d e s i g n s f o r t h e D i v i n e Comedy have a l s o been

u s e d by o t h e r a r t i s t s . See V i c t o r Chan, " B l a k e , Goya,
F l a x m a n , Romney, and F u s e l i : T r a n s c r i p t i o n s and T r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n s o f a D a n t e s q u e Image, A r t s M a g a z i n e , 55, May
1981, pp. 80-84.

See K e n n e t h C l a r k , The D r a w i n g s by S a n d r o B o t t i c e l l i f o r
D a n t e ' s D i v i n e Comedy ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 6 ) .

T a t e G a l l e r y , H e n r y F u s e l i 1741-1825 ( L o n d o n , 1 9 7 5 ) , p. 102.

Clark, op. c i t . , pp. 12 f f .

Irwin, op. c i t . , p.95.

Irwin, op. c i t . , p.95.

C.R.Cockerell, Diaries 27 November 1824.

52
 CHAPTER I I I

Flaxman's w i f e Nancy w r o t e t o h e r s i s t e r May on December

15, 1792 relating that h e r husband was v e r y busy in' the daytime

w i t h commissioned s c u l p t u r e s and ' a t home i n t h e E v e n i n g s - he

is employ'd and t h a t closely t o o - i n making a compleat ( s i c )

set o f d r a w i n g s f r o m D a n t e s Heaven, Hell, and P u r g a t o r y ,

consisting o f one h u n d r e d and t e n - from which engravings are

Making f o r Mr. Hope, a f t e r there (or rather going on a t t h e

same t i m e ) a r e a s e t o f d r a w i n g s f r o m Homer's i l i a d and Oddyssey

(sic) - consisting o f 60 most b e a u t i f u l S u b j e c t s and as beauti-

fully treated - w h i c h a l s o he makes d u p l i c a t e s f o r Mr. Udney an

E n g l i s h m a n - on w h i c h a l s o he makes d u p l i c a t e d f o r Mr. Naylor

(Husband of the l a t e B i s h o p of S t . Asaph's Daughter) the which

a r e a l s o E n g r a v i n g h e r e as Mr. N a y l o r means t o p u b l i s h them on

his return t o E n g l a n d [;] he has p r o m i s ' d t o g i v e us h a l f a

dozen c o p i e s ' . 1 How Flaxman actually s e t Mr. Naylor's '60 most

beautiful s u b j e c t s and a s b e a u t i f u l l y treated' on p a p e r forms

the s u b j e c t of t h i s chapter.

Mrs. Flaxman's letter served not only to introduce the

Homer d e s i g n s t o h e r f a m i l y but a l s o Flaxman's patrons. The

sculptor's earlier association w i t h Thomas Hope h a s already

been reviewed. Mr. Udney was probably Robert F u l l e r t o n Udney

(1722-1902) 2
a London merchant who traded to the East Indies.

B o t h he and h i s b r o t h e r J o h n (1727-1800), English Consul to

V e n i c e , were a v i d collectors of a r t . John i s known t o have

supplied h i s b r o t h e r w i t h works o t a r t b u t what h i s c o n n e c t i o n

(if a n y ) m i g h t have been w i t h t h e Homer c o m m i s s i o n i s unknown.

The surviving Homer d e s i g n s u s u a l l y associated w i t h Mr. Udney's

name a r e t h o s e e x e c u t e d i n a shaded style ( s e e F i g u r e 27) which

i s markedly different from the simple l i n e e n g r a v i n g s . In

fact, t h e r e seems t o be no c o n c l u s i v e p r o o f o f t h i s c o n n e c t i o n .

As an a d v a n c e d collector R o b e r t Udney p u t an identifying ma r k 3

on many o f t h e works i n h i s c o l l e c t i o n , but t h i s does not

appear on any o f t h e Homer d e s i g n s i n t h e s h a d e d style.

The third person identified i n Mrs. Flaxman's l e t t e r is a

"Mr. N a y l o r (Husband of the l a t e B i s h o p o f S t . A s a p h ' s Daugh-

ter)". I t was Mrs. H a r e - N a y l o r who a p p a r e n t l y gave Flaxman

the Homer c o m m i s s i o n . Georgianna Shipley (Mrs. Hare-Naylor)

daughter of Jonathan Shipley, b i s h o p o f S t . Asaph, was accom-

plished i n modern l a n g u a g e s , had studied classics with her

father, and had painted i n Reynolds's studio. While in Italy

she had devoted h e r s e l f to painting and had a l s o become a

close friend of C l o t i l d a Tambroni, at the time, the famous

female p r o f e s s o r of G r e e k . 4
Mrs. H a r e - N a y l o r was also a

cousin o f t h e dowager C o u n t e s s Spencer who was herself to

order a s e t of t h i r t y i l l u s t r a t i o n s which depicted scenes from

all seven surviving p l a y s of A e s c h y l u s .

Reducing Homer's e p i c poems w h e r e i n 'nothing i s casual,

nothing i d l e or i r r e l a t i v e ' wherein 'every e x p r e s s i o n i s pregnant

w i t h meaning'5 t o t h e 60 images c a p a b l e o f b e i n g e n g r a v e d was

a f o r m i d a b l e achievement. A p p a r e n t l y t h e c h o i c e o f what to

illustrate was left t o Flaxman h i m s e l f . Mrs.

54
F l a x m a n ' s d e s c r i p t i o n 'a s e t o f d r a w i n g s f r o m Homer's Iliad

and Oddyssey ( s i c ) - c o n s i s t i n g o f 60 most b e a u t i f u l s u b j e c t s

and as beautifully treated - ...'makes no m e n t i o n o f how the

individual s u b j e c t s were t o be chosen. There i s , f o r example,

no indication t h a t a v i e w e r was t o be able to r e c r e a t e or infer

the e n t i r e s t o r i e s by Homer f r o m t h e designs by Flaxman. In

the end the s e l e c t i o n of s u b j e c t s was d i c t a t e d by the stories

to be illustrated. Some w h o l e b o o k s a r e represented by single

drawings.

Although both the Iliad and Odyssey a r e associated with

the Trojan War, as stories they develop along distinctly different

lines. The Iliad recounts the e v e n t s o f 50 consecutive days

just before the end of t h e war. The s t o r y begins and moves

continuously to the end. This sense of a p r o g r e s s i o n of events

was well recognized i n the 18th Century as a particular character-

istic of poetry by s u c h t h e o r i s t s as L e s s i n g who wrote: 'I

maintain the succession of time i s the department of the poet,

as space i s t h a t of the painter'. 6

Poetry by i t s very nature

cannot present, f o r example, an instantaneous p i c t u r e of Achilles'

shield. Lessing t h u s p r a i s e d Homer's m a s t e r y o f p o e t r y by

writing of the shield that ' i n more t h a n a h u n d r e d splendid

lines, [Homer] has described i t s materials, i t s f o r m , and a l l

the f i g u r e s which f i l l e d i t s enormous s u r f a c e , so c i r c u m s t a n t i a l l y

and closely, t h a t modern a r t i s t s have n o t found i t difficult to

produce a drawing of i t corresponding in a l l points'. 7

Flaxman

did p r e c i s e l y that in Iliad 31 Thetis Bringing t h e Armour to

55
Achilles. W h i l e Homer, t h e p o e t , d e s c r i b e d i n Book X V I I I o f

the Iliad t h e p r o c e s s by w h i c h t h e s h i e l d was made F l a x m a n , t h e

artist, showed i t as a f i n i s h e d a r t i c l e b u t by d o i n g so l o s e s

the sense of p r o g r e s s i v e action.

F l a x m a n was a b l e to recreate t h e sense o f progressive

actions in pictorial images by e m p l o y i n g two d e v i c e s . The

first i s consistent with Lessing's observation that 'in great

historical pictures t h e s i n g l e moment i s a l m o s t always ex-

tended...' 8
Flaxman f r e q u e n t l y included i n single designs

events which occur c o n s e c u t i v e l y i n t h e H o m e r i c poem. In the

Iliad 31 f o r example, the a c t of Thetis Bringing t h e Armour t o

Achilles i s combined w i t h t h e moment A c h i l l e s f a l l s into deepest

grief over the death of P a t r o c l u s . The s e c o n d d e v i c e was t o

include i n i n d i v i d u a l drawings a l l u s i o n s t o past e v e n t s and

foreshadowings of the f u t u r e . The s e r i e s f r o m Iliad 29 t o 33

demonstrates t h i s . Iliad 29 ( F i g u r e 28) d e p i c t s T h e t i s and

Eurynome r e c e i v i n g t h e i n f a n t V u l c a n . Iliad 30, V u l c a n and

Chares Receiving Thetis (Figure 29) r e a s s o c i a t e s t h e now grown

Vulcan and T h e t i s as she r e q u e s t s new armour f o r A c h i l l e s . In

Iliad 31 T h e t i s p r e s e n t s the completed armour and c a l l s t h e

grieving A c h i l l e s t o arms. A c h i l l e s appears i n I l i a d 33 A c h i l l e s

Contending with the Rivers (Figure 30) h a v i n g returned to

battle i n the very armour T h e t i s h a d d e l i v e r e d i n I l i a d 31.

Flaxman thus c a p t u r e d t h e sense o f c o n s e c u t i v e action that

characterizes the text of the I l i a d . Neither device could have

been a p p r o p r i a t e forillustrating The O d y s s e y .

56
 Homer's O d y s s e y recounts t h e adventures o f Odysseus (Latin

Ulysses) during h i s 10 y e a r v o y a g e home t o G r e e c e a f t e r t h e

fall of Troy. Spanning a decade, the story of necessity i s

reduced t o a few w e l l d e v e l o p e d t a l e s which a r e s e p a r a t e d

temporally and p h y s i c a l l y . Flaxman responded to the e p i s o d i c

nature o f t h e s t o r y by f o c u s s i n g on a p a r t i c u l a r moment i n t h e

individual a d v e n t u r e and a v o i d e d representing consecutive

events i n single images. The r e s u l t i s a c o n c e n t r a t i o n on

single themes and images o f g r e a t e r d r a m a t i c intensity. To

compare t r e a t m e n t s i n the I l i a d and O d y s s e y s e r i e s , i n t h e

former A c h i l l e s ' brutal slaughter o f d e f e n s e l e s s men and animals

(with limbs bound) i s o n l y recalled by t h e i r p r e s e n c e on

Patroclus' f u n e r a l pyre i n Iliad 35 The F u n e r a l Pile of Patroclus

( F i g u r e 31 w h i l e i n the King of the L e s t r i g e n s s e i z i n g one o f

the companions o f U l y s s e s , Odyssey 15, t h e b r u t a l g i a n t i s

shown i n t h e much more u n s e t t l i n g image a s he i s a b o u t t o hack

to pieces a defenseless o r o v e r p o w e r e d member o f U l y s s e s ' crew

(Figure 32). The r e s u l t of the d i f f e r i n g approach i s that

none o f t h e I l i a d designs seem t o have a s d i r e c t a sentimental

appeal as U l y s s e s and H i s Dog, O d y s s e y 26 ( F i g u r e 3 3 ) , for

example, o r as a f f e c t i n g an image a s U l y s s e s Terrefied (sic)

by the Ghosts, Iliad 17 ( F i g u r e 34) where t h e s h r i e k s o f t h e

t o r m e n t e d go u n h e a r d by a l l b u t t h e t e r r i f i e d hero Ulysses.

Pope had w r i t t e n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n Homer t h a t 'no

author has ever drawn s o many, w i t h so v i s i b l e and s u r p r i s i n g

a variety, o r g i v e n us such lively and a f f e c t i n g impressions of

57
them. Every one has something so s i n g u l a r l y h i s own, that no

painter could have d i s t i n g u i s h e d them more by their features,

than the p o e t has by their manners'. 9

R e y n o l d s had advised the

artist to concentrate on one p a r t i c u l a r aspect of character in

a p a i n t i n g but the n a t u r e of Flaxman's p r o j e c t allowed him to

present a person i n a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s each

revealing some f a c e t o f the character's personality. An example

is the goddess T h e t i s . Her character i s established by the

various s i t u a t i o n s i n which Flaxman p r e s e n t s her. She appears

as a f o n d l i n g mother w h i l e r e c e i v i n g t h e infant Vulcan in

Iliad 29 (Figure 28), humbled as she asks Vulcan's assistance

in Iliad 30 (Figure 29) and dutifully calling A c h i l l e s to arms

in Iliad 31 (Figure 1). F l a x m a n added further variety by

having Thetis kneel, s i t and stand i n the respective designs

to b e t t e r d i s p l a y the three d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s of her character.

By d i s p l a y i n g them i n t h r e e d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s Flaxman followed

Pope's i d e a that 'one may indeed,make a h e r o as valiant as

Achilles, as p i o u s as A E n e a s , and as prudent as U l y s s e s . but

it i s a mere c h i m a e r a t o imagine a hero that has the valour of

Achilles, the p i e t y o f A E n e a s , and the prudence of U l y s s e s , at

one and the same t i m e ' . 1 0

When F l a x m a n was required to present the two Homeric

h e r o e s Pope had m e n t i o n e d , A c h i l l e s and Ulysses, he left the

viewer with images t h a t clearly distinguished a s p e c t s of their

respective characters. As drawn by Flaxman, A c h i l l e s the hero

of the Iliad appears i n a r a t h e r insipid, p e n s i v e pose i n Iliad

58
3, The D e p a r t u r e of B r i s e i s from the Tent of A c h i l l e s (Figure

35), as the p r i n c e of p r i n c e s in Iliad 18, The Embassy to

Achilles (Figure 36), prostrated with tearful grief Iliad 31,

Thetis Bringing the Armour t o A c h i l l e s , and as the brave warrior

Iliad 33, A c h i l l e s Contending with the Rivers. He also presents

the darker s i d e of A c h i l l e s by d e p i c t i n g him in uncontrolable

rage i n I l i a d 2, Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s (Figure

37) and desecrating H e c t o r ' s body, n o t once but twice, in Iliad

36 H e c t o r ' s Body D r a g g e d A t the Car of A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 38) and

Iliad 34 Andromache F a i n t i n g on the Wall (Figure 39). Even

Homer d e s c r i b e d these acts-as 'unseemly d e e d , ' 1 1

and Achilles's

inclusion o f human s a c r i f i c e s of P a t r o c l u s f u n e r a l pyre as

'evil deeds.' 1 2
The Oxford C l a s s i c a l Dictionary characterizes

Achilles as a 'magnificent barbarian.' Flaxman's designs

present him as somewhat more b a r b a r i c than m a g n i f i c e n t and

certainly not the 'valiant' h e r o Pope f a n c i e d him. 1 3

Ulysses' 1 4
character i s explored more f u l l y i n no fewer

than 18 of the 34 designs of the Odyssey series. He is not

merely a warrior who relied e x c l u s i v e l y upon h i s p h y s i c a l

prowess but rather overcomes the threat of the Sirens by carefully

planning ahead (Odyssey 19), escapes the Cyclops by his cleverness

and leadership (Odyssey 14), and wins to h i s cause the residents

of f o r e i g n lands by h i s diplomacy (Odyssey 12). Ulysses is

indeed the exemplar f o r a l l men.15 Having fought through the

Trojan war and survived h i s v o y a g e home he appears i n only one

design of t r e m e n d o u s v i o l e n c e and t h a t when he slaughters the

59
suitors, i n O d y s s e y 31, Ulysses Killing the S u i t o r s (Figure

40), at the climatic c o n c l u s i o n o f h i s r e t u r n home.

As he endeavoured to r e l a t e the Homeric s t o r i e s and the

c h a r a c t e r s of t h e i r chief figures, F l a x m a n was evidently inspired

by particular passages. The grisaille sketch in Figure 27

includes t h e H o m e r i c t e x t and a translation p e r h a p s by Flaxman

himself.I 6
His interest i n the o r i g i n a l G r e e k t e x t s had been

sufficient t o prompt him t o p u r c h a s e a l e x i c o n i n 1790.17

Although i n England t h e r e had been a v a r i e t y of translations,

including t h e W i l l i a m Cowper v e r s i o n s p u b l i s h e d i n 1791 when

F l a x m a n was i n Rome, t h e A l e x a n d e r Pope t r a n s l a t i o n remained

t h e most a t t r a c t i v e . In t h e G e n t l e m a n ' s M a g a z i n e , to which

F l a x m a n had submitted a letter regarding Roman c o s t u m e , ! 8

a

contributor had compared the notes i n the t r a n s l a t i o n s by

Cowper and Pope. Cowper's were n o t 'without a considerable

share of j u d i c i o u s sentiment and explanation' while 'Mr. Pope

has many w e l l w r i t t e n n o t e s [which] are chiefly historical'.19

The adjective 'historical' may be somewhat m i s l e a d i n g . The

topics covered o f t e n i n c l u d e d i s c u s s i o n s of the nature of

poetry and i t s limitations. Pope w r o t e :

"The q u e s t i o n i s , how f a r a p o e t , i n p u r s u i n g t h e
d e s c r i p t i o n o f image o f an a c t i o n , can a t t a c h h i m s e l f
to l i t t l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , without v u l g a r i t y or t r i f l i n g ?
What p a r t i c u l a r a r e p r o p e r , and e n l i v e n t h e image; o r
what a r e i m p e r t i n e n t , and c l o g i t ? i n t h i s m a t t e r
p a i n t i n g i s t o be c o n s u l t e d , and t h e whole r e g a r d had
to those c i r c u m s t a n c e s , which c o n t r i b u t e t o form a
f u l l , and y e t n o t c o n f u s e d i d e a o f a t h i n g . " 2 0

The questions considered h e r e seem f a m i l i a r when compared with

Reynold's t h e o r e t i c a l statements. Reynolds' told his students

60
that the a r t i s t should 'get above a l l s i n g u l a r forms, local

customs, p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s and d e t a i l s of every kind'. 2 1

Mere e m b e l l i s h m e n t could only serve 'to d i v i d e the a t t e n t i o n ' . 2 2

Its appeal t o t h e mind r a t h e r t h a n t h e eye e n t i t l e d p a i n t i n g

' t o t h e name o f a L i b e r a l A r t ' and t o a r a n k 'as a s i s t e r o f

poetry'. 2 3

Although Mrs. Flaxman d i d n o t s p e c i f y that the p u b l i s h e d

v e r s i o n s o f h e r husband's d e s i g n s f o r the I l i a d and O d y s s e y

were t o be l i n e engravings, t h e r e seemed t o be no d o u b t that

this was t o be t h e u l t i m a t e f o r m . From t h e e a r l i e s t sketches

to the f i n a l versions ( t h o s e most c l o s e l y resembling the published

engravings) the designs are recorded as l i n e drawings. Flaxman

rarely introduced shading, backgrounds, figures or the i n t r i c a t e

decoration common on a n c i e n t v a s e s only t o remove them i n l a t e r

sketches. He u s u a l l y s t a r t e d with a b a s i c i d e a f o r each scene

and developed i t .

The e v o l u t i o n of Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s ,

Iliad 2 ( F i g u r e 37) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h e p r o c e s s Flaxman followed

in the production of a design since there survive several

preliminary sketches and t h e g r i s a i l l e rendering ( F i g u r e 27)

for i t . In the l e a s t complete of t h e sketches ( F i g u r e 41) t h e

figure of A c h i l l e s i s somewhat more c l e a r l y defined than t h e

other figures, which a r e i n d i c a t e d o n l y by t h e s c a n t e s t outlines.

In another sketch on t h e b o t t o m o f t h e same s h e e t a seated

f i g u r e h a s b e e n added and M i n e r v a descending from t h e r i g h t has

b e e n more c l e a r l y delineated while A c h i l l e s r e m a i n s t h e most

61
clearly defined figure. As Flaxman approached a final solution

he proceeded to test a variety of poses f o r A c h i l l e s before

finally choosing t h e one he r e g a r d e d a s most a p p r o p r i a t e (Figure

42). Another sketch ( F i g u r e 43) r e v e a l s t h a t he c o n s i d e r e d

having Achilles l o o k i n g over his left shoulder at the descending

Minerva. In a v e r s i o n which i s a p p a r e n t l y related to g r i s a i l l e

sketch i n F i g u r e 27 A c h i l l e s a p p e a r s t o be a l m o s t s t r i d i n g out

of the p i c t u r e plane toward the viewer ( F i g u r e 44). H i s arm i s

raised and h i s sword h a l f drawn i n f r o n t of h i s chest. Neither

of these p o s e s were seemed s u i t a b l e for inclusion i n the f i n a l

engraved series, perhaps because Flaxman c o n s i d e r e d them t o be

too three dimensional. In the f i n a l engraved v e r s i o n ( F i g u r e

37) Achilles stands, h i s face turned to the other f i g u r e s and

away f r o m M i n e r v a , and h i s l e g s w i d e s p r e a d but p a r a l l e l to the

p i c t u r e plane. A l s o h i s arm i s r a i s e d above h i s head i n a way

that s t r e s s e s t h e two d i m e n s i o n a l quality of the composition.

The series of sketches f o r Minerva Repressing the Fury of

Achilles f u r t h e r suggests t h a t F l a x m a n composed t h e p i c t u r e by

accumulating and a r r a n g i n g individual cameo-like figures i n

positions t h a t would b a l a n c e t h e whole c o m p o s i t i o n . By f o l l o w i n g

t h i s method he c o u l d and d i d a r r i v e at least t h e two d i f f e r e n t

final v e r s i o n s a l r e a d y mentioned: the engraved, with three

seated and two s t a n d i n g figures on t h e l e f t , and t h e g r i s a i l l e ,

with two s e a t e d and t h r e e s t a n d i n g figures on t h e l e f t . Both

exhibit a common fault t h a t seems t o be i n h e r e n t i n h i s com-

positional method. I n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s o f many d e s i g n s seem

62
curiously separated from e a c h o t h e r and s o m e t i m e s even u n r e l a t e d

to the actions depicted. F o r example, a l t h o u g h their presence

contributes to the balance of the composition i n the engraved

version of Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s , t h e two

standing figures on t h e r e a r l e f t do n o t seem t o be a t a l l

affected by A c h i l l e s ' fury. Similarly, the seated figure

nearest A c h i l l e s i s gazing blankly into space.

Yet Flaxman's a g g l o m e r a t i v e process was n o t i n v a r i a b l y suc-

cessful. When most s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d i t allowed him t o

integrate figures i n t o an a t t r a c t i v e composition. In Nausicaa

Throwing the B a l l , Odyssey 10 ( F i g u r e 4 5 ) , f o r example, t h e

figures are arranged to present a balanced but v a r i e d composition

in which a l l the f i g u r e s are involved i n the action. By c o n t r a s t ,

The S i r e n s , Odyssey 19 ( F i g u r e 46) h a s t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f two

unrelated scenes p l a c e d t o g e t h e r on t h e same p l a t e . On t h e

left the three sirens s i t amidst t h e bones o f t h e i r v i c t i m s and

on the r i g h t Ulysses i s being l a s h e d t o t h e mast o f h i s b o a t .

This composition i s one o f t h e l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l of a l l the

designs because i n order to balance a grouping of three figures

with a s h i p and a crew F l a x m a n was f o r c e d t o d e p i c t t h e l a t t e r

in a much s m a l l e r s c a l e . According to the conventional system

of p e r s p e c t i v e a viewer w o u l d assume t h a t t h e b o a t was i n t h e

far distance. Flaxman's r i g o r o u s attempt t o exclude the three

dimensional i n h i s o t h e r Homer d e s i g n s makes The S i r e n s p l a t e

seem o u t o f p l a c e i n t h e s e r i e s .

63
 Although the first e d i t i o n s of the Homer e n g r a v i n g s had

only line references to the t e x t s o f Pope and Homer, t h e 1805

Longman e d i t i o n i n c l u d e d the p a s s a g e s f r o m Pope and the viewer

was left to infer that this t e x t was rigourously followed. Yet

many v a r i a t i o n s f r o m b o t h the versions o f Homer and Pope do

occur. The Homeric text, f o r example, c l e a r l y implies that

there were o n l y two Sirens (12:167). Flaxman i n s t e a d depicted

three. He apparently considered a group of three figures

presented a more s a t i s f a c t o r y e f f e c t as i t recurs in his

depictions of the D a u g h t e r s o f P a n d a r u s , O d y s s e y 29 (Figure

47) and i n Penelope C a r r y i n g the Bow of Ulysses to the Suitors

O d y s s e y 30 (Figure 48). F l a x m a n was not above a l t e r i n g specific

details. For Iliad 24, Ajax Defending the Greek S h i p s against

the Trojans (Figure 49) the text reads:

' F u l l T w e l v e t h e B o l d e s t , i n a Moment F e l l ,
S e n t by g r e a t A j a x t o t h e s h a d e s o f H e l l . '
P o p e ' s Homers I l i a d B15 L i n e 904

Some 48 l i n e s before Pope had set the scene with the line 'No

room t o p o i s e the lance o r bend the bow' suggesting that the

archer a t A j a x ' s back i s Flaxman's c o n t r i b u t i o n to the description

of the b a t t l e , added as a useful component i n the compositional

balance of h i s design. A third instance of Flaxman's a l t e r a t i o n

of the t e x t u a l d e s c r i p t i o n appears i n I l i a d 22 showing the

chariot of Neptune R i s i n g from the Sea drawn by four horses

rather than the two i n d i c a t e d by Homer ( F i g u r e 50). Pope d i d

not specify their number.

64
 While taking care with the compositions o f t h e Homer

designs, F l a x m a n was also interested i n m a k i n g them a p p e a l i n g

to the people i n Rome and a t home i n E n g l a n d who were acquiring

archaeological books. D o r a W i e b e n s o n has suggested that an

' o b v i o u s way f o r an artist to l i n k h i s own work w i t h archaeo-

logical publications...was to imitate their technique.' 2 4

The

use of line engraving, common i n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l p u b l i c -

ations, seems t o have been n o t o n l y a s o u r c e f o r technique but

for specific details. Items s u c h as p i e c e s o f f u r n i t u r e seem

t o have been i n s p i r e d by examples found on ancient pottery and

s c u l p t u r e or, perhaps more l i k e l y , t h e e n g r a v i n g s made o f such

antiquities. David I r w i n has thus a s s o c i a t e d , the c a r t and

composition of Odyssey 11, U l y s s e s F o l l o w i n g the Car of Nausicaa

( F i g u r e 51) with a plate from S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton's Collection

of Vases... o f 1791 (Figure 52).

It i s unlikely that an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l book s u c h as Hamilton's

Collection o f V a s e s would have s u p p l i e d F l a x m a n w i t h the inspira-

tion f o r h i s v e r s i o n o f H e c t o r ' s Body D r a g g e d at the Car of

Achilles, Iliad 36 ( F i g u r e 38). The three-quarter position of

the c h a r i o t , i t s r e a r p l a r f o r m , and the e l e v a t e d p o s i t i o n of

Hector's l e g s do n o t a p p e a r s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n any known a n c i e n t

work.25 They do appear, however, i n b o t h Pietro Testa's 17th

Century engraved Achilles Dragging Hector and Gavin Hamilton's

painting A c h i l l e s Dragging H e c t o r ' s 3ody a r o u n d the Walls of

Troy. 2 6
( F i g u r e 53) The latter work was most commonly known

through the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a 1766 engraving by Domenico Cunego.

65
As the Flaxmans lodged i n h i s house w h i l e they were i n Rome, i t

seems more t h a n p o s s i b l e t h a t F l a x m a n was familiar with the

compositional details of the w o r k . 2 7

H i s main t a s k was to

reduce i t t o a form c o n s i s t a n t w i t h the rest of the Homer

series. He d i d so by drastically reducing detail, most notably

in the background, turning Achilles to d r i v e the chariot (necessi-

tated by the e l i m i n a t i o n of the d r i v e r ) and r e p o s i t i o n i n g of

the c h a r i o t to present more o f a s i d e v i e w .

Of much g r e a t e r interest than particular details i s Flaxman's

adaptation of elements of the line engraving technique to suit

his own purpose. A device f r e q u e n t l y encountered i n archaeo-

logical books i l l u s t r a t e d with line engravings i s hatching,

that i s closely spaced p a r a l l e l lines, s u c h as those in Figure

54 an illustration from Spence's P o l y m e t i s of 1747. Here the

horizontal hatching provides a background. F l a x m a n had long

used the technique i n a s i m i l a r manner i n s k e t c h e s , including

the self portrait ( F i g u r e 55) done some 15 years before the

Homer d e s i g n s . But i n t h e Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s the hatching is

used i n a much more s o p h i s t i c a t e d manner. In Iliad 31, Thetis

Bringing t h e Armour t o A c h i l l e s ( F i g u r e 1 ) , f o r example, the

hatching i s put to three distinctly different purposes. It

represents the s t r u c t u r e of the l e g o f t h e bed, defines pers-

p e c t i v e by indicating that the bedding lies f a r t h e r back i n

the p i c t u r e space than Achilles l e g and, by extension, that

the legs of t h e mourner s t a n d i n g behind t h e bed are in fact

behind i t , and finally as a c o m p o s i t i o n a l a i d by partially

66
filling the v o i d under the bed. These techniques to indicate

volume, p e r s p e c t i v e and to accomplish a more s u c c e s s f u l com-

position, are repeated with further variations elsewhere. In

Iliad 14, The Meeting of Hector and Andromache, a s t a i r c a s e i s

implied by horizontal h a t c h i n g which n e a t l y o f f s e t the verticality

of the nanny's r a t h e r columnar d r e s s (Figure 56). In I l i a d 6,

Jupiter Sending the E v i l Dream t o Agamemnon ( F i g u r e 57) and 38

I r i s Advises Priam t o o b t a i n t h e Body o f H e c t o r (Figure 58)

F l a x m a n has d e f i n e d t h e shape o f t h e h e a v e n s w i t h curved

hatching and in Iliad I I , O t u s and Ephialtes Holding Mars

Captive ( F i g u r e 59) he h a s , w i t h but a few lines, created

seats f o r O t u s and Ephialtes so t h a t they a r e not left in

mid-space. At t h e same t i m e no distracting background detail

is introduced. In I l i a d 29, T h e t i s and Eurynome R e c e i v i n g the

Infant Vulcan ( F i g u r e 28) areas are covered with hatching

apparently with the purpose of b a l a n c i n g the compositions

without any more f i g u r e s or structures.

67
NOTES TO THE TEXT

CHAPTER I I I

1
G e r a l d B e n t l e y , The E a r l y E n g r a v i n g s o f Flaxman's C l a s s i c a l
Designs (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 4 ) , pp. 17-18. " BM Add. MSS 39780
f . 197.

2 Irwin, op. c i t . , p.68

3
F r i t s L u g t s , L e s Marques de C o l l e c t i o n s ( t h e Hague, 1956)
e n t r y 2248.

4
George S m i t h , The D i c t i o n a r y o f N a t i o n a l Biography (Oxford,
1938), entry f o r Francis Hare-Naylor.
5
Gentlemen's Magazine, (July 1793) p. 623.
6
G o t t h o l d E p h r a i m L e s s i n g , L a o k o o n and How the Ancients
R e p r e s e n t e d D e a t h (London 1 9 1 4 ) , p.103.

7
Ibid, p.107.

8 Ibid, p.104.

9
A l e x a n d e r Pope, The P o e t i c a l Works o f A l e x a n d e r Pope
( L o n d o n , 1841) p . 2 0 4 ) .

10 Pope, I b i d , p.364.

1 1
Homer, I l i a d , Book 22, 1.395.

12 Homer, I l i a d , Book 23, 1.176.

1 3
O x f o r d C l a s s i c a l D i c t i o n a r y e d . N.G.L. Hammond and H.H.
S c u l l a r d ( O x f o r d , 1977), p.5.

1 4
F o r an expanded a n a l y s i s o f t h e c h a r a c t e r o f U l y s s e s and
h i s a p p e a r a n c e i n a r t works s e e W.B. S t a n f o r d and J . V . L u c e ,
The Q u e s t f o r U l y s s e s ( L o n d o n , .1974).

1 5
Stanford and L u c e , I b i d , p.194.
1 6
T h i s i s c e r t a i n l y n o t P o p e ' s a p p r o p r i a t e p a s s a g e as R o b e r t
R. Wark, D r a w i n g s by J o h n F l a x m a n i n t h e H u n g t i n g t o n
C o l l e c t i o n (San M a r i n o C a l i f o r n i a , 1970) has p o i n t e d o u t
i n h i s n o t e f o r p l a t e 16.

1 7
B r i t i s h Museum, Add. MSS. 39784, E., f . 21, account-book
e n t r y , 1790.

68
Gentlemen's Magazine V o l 51 (1781) p. 65 p r i n t e d with four
illustrations.

Gentlemen's Magazine, (November, 1793), p.981.

A l e x a n d e r Pope, ' P o s t s c r i p t t o t h e O d y s s e y ' The Poetical

Works o f A l e x a n d e r Pope ( L o n d o n , 1 8 4 1 ) , p 474

Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11.103-105.

Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11. 296.

Reynolds, Discourse I I I , 11.300-301.

D o r a W i e b e n s o n , ' S u b j e c t s f r o m Homer's I l i a d in Neoclassical

A r t , ' A r t B u l l e t i n , Volume 46 (1964) pp 34.

Wiebenson, ibid, p.29.

D o r a W i e b e n s o n , i b i d . , r e f e r s t o t h i s work as A c h i l l e s
V e n t s h i s Rage on H e c t o r . D a v i d I r w i n , ' G a v i n H a m i l t o n
A r c h a e o l o g i s t , P a i n t e r " " and D e a l e r ' A r t B u l l e t i n , Volume
(1962) p.94 r e f e r s t o i t by t h e t i t l e u s e d h e r e . Irwin
d o e s n o t m e n t i o n any p o s s i b l e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h t h e T e s t a
work.

Irwin, 1979, op. c i t . , p.48.

69
 CHAPTER IV

In 1811, after r e a d i n g some f a v o u r a b l e comments by German

critics r e g a r d i n g the Dante d e s i g n s , Flaxman i n t i m a t e d t o the

t h e o l o g i a n Henry Crabb-Robinson that he w i s h e d t h e Germans had

something b e t t e r upon w h i c h t o e x e r c i s e t h e i r critical talents.*

This response was probably not simply an e x p r e s s i o n of Flaxman's

modesty b u t rather a reflection of the d i s p a r i t y between the

u l t i m a t e purpose he foresaw for his line d r a w i n g s and the

nature of the c r i t i c a l praise. He had undertaken the commissions

for illustrations t o make enough money t o c o n t i n u e w i t h h i s

Fury o f Athamas b u t t o h i s amazement, i n a d d i t i o n to the immediate

financial reward, h i s l i n e illustrations brought him critical

acclaim, an international r e p u t a t i o n a s an a r t i s t , sculptural

commissions, and indirectly i n 1810, election as P r o f e s s o r o f

S c u l p t u r e at the Royal Academy i n L o n d o n . Moreover, the illus-

t r a t i o n s v/ere a d o p t e d by established artists and students alike

as s o u r c e s of i n s p i r a t i o n well into the V i c t o r i a n age.

The financial difficulty i n which Flaxman found himself

was eased with the completion o f t h e Homer d e s i g n s . How effective

t h e y were i n s u p p l e m e n t i n g h i s income may be gauged i f the

rapidity w i t h w h i c h F l a x m a n drew them i s r e l a t e d to the amount

o f money he earned. Nancy F l a x m a n w r o t e t o W i l l i a m H a y l e y on

July 22, 1793 and informed him of the completion of the engravings

of a l l the I l i a d , O d y s s e y and Dante d e s i g n s . 2

Gerald Bentley

has suggested that the dates indicated i n the f i r s t editions of

t h e O d y s s e y and Iliad (respectively February 1, 1793 and June

1, 1793) probably r e c o r d when e a c h s e t of engravings was com-

70
pleted. 3
By the latter date F l a x m a n had also finished the 46

d r a w i n g s f o r Mr. Udney. 4
T h u s F l a x m a n had produced no fewer

than 174 designs f o r engraving (28, plus a t i t l e page f o r t h e

Odyssey; 32, plus a titlepage f o r the Iliad; and 110, plus a

titlepage f o r t h e D a n t e ) and 46 drawings r e l a t e d to, but

apparently not exact c o p i e s o f , t h e Homer d e s i g n s i n about 8

months. He must have been u n d e r t a k i n g the d e s i g n s at a r a t e

o f a b o u t one a day. This estimate i s probably conservative.

Mrs. Flaxman's l e t t e r to Hayley m e n t i o n s t h a t by then the

engraver's work was completed from her husband's designs.

Again C o c k e r e l l recorded t h a t Flaxman r e c a l l e d he had been

paid 1 guinea each f o r the Dante s e r i e s o f 111 designs, and 4

Crowns e a c h f o r t h e 46 Udney d r a w i n g s f o r a t o t a l o f no less

than L227 - 13 - . C o n s i d e r i n g the Flaxman's f i n a n c i a l dif-

ficulties t h a t came as a r e s u l t o f The Fury o f Athamas and his

small investment i n l a b o u r , time and m a t e r i a l s upon them, the

Homer d e s i g n s must h a v e seemed incredibly profitable.

Hare-Naylor a l s o d i d moderately well. He sold the p l a t e s

for the Iliad series t o Longman f o r t w i c e as much a s the

engravings (original d r a w i n g s ) had c o s t him in Italy. Mr. Hare-

N a y l o r made a t least L100 by the books i n I t a l y before his

sale of the p l a t e s of the Iliad'.5 Even though the Hare-Naylors

made more money f r o m t h e Homer d e s i g n s than Flaxman, they

remained good f r i e n d s . Indicating their continued closeness,

Flaxman i n c l u d e d p o r t r a i t s of t h e i r f o u r s o n s i n h i s monument

t o the Reverend Dr. Joseph Warton e x e c u t e d from 1800 to 1804. 6

71
Years later when M r s . H a r e - N a y l o r w r o t e a n o v e l , the t i t l e of

w h i c h was T h e o d o s i u s o r t h e E n t h u s i a s t , she asked Flaxman t o

design a series of i l l u s t r a t i o n s for i t . 7

Tomaso (Thomas) P i r o l i the t h i r d of those d i r e c t l y involved

in t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e Homer c o m m i s s i o n also did well. Gerald

Bentley has suggested t h a t i n addition t o t h e income derived

directly from t h e H a r e - N a y l o r p l a t e s some o f t h e e d i t i o n s came

from u n a u t h o r i z e d plates ultimately traceable to P i r o l i ' s

shop. 8

S e v e r a l months a f t e r t h e Homer and D a n t e c o m m i s s i o n s had

been completed Flaxman wrote t o H a y l e y t h a t the purpose of the

e n g r a v i n g s was t o show 'how any s t o r y may be r e p r e s e n t e d in a

series o f c o m p o s i t i o n s on p r i n c i p l e s of the ancients, o f which

as soon a s I r e t u r n t o England I intend t o g i v e specimens i n

scupture of d i f f e r e n t kinds, i n groups of b a s - r e l i e f s , suited

to a l l purposes of sacred and c i v i l architecture.' 9

Flaxman's

immediate a i m was t o f u l f i l H a r e - N a y l o r ' s commission by r e p r e -

senting the I l i a d and O d y s s e y i n a series of compositions.

But, i n h i s own mind, t h e d e s i g n s were t o p e r f o r m a t l e a s t two

subsequent functions. First, t h e y were, i n essence, to serve

as working drawings f o r a s c u l p t o r (Flaxman h i m s e l f as i t

happened) t o t r a n s l a t e i n t o another a r t i s t i c medium. They were

thus akin t o Flaxman's d e s i g n s f o r Wedgwood. Second, t h e

resultant b a s - r e l i e f s were t o e s t a b l i s h Flaxman a s an artist

amongst p e o p l e who w o u l d purchase sculpted versions of the

72
images f o r t h e i r houses or i n s t i t u t i o n a l buildings i n which

t h e y had t h e c h o i c e o f d e c o r a t i v e e l e m e n t s .

In striking contrast t o F l a x m a n ' s e m p h a s i s on t h e d e s i g n ' s

future usefulness, was t h e i r critical reception. Where R o b e r t

Adam hoped h i s R u i n s o f S p a l a t r o w o u l d p r o m i s e 'an Age o f

Perfection', 1 0
J.C. F i o r i l l o thought Flaxman's illustrations

ushered i n that age. He w r o t e 'a s h i n i n g star has r i s e n i n

England's a r t i s t i c heaven. May h i s ( F l a x m a n ' s ) a r r i v a l announce

the dawn o f a m a r v e l l o u s p e r i o d of a r t . ' 1 1

When t h e a r c h i t e c t

Robert S m i r k e saw F l a x m a n ' s c l a s s i c a l d e s i g n s he t o o i m m e d i a t e l y

made an a s s o c i a t i o n between the l i n e e n g r a v i n g s and t h e l i n e

drawings of a n c i e n t Greek a r t . A l t h o u g h he t h o u g h t F l a x m a n ' s

works had a ' f o r c e d simplicity', this characteristic, he

s u g g e s t e d , was 'very p r o p e r t o t h e d e s i g n s when t r e a t e d after

the manner o f a n t i q u e d e s i g n s . ' 1 2

G o e t h e made a n a l o g o u s

observations i n h i s 1799 a r t i c l e which d e a l t largely with

Flaxman's Dante drawings. He d e s c r i b e d F l a x m a n ' s economy o f

means i n t h e D a n t e d r a w i n g s a s ' n a i v e t y ' and commented on h i s

'gift of adopting the innocence of the older Italian School.' 1 3

Flaxman's f r i e n d G e o r g e Romney was d e l i g h t e d to report that

the Homer e n g r a v i n g s were 'outlines without shadow, b u t i n t h e

style of ancient art. They a r e s i m p l e , g r a n d , and p u r e . . .

They l o o k a s i f t h e y had been made i n t h e a g e , when Homer

wrote.' 1 4

The v a l i d i t y o f Flaxman's p l a c e i n discussions of ancient

art was q u e s t i o n e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e q u a l i t y of the engraved

73
line by G e o r g e C u m b e r l a n d i n h i s T h o u g h t s on o u t l i n e sculpture,

and t h e system that guided the ancient a r t i s t s i n composing

their figures and g r o u p s i n 1796. He m e n t i o n e d 'the v e r y

tasteful Homer and A e s c h y l u s by Mr. F l a x m a n ' and t h e t h e n

recently published S i r W i l l i a m Hamilton's Collection of Engravings

... o f h i s s e c o n d collection but c r i t i c i z e d the engravings i n

the latter because t h e y had ' o u t l i n e s thick and t h i n alter-

nately' and n o t t h e u n i f o r m l y t h i c k lines he had c o r r e c t l y

observed on a n c i e n t v a s e s . The l a s t Hamilton volume, he wrote,

'... seems t o have g i v e n t h e d e a t h ' s blow t o a l l hope o f e v e r

seeing a faithful tracing o f any o u t l i n e d e s i g n on c o p p e r p l a t e ' .

Cumberland upheld t h e view that t o be t r u l y i n the ancient

style l i n e width should not vary. In h i s (Cumberland's) o p i n i o n ,

F l a x m a n had m i s s e d t h i s most i m p o r t a n t characteristic of ancient

drawing.15

Paradoxically, t h e Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s were a l s o criticized

for too closely resembling ancient a r t . The d i a r i s t Joseph

F a r i n g t o n w r o t e i n December 1795 t h a t t h e d e s i g n s were 'strictly

formed on t h e G r e e k m o d e l . . . e a c h circumstance being dopied

from some a u t h o r i t y . ' 1 6

In January 1797 he r e c o r d e d t h a t t h e

E n g l i s h p a i n t e r John Hoppner b e l i e v e d that the designs 'were

all b o r r o w e d and p u r l o i n e d from a variety o f t h i n g s w h i c h he

(Flaxman) has seen. He ( F l a x m a n ) h a s n o t h i n g o r i g i n a l about

him'.17 indeed the rather obvious correspondence o f Flaxman's

Ulysses following the C a r o f Nausecaa Odyssey 11 and one f r o m

Hamilton's Collection o f E n g r a v i n g s h a s a l r e a d y been noted.

74
When c o m p a r i n g F l a x m a n ' s o u t l i n e s and A . J . C a r s t e n ' s line

illustrations t o L e s A r g o n a u t e s (1799) C a r s t e n ' s e n g r a v e r Koch

wrote t h a t a s t h i s work was more 'painterly' than Flaxman's i t

would be p r e f e r r e d by c o n n o i s s e u r s ( F i g u r e 60).18 G o e t h e more

correctly suggested t h a t Flaxman's c l a s s i c a l l y inspired designs

had made Flaxman 'the i d o l of a l l the d i l e t t a n t e . ' 1 9

Having

been nominated t h e i r idol F l a x m a n m i g h t have e x p e c t e d t h e

dilettante t o make him t h e i r most s o u g h t a f t e r illustrator.

Instead commissions a r i s i n g as a d i r e c t of the engraved designs

seem t o have been few. Prompted by t h e g e n e r a l l y enthusiastic

early a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e Homer and D a n t e d e s i g n s he p u b l i s h e d ,

in 1795, C o m p o s i t i o n s from t h e T r a g e d i e s of A e s c h y l u s with

Tomaso P i r o l i engraving t h e 30 p l a t e s . The s i m p l e line Flaxman

used for classically inspired c o m p o s i t i o n s was a s s o c i a t e d with

him t o t h e e x t e n t that i n at least one i n s t a n c e he l o s t a

commission. I n 1804 i t was s u g g e s t e d that he i l l u s t r a t e S i r

Walter S c o t t ' s Lay of the Lost M i n s t r e l . Scott declined to

engage F l a x m a n , r e a s o n i n g that he was 'too c l a s s i c a l to stoop

t o body f o r t h my G o t h i c b o r d e r e r s ' who m i g h t r e s e m b l e ' t h e

a n t i q u e o f Homer's h e r o e s r a t h e r than the i r o n race of S a l -

vator',20 Had i t been o f f e r e d F l a x m a n may h a v e d e c l i n e d such

a commission. I n 1807 H a y l e y was o n l y able t o p e r s u a d e Flaxman

to i l l u s t r a t e his edition o f M i l t o n ' s L a t i n poems b e c a u s e he

was a c l o s e p e r s o n a l friend. Flaxman p r o t e s t e d that: 'I h a v e

already s t a t e d my objections t o make d e s i g n s f o r t h e d e c o r a t i o n

of p r i n t e d books - t h a t I n e v e r have made any f o r s u c h p u r p o s e s

that i t i s a branch o f a r t i n which I am n o t l i k e l y t o succeed

for want o f p r a c t i c e , and t h e p r o d u c t i o n s i n w h i c h w i l l be

r e g a r d e d w i t h a j e a l o u s e y e by t h o s e t o whom t h a t department

belongs'.21 Flaxman c l e a r l y had l i t t l e interest i n a career as

a book i l l u s t r a t o r . When he p u b l i s h e d h i s s e r i e s of Compositions

from t h e Works and Days and Theogony o f H e s i o d i n 1817 t h e

c h o i c e s o f s u b j e c t s and t h e s m a l l income f r o m their sale were

his.

Rather than p u r s u i n g commissions f o ri l l u s t r a t i o n upon t h e

Flaxmans' r e t u r n t o England i n 1794, he r e e s t a b l i s h e d h i s

practice as a s c u l p t o r hoping for greater personal recognition

than h i s i n d i v i d u a l efforts had r e c e i v e d seven years before.

His a m b i t i o n was t o c a p i t a l i z e on h i s d e s i g n s by t r a n s l a t i n g

them i n t o stone. Their suitability suggested to Lord Bristol

that reliefs based on t h e Homer d e s i g n s would be a p p r o p r i a t e

for d e c o r a t i n g t h e R o t u n d a o f I c k w o r t h House, w h i c h was t o

h o u s e t h e F u r y o f Athamas. Ironically, however, t h e a c t u a l

production of the r e l i e f s was n o t a c c o m p l i s h e d by F l a x m a n b u t

by the C a r a b e l l i b r o t h e r s i n 1800 and 1803. Similarly, when,

in 1809, F l a x m a n d e s i g n e d anew a f r i e z e on t h e s u b j e c t s o f

Ancient and Modern Drama f o r C o v e n t Garden T h e a t r e t h e a c t u a l

production of the r e l i e f s was a c c o m p l i s h e d by J o h n Charles

Rossi, protege' o f i t s a r c h i t e c t R o b e r t S m i r k e . A s he worked,

Rossi i s r e p o r t e d t o have s p o k e n 'of t h e l i t t l e power F l a x m a n

has i n working upon m a r b l e of stone. H i s power i s c o n f i n e d t o

designing and m o d e l l i n g ' . 2 2 T h i s view was somewhat restrictive.

76
 Long b e f o r e 1809 F l a x m a n had proven h i m s e l f more t h a n just

a d e s i g n e r and modeller. H i s m a j o r work t h e monument f o r t h e

tomb o f W i l l i a m , f i r s t Earl of M a n s f i e l d ( F i g u r e 21) had been

installed i n W e s t m i n s t e r Abbey i n 1801. The Fury o f Athamas

upon w h i c h he had pinned h i s h o p e s f o r r e c o g n i t i o n was virtually

unknown. I t had been c a p t u r e d by French t r o o p s and f o l l o w i n g

its eventual installation i n Lord B r i s t o l ' s country house

(after h i s death, as i t happened) remained out of the view of

the general p u b l i c . Moreover, i t was never engraved.

Typically, however, h i s f i r s t projects after h i s return to

L o n d o n had been more modest than either of these. The monument

to Mrs. Mary B l a c k s h a w (Mary L u s h i n g t o n ) ( F i g u r e 61) f o r example

was begun i n 1798 and completed the f o l l o w i n g year. I t i s not,

a direct translation o f a Homer d e s i g n into stone and y e t , when

considered in their context, v a r i o u s of the elements are familiar:

the frame s u r r o u n d i n g the figures i s formed w i t h a wide m o u l d i n g

comprised of c o n c e n t r i c a r c s r e m i n i s c e n t of the arcing parallel

line h a t c h i n g Flaxman used to r e p r e s e n t t h e h e a v e n s i n I l i a d 6,

Jupiter Sending the E v i l Dream t o Agamemnon ( F i g u r e 5 7 ) ; , the

grieving f i g u r e p o s i t i o n e d over the l i d of a sarcophagus recalls

Achilles i n a semiprone p o s i t i o n over t h e dead P a t r o c l u s i n Iliad

31, T h e t i s B r i n g i n g t h e Armour t o A c h i l l e s (Figure 1); the

figures are disposed i n a manner t h a t c r e a t e s a composition

resembling O d y s s e y 7, Penelope's Dream ( F i g u r e 62);and the

winged angel i s analogous to the Minerva f i g u r e with draperies

aflutter to i n d i c a t e flight. For this new composition, rendered

77
as a bas relief, F l a x m a n was not r e q u i r e d to study live models,

contemporary o r a n c i e n t works o r e n g r a v i n g s f r o m them. His own

classically inspired designs provided the components.

Once p u b l i s h e d as engravings, the designs were no longer

Flaxman's p r i v a t e quarry for figural motifs. They f e l l rather

into the c a t a g o r y of p a t t e r n books, a k i n to Hamilton's Collection

of Vases ... or the engraved sources Wedgwood k e p t for the

inspiration of h i s a r t i s t s . 2 3
The suitability of Flaxman's

designs for adaptation i n t o new works was recognized by artists

of a l l ages. The young German p a i n t e r P h i l i p Otto Runge e v e n

suggested t h a t now t h a t he had Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s he need

no longer refer to copies of Etruscan vases f o r i n s p i r a t i o n . 2 4

Flaxman's L e u c o t h e a P r e s e r v i n g U l y s s e s , Odyssey 9 (Figure 63)

has been s u g g e s t e d as a p o s s i b l e source f o r the central figure

i n Runge's M o r n i n g ( F i g u r e 64).25 w i t h the p e r s p e c t i v e of an

established artist Jacques L o u i s David was reported to have

said somewhat p r o p h e t i c a l l y o f the then newly p u b l i s h e d Aeschylus

and Homer d e s i g n s , "Cet ouvrage f e r a faire des tableaux."26

David himself p r o v e d h i s own foresight. In a sketchbook

(now i n t h e M u s £ e des Beaux-Arts i n L i l l e ) filled i n the 1790's

he worked o u t compositional details f o r h i s Les Sabines.27 p o r

t h i s work ( F i g u r e 65) he drew f i g u r e s o f a w a r r i o r (Figure 66)

which are v a r i a t i o n s of the central character (Achilles) in

Flaxman's d e s i g n from Iliad 33, A c h i l l e s Contending with the

Rivers ( F i g u r e 30). Similarly, the composition f o r Les Sabines

was drawn f r o m the F i g h t f o r t h e Body o f P a t r o c l u s I l i a d 26

78
(Figure 67). David e l a b o r a t e d t h e image by a d d i n g many individual

combatants t o t h e soon t o c l a s h armies and by p r o v i d i n g an

architectural background. David's Les Sabines, based upon

components t a k e n from t h e Homer e n g r a v i n g s , apparently intrigued

the s c u l p t o r as the f i n i s h e d scheme was t o r e a p p e a r in a

subsequent Flaxman design.

In 1810 F l a x m a n began work on t h e d e s i g n o f a S h i e l d o f

Achilles t o be drawn f r o m the d e s c r i p t i o n g i v e n by Homer i n

Book X V I I I of the I l i a d . 2 7
Design alone took eight years, i n

part at least, because o f t h e c a r e Flaxman took in relating

visual image t o t e x t . I n c l u d e d was a r a t h e r two d i m e n s i o n a l

version of David's battle scene drawn f i r s t on a straight

ground line ( F i g u r e 68) and t h e n fitted to the c i r c u l a r format

of the s h i e l d (Figure 69). For twenty-four drawings of d e t a i l s

and f i v e models i n c l u d i n g the f i n a l one t h e f i r m of Rundell,

B r i d g e and R u n d e l l , g o l d s m i t h s to royalty, p a i d F l a x m a n 600

guineas. 2 8
The s i l v e r - g i l t original was p u r c h a s e d by K i n g

G e o r g e IV ( i n c e l e b r a t i o n of h i s succession t o the throne i n

1820) and s i l v e r v e r s i o n s by t h e Duke o f Y o r k (now i n t h e

Huntington Art Gallery i n San M a r i n o ) , t h e Duke o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d

and the E a r l of Lonsdale. Each s h i e l d c o n t a i n e d o v e r 600

ounces o f s i l v e r and r e p r e s e n t e d many h o u r s o f work o f R u n d e l l

silver smiths. There are also plaster and b r o n z e versions. In

h i s biography Cunningham r e c o r d s t h a t F l a x m a n was 'justly

proud' of t h i s ' m a g n i f i c e n t ' p i e c e w h i c h was ' c o n s i d e r e d by

many a s one o f t h e a r t i s t ' s most s u c c e s s f u l works.' 2 9

79
 To return to the theme o f the influence of Flaxman's

e n g r a v i n g s on French a r t i s t s , S a r a h Symmons c o n t e n d s t h a t , "It

was i n France that h i s work p r o v o k e d the most f r u i t f u l imitation

and research throughout the nineteenth century. From D a v i d to

Degas F l a x m a n ' s o u t l i n e s r e t a i n e d their i m p o r t a n c e and the

artist himself was a l w a y s an object of admiration."30 one such

was Francois Rude who was commissioned, during his exile after

Waterloo, t o the decorate the e x t e r i o r of the C h a t e a u de Tervueren

in Brussels. 3 1
As a sculptor himself he r e a l i z e d the potential

of Flaxman's line engravings f o r t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o bas reliefs.

His A c h i l l e s deplore 1 ' e n t e r r e m e n t de B r i s e i s (Figure 70) was

derived from the D e p a r t u r e of B r i s e i s from the Tent of A c h i l l e s

(Figure 3 5 ) ( I l i a d 3). A preparatory sketch f o r the relief

clearly shows t h a t while i n s p i r e d by F l a x m a n ' s work Rude d i d

not t r a c e h i s f i g u r e s but rather chose to c r e a t e anew adopting

similar p o s e s and gestures and significantly a v i s u a l means

akin to Flaxman's line (Figure 71). In a d d i t i o n , by rearranging

the f i g u r e s and d r a w i n g c l o s e r them t o g e t h e r , Rude was able to

eliminate the apparent division of the left and right sides of

the original i n w h i c h Flaxman had less successfully united the

s i d e s by adding h o r i z o n t a l hatching. I f the relief was Rude's,

the f i g u r e s and v i s u a l means Rude u s e d to e s t a b l i s h h i s conception

were F l a x m a n ' s .

The second a r t i s t , Antoine Gros, concentrated not on

altering Flaxman's c o m p o s i t i o n s t o f i t h i s own purpose but

rather on individual figures. 3 2

In h i s s k e t c h b o o k s G r o s followed

80
a procedure similar t o t h a t o f F l a x m a n by assembling on a single

sheet individual figures from a variety of sources. However,

instead of adopting t h e work o f a v a r i e t y of other a r t i s t s Gros

drew f i g u r e s w i t h some p a r t i c u l a r quality from a number o f the

Homer d e s i g n s . F i g u r e 72 f o r example d i s p l a y s f i v e figures

traced from Flaxman's Odyssey series. A l l five are standing,

draped figures with h e a d s bowed f o r w a r d . Similarly in figure

73. G r o s has accumulated three gesturing f i g u r e s with fluttering

drapery. The c o n t r a s t between t h e s e s t u d i e s of types and

Gros's s t a n d a r d means o f p i c t o r i a l representation i s dramatically

demonstrated i n F i g u r e 74 where one of a s e r i e s of seated

figures i s rendered on a page below a r e m a r k a b l y vigourous

shaded study of a horse. These line drawings would seem to

have been t r a c e d w i t h great care i n an effort to f i x impressions

of p a r t i c u l a r types of figures i n Gros' mind w i t h o u t his resorting

t o time consuming s t u d i e s of live models o r o t h e r a r t i s t s works.

The third French artist a s s o c i a t e d w i t h F l a x m a n ' s work

was, of course, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres.33 His personal

library as p r e s e r v e d i n the Mus£e Ingres i n Montauban contains

six o f t h e p u b l i s h e d works o f F l a x m a n including the illustrations

to the Iliad, O d y s s e y , and D i v i n e Comedy. From t h e s e Ingres

drew i n s p i r a t i o n . Soon a f t e r the t u r n of the e i g h t e e n t h century

he had been c o n s i d e r i n g a new work J u p i t e r and Thetis. The

concept he settled upon and developed into the final work

( F i g u r e 75) appeared soon a f t e r 1805 as d i d c o i n c i d e n t a l l y a

new edition o f t h e Homer e n g r a v i n g s p u b l i s h e d i n London by

81
Longman. To supplement the o r i g i n a l 34, f i v e new d e s i g n s by

F l a x m a n had been added including Thetis Entreating Jupiter to

Honor A c h i l l e s ( I l i a d 5) ( F i g u r e 76). Symmons h a s i n f e r r e d

f r o m t h e r e s e m b l a n c e o f F l a x m a n ' s and I n g r e s ' suppliant Thetis

figures, with s i n u o u s n e c k s and h e a d s t i l t e d back, that Ingres

probably acquired one o f t h e s e new Longman O d y s s e y ' s a n d drew

his Thetis from i t . To c o m p l e t e the composition Ingres contrasted

this soft, contoured Thetis f i g u r e with a more m u s c u l a r , angular,

and d o m i n a t i n g m a l e f i g u r e a n a l o g o u s t o J u p i t e r i n The C o u n c i l

of t h e Gods, I l i a d 9 (Figure 77).

Ingres' own h a r d edge s t y l e may a l s o have d e r i v e d from h i s

appreciation o f Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s . 3 4
In h i s m e t h o d i c a l

production o f a new p a i n t i n g Ingres frequently made n o t e s about

his a t t i t u d e s toward i t . Of T h e t i s ' a p p e a r a n c e he w r o t e : 'La

b e a u t e s' a s s o c i e a l a j e u n e s s e . . . L a gorge des d e e s e s 3 5

la

n a t u r e de d e s s i n pour b l a n c ' 3 6
and d i r e c t l y t o t h e p o i n t 'La

b e a u t e dans l e s o u v r a g e s de l ' a r t e s t l a premiere chose [,]

elle d o i t dominer s u r t o u t [ ; ] l a couleur blanche e s t adoptee

comme l a p l u s b e l l e pour l e sa n c i e n s [ . ] ' 3 7

The v e r y whiteness

upon w h i c h I n g r e s f i x e d h i s a t t e n t i o n and w h i c h he b e l i e v e d

most a p p r o p r i a t e f o r the subject i s p e r h a p s t h e most conspicuous

quality o f Flaxman's engraved designs. The E n g l i s h artist

defined h i s f i g u r e s on t h e w h i t e f i e l d of the p i c t u r e with thin

black lines. Ingres rendered h i s f i g u r e s by p a i n t i n g them i n

light, consistant t o n e s on a c o n t r a s t i n g ground apparently so

his paintings would give a comparable impression of precision.

82
 The relative m e r i t s o f t h e two artists were c o n s i d e r e d i n

L'Artiste i n 1833. F l a x m a n ' s D a n t e , Homer, and Aeschylus were

said to possess: "...une g r a n d e p u r e t e ; une grande f i n e s s e , une

tres grande s o i n . Nul d e s s i n p l u s que celui de F l a x m a n n '

e x i g e absolument t o u t e s ces qualit£s; l a s6v£rite' des lignes,

la simplicity des contours font l e grand c a r a c t e r e de ses

compositions; l a moindre a l t e r a t i o n de ces graves et purs

profils en ferait de ridicules silhouettes d' ombres chinois." 3 8

Having p l a c e d the c o n s t r a i n t upon t h e u s e of Flaxman's designs

- that i f they are s u b j e c t e d to the least alteration they

become r i d i c u l o u s silhouettes - little wonder t h a t when F l a x m a n ' s

use of line and I n g r e s ' use o f c o l o u r a r e compared F l a x m a n was

upheld as h a v i n g the b e t t e r instincts. The writer noted :

"Ingres, dont l e g e n i e n ' e s t pas sans de nombreux r a p p o r t s avec

le sien, a compris aussi de meme q u ' i l n' avait rien a demeler

avec l a c o u l e u r ; m a i s i l n' a pas eu l e bon instinct, comrae

F l a x m a n , de renoncer k l a p e i n t u r e e t de s' en tenir au d e s s i n ,

au bas - relief, k la statuaire." 3 y

As much as p r a i s i n g Flaxman,

the author implies that t h e s c u l p t o r ' s method o f d e s i g n i n g w i t h

l i n e was best applied t o bas relief or s t a t u t o r y . Ingres, the

painter, was t o show h i s agreement many y e a r s later.

I n t h e y e a r Flaxman d i e d , 1826, Ingres received a commission

for his f i r s t v e r s i o n o f L ' A p o t h e o s e d'Homere. At this time he

must have been somewhat a m b i v a l e n t in his feelings about the

sculptor's importance. Although i t was considered f o r inclusion,

Flaxman's p o r t r a i t does n o t appear i n t h i s work. Only after

83
many y e a r s r e f l e c t i o n on h i s own work d i d I n g r e s i n c l u d e Flaxman

in a second work on t h e same theme Homere D 6 i f i 6 . This semi-

autobiographical work was completed o n l y two years b e f o r e the

p a i n t e r ' s death i n 1867. I n i t were p o r t r a i t s of those people

Ingres judged t o have c o n t r i b u t e d to the continued popularity

of Homer and thus to the c r e d i b i l i t y of h i s s u b j e c t . The

personages included Longinus, 1 s t C e n t u r y A.D. a u t h o r o f On the

Sublime a work w h i c h threw real light on what constituted

literary greatness, M m e
Dacier translator o f Homer i n t o French,

and Flaxman the a r t i s t whose d e s i g n s had provided readers with

images t o complement the Homeric t e x t s . The only v i s u a l works

I n g r e s p r e s e n t e d as r e c o g n i z a b l e s p e c i f i c s o u r c e s i n Homere

D£if±6 a r e Flaxman's c l a s s i c a l outlines adapted t o form the

frieze of the b u i l d i n g i n the background (Figure 78).

As a result of the r e c o g n i t i o n he received when he r e t u r n e d

home t o E n g l a n d , Flaxman found h i m s e l f i n a p o s i t i o n t o be of

direct influence o v e r more, p a r t i c u l a r l y young, a r t i s t s than he

was on t h e c o n t i n e n t , where he was known a l m o s t exclusively

through the d i s t r i b u t i o n of h i s engraved designs. In 1797 he

was elected associate o f t h e R o y a l Academy and three years

later a full Royal Academician. He was invited to give evidence

to a House o f Commons Committee c o n s i d e r i n g the purchase of the

Elgin marbles. 4 0
I n 1810 John Flaxman R.A. became t h e Academy's

first P r o f e s s o r of S c u l p t u r e , ! which
4
required him to present

six lectures a year.

84
 John Flaxman's L e c t u r e s on Sculpture ... As delivered

before the President and Members o f the Royal Academy, 4 2

published

in 1829 give his perspectives on a r t , the a c q u i s i t i o n of artistic

skills and the construction of new works. "We must avail

ourselves of the studies and p r a c t i c e of the most celebrated

artists,' 4 3
he wrote. His own studies of the ancient works

w i t h w h i c h h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s had associated with h i s own

outline illustrations had l e d him to b e l i e v e that the crudeness

of ancient sculpture or b a r b a r i c sculpture was a t t r i b u t a b l e to

a l a c k of scientific knowledge i n the form of anatomy, geometry,

mathematics, p r o p o r t i o n etc. 4 4
The d e f i c i e n c i e s of these

earliest works were r e s o l v e d through the a p p l i c a t i o n of the two

sciences arithmetic and geometry: 'by arithmetic, the proportions

of the human f i g u r e and other animals are reckoned, and the

quantities of bodies, s u p e r f i c i e s , or light and shade ascertained;

geometry g i v e s lines and diagrams f o r the motions, outline, and

drapery of the figure, regulated by the harmony o f agreeable

proportions, or the opposition of contrast*. 4 5

For individual

f i g u r e s he r e c a l l e d a dialogue of Socrates where he notes that

the philosopher and Parrhasius agree that 'the good and evil

qualities of the s o u l may be represented i n the f i g u r e of man

by painting'. 4 6
S u b s e q u e n t l y he expressed the principle in his

own words: 'Expression distinguishes the species of action in

the whole and i n a l l the parts; i n the faces, figures, limbes

(sic), and extremities'. 4 7

When a s s e m b l i n g i n t o a new composition

figures created with every feature contributing t o an expression

85
of the c h a r a c t e r ' s s o u l the artist should again be mindful of

ancient art: 'The characteristics of G r e c i a n composition, in

the best ages, are simplicity and d i s t i n c t n e s s ... Where the

story does n o t r e q u i r e much a c t i o n , i t i s t o l d by gentle

movements, and the figures, whether grouped or s i n g l e , have a

sufficient p o r t i o n of p l a i n back-ground left about them to

show t h e general l i n e s with the forms of the limbs and draperies

perfectly intelligible.' 4 8

For the production o f a new work t h e instant depicting

'every a c t i o n i s more p e r f e c t as i t comprehends an indication

of the past, with a certainty of the end, i n t h e moment chosen'. 4 9

Of particular relevance to h i s intended p u r p o s e f o r t h e Homer

designs i s a comment on basso r e l i e v o . He wrote, 'The species

of s c u l p t u r e i s not intended t o be seen i n many v i e w s like the

entire group; but i t has this advantage, t h a t more g r o u p s then

one may be on the same b a c k - g r o u n d , and sometimes a succession

of events i n the same s t o r y ; a g r e a t e r force i s given t o harmony,

or c o n t r a s t of l i n e s by the number o f g r o u p s and f i g u r e s as

well as the p r o j e c t i o n of their shadows.' 5 0

The critical

a c c l a i m Flaxman a c c r u e d from the illustrations was not maintained

in England, being replaced during h i s l i f e t i m e by a reputation

as a sculptor. To follow Gerald Bentley's f i g u r e s only 656

copies of t h e Longman Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s were s o l d between

1805 and 1 8 2 8 . 1 By
5
the latter part of the 19th Century a l l

F l a x m a n ' s works were r e v i e w e d almost apologetically. For

example, E.S. Roscoe wrote, ' [ F l a x m a n ' s ] works a p p e a l to the

86
cultured minds of a very s m a l l number ...'52 ^ the turn of the

20th c e n t u r y Flaxman's v i s u a l means o f i l l u s t r a t i o n had b e e n

reduced t o t h e form suitable f o r cartoons such a s t h e one by

Phil May r e p r e s e n t e d by F i g u r e 79. When compared with Flaxman's

designs of a century before the l i n e engraving, heavy d r a p e r i e s ,

parallel h a t c h i n g , minimal background presence of p h y s i c a l

types r a t h e r than individuals are familiar but Flaxman's serious

intent h a s been r e p l a c e d by s o c i a l satire.

87
NOTES TO THE TEXT

CHAPTER IV

1. Henry Crabb-Robinson, Diaries, V o l . I 1 7 t h J a n u a r y 1811.

2. M r s . F l a x m a n t o H a y l e y Rome 22 J u l y 1793 F i t z w i l l i a m
Museum, F l a x m a n l e t t e r box n o . 3 .

3. G e r a l d E . B e n t l e y J r . , The E a r l y E n g r a v i n g s o f F l a x m a n ' s
C l a s s i c a l D e s i g n s , (New Y o r k , 1 9 6 4 ) , p . 31

4. I b i d . p . 18 f o o t n o t e 8 n o t e s t h a t F l a x m a n r e c o r d e d " S e n t
by Hawkins M c K i n n o n & Com: t o Mr. Udney 46 d r a w i n g s f r o m
t h e I l i a d & O d y s s e y a t 4 Crowns e a c h 184 — " i n h i s
A c c o u n t book f o r 1792-1794 ( B r i t i s h Museum, A d d . Mss 39784
F, f . 32)

5. C h a r l e s R o b e r t C o c k e r e l l , D i a r i e s . M a n u s c r i p t i n R.I.B.A.
D r a w i n g s C o l l e c t i o n . 27 November 1824.

6. D a v i d I r w i n , John Flaxman: 1755-1826 (London, 1979),

p.138.

7. G e o r g e S m i t h , The D i c t i o n a r y o f N a t i o n a l Biography (Oxford,

1938), e n t r y f o r F r a n c i s H a r e - N a y l o r .

8. B e n t l e y , op. c i t . , pp. 13-14, 3 1 .

9. F l a x m a n t o H a y l e y Rome 26 O c t o b e r 1793. MSS. F i t z w i l l i a m

Museum, F l a x m a n l e t t e r - b o x no.4.

10. R o b e r t Adam, R u i n s o f t h e p a l a c e o f t h e Emperor D i o c l e t i a n

a t S p a l a t r o i n D a l m a t i a (London, 1 7 6 4 ) , p . i v .

11. J.D. F i o r i l l o , G e s c h i c h t e d e r z e i c h n e n d e r K u n s t e ( G o t t i n g e n
1798-1808), V, p.851. I n I r w i n , op. c i t . , p . 6 7 .

12. Farington, Diary, unpublished entry, 19 December 1795. I n

I r w i n , op. c i t . , 84.

13. Goethe, op. c i t . , p.245.

14. W i l l i a m H a y l e y , The L i f e o f G e o r g e Romney, ( L o n d o n , 1809),

p.203.

15. I r w i n , op. c i t . , p.84.

16. Farington, Diary, unpublished entry, 19 December 1795. I n

I r w i n , op. c i t . , 84.

88
17. Farington, Diary, edit. Greig, I , p.184, 12 J a n u a r y 1797.
In I r w i n , op. c i t . , 84.

18. Koch l e t t e r , d a t e d Rome 16 J a n u a r y 1799, i n O t t o R. v o n

Lutteroitti, J . A . K o c h ( B e r l i n , 1 9 4 0 ) , p.142.

19. G o e t h e , op. c i t . , p.245.

20. S i r Walter Scott, L e t t e r s , e d i t H.J.C. G r i e r s o n (London,

1932-1936), I , pp.226-227.

21. L e t t e r F l a x m a n t o H a y l e y , L o n d o n , 6 November 1807. British

L i b r a r y , Add. MSS. 39780, f . 9 8 .

22. Farington, Diary unpublished entry 19 J u l y 1809 i n I r w i n ,

op. c i t . , p.172.

23. David Irwin, N e o c l a s s i c a l Design: Industry plunders

A n t i q u i t y , A p o l l o , XCVI, 1972, p p . 2 8 9 f f .

24. P h i l l i p O t t o Runge: H i n t e r l a s s e n S c h r i f t e n , Hamburg ( 1 8 4 0 ) ,

V o l . I I p . 31. Runge t o h i s b r o t h e r D a n i e l , 23 A u g u s t 1800.

25 Bindman, op. c i t . , p.177.

26. Q u o t e d J e a n n e D o i n 'John F l a x m a n ( I ) ' , G a z e t t e de B e a u x - A r t s ,

V [ 1 9 1 1 ] , 4me p e r i o d e , p.233.

27. B r i a n I v o n - J o n e s , 'The A c h i l l e s S i l v e r - g i l t Shield',

A p o l l o ns 97 [ A p r i l 1973] p.447.

28. B r i t i s h Museum, Add. MSS. 39783 a volume c o n t a i n i n g c o r r e s -

p o n d e n c e o f M a r i a Denman f 2 8 1 i n R o b e r t R. Work B r i t i s h
S i l v e r i n t h e H u n t i n g t o n C o l l e c t i o n (San Marino C a l i f o r n i a ,
1978) number 58.

29. A l l a n Cunningham L i v e s o f t h e Most e m i n e n t B r i t i s h P a i n t e r s

S c u l p t o r s and A r c h i t e c t s 2nd e d i t i o n , 6 v o l s . L o n d o n
1830-3 i n I r w i n , op. c i t . , p.196.

30. S a r a h Symmons, ' F r e n c h c o p i e s a f t e r F l a x m a n ' s O u t l i n e s '

B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e , 115 [ S e p t 1973] pp.591-599. This
p a s s a g e p.596.

31. Now d e s t r o y e d . I b i d . , p.595.

32. I b i d . , p.596.

33. S a r a h Symmons, 'J.A.D. I n g r e s : The a p o t h e o s i s o f F l a x m a n '

B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e v o l 121 [November 1979] pp.721-725.

34. I b i d . , p.722.

89
35. Q u o t e d by D a n i e l T e r n o i s , I n g r e s , ( P e t i t P a l a i s , P a r i s
[ 1 9 6 7 - 1 9 6 8 ] ) , p.76, No. 51 i n Symmons, i b i d . , p.722.

36. Montaubon, Mus6e I n g r e s , I n v . No. 8671786. i n Symmons,

i b i d . , p.722.

37. Montaubon, Mus6e I n g r e s , I n v . No. 8671793. i n Symmons,

i b i d . , p.722.

38. L ' O e u v r e C o m p l e t de J o h n F l a x m a n , ' L ' A r t i s t e , Tome V. 2 1 e

l i v r a i s o n [ 1 8 3 3 ] , p.260.

39. Ibid. p.260.

40. P u b l i s h e d a s : R e p o r t f r o m t h e S e l e c t Committee o f t h e
House o f Commons on t h e E a r l o f E l g i n ' s C o l l e c t i o n e t c
I L o n d o n , 1816 J . F l a x m a n ' s e v i d e n c e pp.70-80.

41. S i d n e y C. H u t c h i s o n , The H i s t o r y of the Royal Academy

1768-1968 [London 1 9 6 8 ] , p.233.

42. J o h n F l a x m a n , L e c t u r e on S c u l p t u r e ... A s d e l i v e r e d b e f o r e
t h e P r e s i d e n t and Members o f t h e R o y a l Academy. With a
b r i e f memoir o f t h e a u t h o r . L o n d o n , 1829. L a t e r p u b l i s h e d
a s J o h n F l a x m a n , L e c t u r e s on S c u l p t u r e ... S e c o n d e d i t i o n .
To w h i c h a r e now f i r s t a d d e d , an i n t r o d u c t o r y l e c t u r e and
two a d d r e s s e s t o t h e R o y a l Academy on t h e d e a t h o f T. B a n k s ,
i n 1805, and A. C a n o v a , i n 1822, w i t h and A d d r e s s on t h e
d e a t h o f F l a x m a n by S i r R. W e s t m a c o t t . L o n d o n , 1838. New
e d i t i o n L o n d o n , G. B e l l and s o n s , 1881.

43. Ibid., ( 1 8 8 1 ) , P- 215.

44. Ibid., ( 1 8 8 1 ) , P- l O l f f .

45. Ibid., ( 1 8 8 1 ) , P- 160.

46. Ibid., ( 1 8 8 1 ) , P- 133.

47. Ibid., ( 1 8 8 1 ) , p. 151.

48. Ibid., ( 1 8 8 1 ) , P- 157.

49. Ibid., ( 1 8 8 1 ) , P. 151.

50. Ibid., ( 1 8 8 1 ) , P- 153.

51. Gerald Bentley op . c i t . ,

52. E.S. R o s c o e , 'The C a r e e r and Works o f F l a x m a n ' M a g a z i n e o f

A r t V4 [ 1 8 8 1 ] , p.368.

90
A p l a q u e on t h e h o u s e where P h i l i p W i l l i a m May was b o r n
r e a d s : "A g r e a t b l a c k and w h i t e a r t i s t ... A f e l l o w o f
infinite jest". H i s s t y l e ranged from l i n e t o h e a v i l y
shaded f i g u r e s . See D a v i d C u p p l e d i t c h , P h i l May, The
A r t i s t and H i s Wit (London, 1 9 8 1 ) , p.125.

91
 CHAPTER V

H a v i n g examined t h e intellectual context, history and

influence o f t h e Homer d e s i g n s , i t i s necessary to appraise

Flaxman's achievement i n producing a series of images t h a t to

this day retain their captivating freshness and vigour. Lucidly

conceived and u n c l u t t e r e d by superfluous d e t a i l , the engravings

not only i l l u m i n a t e Homer and his stories, but also explore the

nature o f man. Indeed, they seem t o be documents r e c o r d i n g a

society with an objective, scientific precision that i s f a r

removed f r o m t h e a n c i e n t d e c o r a t i v e a r t by which they were

partly inspired. Instead the line engravings form a compendium

of t h e H o m e r i c e p i c s and, i n the spirit of intellectual enquiry

that c h a r a c t e r i z e d 18th Century thought, seemingly present the

essence of humanity without the d i s t r a c t i o n of i t s material

substance.

J o h n F l a x m a n ' s 1792 Homer d e s i g n s embodied h i s experience

accumulated during his f i r s t 15 years i n his fathers' cast and

model shop, four years at the Royal Academy, 12 years as a

designer f o r J o s i a h Wedgwood (a l e a d e r i n the development of

industrial methods o f mass p r o d u c t i o n ) , and five years study in

Italy. Despite the prominence of commercial constrictions

criticism of the engravings has centred on their relationship

with t h e work o f a n c i e n t and contemporary artists. That inter-

pretation, however, o v e r l o o k s h i s more p r o s a i c and practical

approach. While i n Wedgwood's employ, F l a x m a n had developed

his linear style as b o t h a means o f c r e a t i v e e x p r e s s i o n , and of

technical communication to the industrialist and his potters,

92
paralleling the w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d use of drawing/engraving in

the 18th Century as t h e medium f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g e s s e n t i a l

ideas. It i s in this context t h a t F l a x m a n ' s Homer illustrations

essentially belong, having been c o m p l e t e d rapidly by an accom-

plished industrial designer and intended for translation into

other artistic media.

F l a x m a n ' s g o a l , as he indicated to Hayley, was to 'show

how any s t o r y may be represented in a series of compositions on

principles of the ancients.'1 The expression 'on principles of

the a n c i e n t s ' d i d not preclude the inclusion of anything that

could be adapted to present an appearance a p p r o p r i a t e f o r the

Homeric e p i c s . His adaptations and i n n o v a t i o n s were many: ,

alterations of the f o c u s and detail of the stories, inclusion

of compositional schemes unknown t o Homer's t i m e ; novel devices

in h i g h a r t such as the h o r i z o n t a l h a t c h i n g (more u s u a l l y

employed i n 18th Century books o f e n g r a v i n g s of a n c i e n t a r t ) ;

taking of ' s h o r t c u t s ' such as the e x c l u s i o n of h e a v i l y decorated

draperies (even though a n c i e n t vases o f t e n show i t ) ; and, last

but not least, selection of the engraving process, a mass

p r o d u c t i o n method, i t s e l f unknown i n Homer's t i m e . Clearly, to

Flaxman, "on p r i n c p l e s of the a n c i e n t s " d i d n o t mean detailed

reproduction of a n c i e n t compositions. He was neither simply

adopting ancient or e a r l y Italian a r t as m o d e l s n o r attempting

to create a s e r i e s o f images c o n t r i v e d t o be i n d i s t i n g u s h a b l e

f r o m a n c i e n t work. Runge, commenting in a letter of 1800,

observed, 'My God, I have n e v e r s e e n t h i s k i n d o f thing before

93
i n my life; the d r a w i n g s on Etruscan vases completely pale by

comparison'. 2
indeed, t h e Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s were q u i t e

unlike the E t r u s c a n designs, i n no s m a l l p a r t because Flaxman

had employed t h e methods and principles utilized by his own

contemporaries f o r the clear expression of e s s e n t i a l ideas.

By comparison, i n the sculptural s i d e of h i s p r a c t i c e

Flaxman c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d the different purposes to which

shaded p i c t o r i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s and line diagrams should be

put. The conceptual scheme f o r a monument t o t h e p o e t William

Collins i n F i g u r e 22 contains a study i n pen and i n k and wash

of the f i g u r e s t o be represented i n a bas relief, and a line

drawing i n pen and ink without shadow. At the top i s a picture,

'a g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n . . . capable of suggesting a mental image' 3

of the finished result. At the bottom i s a diagram, 'an illus-

trative figure g i v i n g an o u t l i n e or general scheme o f an object

and i t s various p a r t s . ' 4

The distinction is instructive. As

the notes on the sheet d e s c r i b e , the top, with i t s enlivening

detail, and shading was included to give h i s patrons a good

idea o f what t h e finished relief would look like and what each

f i g u r e would represent. By c o n t r a s t , the lower drawing, done

in F l a x m a n ' s own linear shorthand, shows o n l y the relative

p o s i t i o n s of t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e work. Unlike the rendering

at the top of the sheet the bottom s k e t c h i s only suggestive,

leaving the p r o v i s i o n of d e t a i l to the imagination of the viewer.

In a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , F l a x m a n ' s Homer d e s i g n s do not

convey s u f f i c i e n t information f o r the viewers of them t o create

94
a mental image o f c h a r a c t e r s he represents. Whereas R e y n o l d s ,

for example, p o r t r a y e d people who had actually been seated

before him, n e i t h e r Flaxman nor anyone e l s e o f h i s t i m e had

ever seen the people o r gods d e s c r i b e d by Homer. The portrayal

of Homer's c h a r a c t e r s t h u s n e c e s s i t a t e d the use of d e t a i l s not

from the t e x t s but r a t h e r from the artist's experience. Yet,

Flaxman d i d not provide detail. H i s d e p i c t i o n s were only

suggestive, the final interpretation being l e f t to the imagination

of the viewer.

By extension, i t would be impossible f o r any viewer to

reconstruct Homer's s t o r i e s by studying Flaxman's v i s u a l images.

Strictly speaking Flaxman f a i l e d i n h i s attempt to 'show how

any story (in particular the Iliad and O d y s s e y ) may be represented

in a s e r i e s of c o m p o s i t i o n s . . . ' 5
And y e t , as R e y n o l d s noted,

Homer was p a r t of 'the u s u a l course of r e a d i n g . ' For those

already familiar with the stories, literate people, Flaxman's

engraved designs c o u l d become a p l e a s a n t d i v e r s i o n as a kind of

s e c u l a r Book o f H o u r s . The images d i s p l a y , as the captions

indicate, Achilles' f u r y , Penelope c o n f r o n t i n g the suitors,

Argus' death or the King o f t h e L e s t r i g e n s k i l l i n g a man, and

the informed viewer i s stimulated to r e c a l l the textual context.

To a 20th century viewer, the d e p i c t i o n of events that

occurred twenty-five hundred y e a r s ago might seem t o be pure

escapism, akin to t a k i n g a s t r o l l through a great English

Neo-Classical g a r d e n s u c h as S t o u r h e a d w i t h its classically

inspired t o p o g r a p h y and architecture (Figure 4). But escapism,

95
a 2 0 t h C e n t u r y word, i s f r e q u e n t l y associated with activities

that seem f r i v o l o u s o r u n r e a l . I t s a p p l i c a t i o n h e r e would not

reflect a late 18th Century point o f view. F o r 18th Century

observers, Homer was b e i n g studied a s a model f o r c o n t e m p o r a r y

society. R o b e r t Wood had w r i t t e n o f Homer t h a t 'whatever h i s

plan of i n s t r u c t i o n , e i t h e r moral o r p o l i t i c a l , m i g h t have been

(for t o deny t h a t he had any would be h i g h l y unreasonable), h i s

choice of characters f o r t h e purpose never c a r r i e d him beyond

Nature, and h i s own e x p e r i e n c e o f l i f e . ' 6

Homer d e m o n s t r a t e d

a m o r a l p o s i t i o n by i n c l u d i n g s u c h c h a r a c t e r s as t h e ever faithful

Penelope. He even opened t h e s t o r y o f t h e I l i a d by recounting

how a p l a g u e had b e f a l l e n t h e G r e e k s b e c a u s e t h e i r king,

Agamemnon, had r e f u s e d to give up t h e p r i e s t Chryses' daughter

for ransom and t h u s o f f e n d e d the plague causing god A p o l l o .

When c o n s i d e r i n g the I l i a d and O d y s s e y a s p o l i t i c a l models, a

reader cannot but n o t i c e that throughout both t a l e s o f war,

violence and u p h e a v a l the s t r u c t u r e o f Homeric s o c i e t y remained

secure. Gods a l w a y s r a n k e d b e f o r e kings, kings before heroes

and heroes before ordinary men. Ulysses, the greatest Homeric

hero, t h e exemplar f o r a l l men, p r e v a i l s by o v e r c o m i n g t h e

upstart s u i t o r s and r e s t o r i n g t h e o l d o r d e r . I t i s of i n t e r e s t

that i n Flaxman's i l l u s t r a t i o n s Gods a r e t y p i c a l l y depicted

physically above k i n g s who a r e , i n turn, above h e r o e s who a r e ,

in turn, shown above common men. In Homeric s o c i e t y human

relationships a r e s i m p l e and d i r e c t and i t s h i e r a r c h i e s a r e

maintained and f r e q u e n t l y demonstrated. Flaxman's designs

96
reflect these p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s of Homeric s o c i e t y . Had he

lived l o n g e r Wood m i g h t h a v e r e g a r d e d the engraved books of

F l a x m a n ' s d e s i g n s as v i s u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f Homer's moral

and political instructions.

The evidence f o r Flaxman h a v i n g intentionally included a

political statement i n t h e Homer d e s i g n s can o n l y be regarded

as c i r c u m s t a n t i a l . I t has been o b s e r v e d that he showed little

interest in politics i n the 1790's 7

but i t would be incorrect

t o assume t h a t he was politically unaware. I n h i s own inventory

of p e r s o n a l . i t e m s taken t o Rome he noted that "amongst the

B o o k s a r e none e i t h e r R e l i g o u s ( s i c ) or P o l i t i c a l " . 8
These

e x c l u s i o n s may simply r e p r e s e n t the prudent removal of m a t e r i a l

w h i c h m i g h t have been c o n s i d e r e d c o n t r o v e r s i a l i n the foreign

l a n d s he was about to v i s i t . However, by 1794, as t h e Flaxmans

prepared t o l e a v e Rome, h o l d i n g c e r t a i n political positions

could be dangerous. France was i n the midst of a r e v o l u t i o n a r y

war that was actually a c c o m p l i s h i n g what t h e T r o j a n war had

failed to a t t a i n , namely, the overthrow of the very structure

of society. The Flaxmans thus chose t o a v o i d even the possibility

of a c c i d e n t a l l y straying into t h e main a r e a s of c o n f l i c t by

leaving Italy v i a Venice and travelling north through Innsbruck,

A u g s b u r g and Kassel. 9
F l a x m a n was only to t r a v e l again i n

France, briefly. In 1802 he visited Paris t o see t h e works o f

a r t N a p o l e o n had looted from conquered countries. During that

visit he had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o meet D a v i d , but Flaxman r e f u s e d

97
feeling that, as a r e s u l t of h i s part i n the R e v o l u t i o n , the

F r e n c h m a n ' s hands had been "dyed beyond purification." 1 0

By t h e t i m e F l a x m a n had finished t h e Homer d e s i g n s , h i s

objectives f o r them were much more mundane t h a n as instruments

of p o l i t i c a l instruction. In l a t e 1793 he intimated in a

letter to h i s close friend Hayley that he intended to exploit

t h e d e s i g n s i n t h e form of " s c u l p t u r e of d i f f e r e n t kinds". 1 1

This suggests that, as he worked on them, F l a x m a n came t o

c o n c e i v e o f t h e Homer d e s i g n s as w o r k i n g drawings t o be used

n o t o n l y by an e n g r a v e r to t r a n s l a t e i n t o h i s chosen medium but

by Flaxman h i m s e l f t o t r a n s l a t e into a variety of sculptural

forms. Some o f t h e d e s i g n s were i n d e e d r e n d e r e d i n o t h e r media

but typically by other a r t i s t s . I t would appear that Flaxman

had not anticipated that once p u b l i s h e d a s line engravings the

illustrations c o u l d be as u s e f u l a source of i n s p i r a t i o n by

other a r t i s t s a s he had hoped t h e y would be for him.

It i s paradoxical that the a c t u a l works t h a t so attracted

these other a r t i s t s were e x e c u t e d n o t by F l a x m a n b u t by a

series of engravers. In t h e 1805 Longman e d i t i o n 1 2

four engravers

a r e r e p r e s e n t e d : Tomaso P i r o l i , the engraver of the first

editions, James N e a g l e , James P a r k e r and W i l l i a m Blake who

engraved t h e F l a x m a n c o m p o s i t i o n s newly c r e a t e d f o r t h e 1805

edition. The engraver of each image i s i d e n t i f i e d at the lower

right hand c o r n e r o f t h e p l a t e . The Blake engravings offer

much g r e a t e r v a r i a t i o n i n l i n e width, e x t e n d i n g from the use of

dotted lines f o r some d e t a i l s of musculature (Iliad 2, Figure

98
37) t o h e a v y r a g g e d lines for horizontal hatching. He h a s a l s o

represented shadow u s i n g n o t h o r i z o n t a l hatching but a line

whose w i d t h i s s e v e r a l times that of the narrowest. N e a g l e and

Parker together completely re-engraved the Odyssey f o r t h e 1805

Longman edition and P a r k e r engraved t h r e e o f t h e new designs

for the I l i a d . B o t h men used variations i n l i n e width comparable

to Blake's Iliad a d d i t i o n s . Although the e f f e c t achieved by

Blake and t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t by N e a g l e and P a r k e r i s perhaps

more s u b t l e , even p r e t t y , i t was n o t a s a r c h e o l o g i c a l l y correct

as P i r o l i ' s . The l i n e s o f e n g r a v i n g from Piroli's studio

maintained a more c o n s t a n t width. He and h i s a s s o c i a t e s were

e i t h e r more c o n s e r v a t i v e o r p e r h a p s more c o n s c i o u s of the

potential p l a c e o f t h e F l a x m a n Homer designs i n a l i b r a r y of

contemporary a r c h a e o l o g i c a l t e x t s .

L i n e d r a w i n g was, i n d e e d , intimately a s s o c i a t e d with the

a n c i e n t s b u t i t was a l s o the v i s u a l language of c h o i c e i n the

18th Century f o r the transmission of e s s e n t i a l ideas, f o r

instruction i n a wide v a r i e t y of f i e l d s including art, technical

and scientific disciplines. T h i s had been n o t e d by H o g a r t h i n

h i s A n a l y s i s o f Beauty p a r t i c u l a r l y with reference to the

use of l i n e t o diagram mathematical problems.13 Flaxman himself

saw l i n e in a similar context when he w r o t e 'geometry gives

lines and d i a g r a m s f o r t h e m o t i o n , o u t l i n e and d r a p e r y of the

figure ...'14 Once mass p r o d u c e d as e n g r a v i n g s , t h e form i n

w h i c h t h e y were most w i d e l y known and i n f l u e n t i a l , Flaxman's

o u t l i n e s were a t o n c e removed i n k i n d from one-off artistic

99
works o r diagrams. Those 2 l a t t e r required personal study,

but, by virtue of t h e i r distribution as e n g r a v i n g s , t h e Homer

d e s i g n s c o u l d become i n s t r u m e n t s of i n s p i r a t i o n and instruction

of e s t a b l i s h e d artists and students a l i k e without the n e c e s s i t y

of examining the o r i g i n a l drawings. The use o f t h e Homer

d e s i g n s a s a means o f a c q u i r i n g artistic skills p l a c e d them i n

the c a t e g o r y of books of instruction. Their association with

a n c i e n t work q u i c k l y established their credibility and once an

artist such as D a v i d demonstrated their suitability i n the

production o f new works t h e y a l s o became an essential addition

to the s t u d i o s of h i s s t u d e n t s .

During t h e p e r i o d between t h e late 1790's when David

created Les Sabines and 1865, when I n g r e s as a m a t u r e p a i n t e r

used F l a x m a n ' s d e s i g n s as s o u r c e s o f imagery f o r h i s Homere

Deifi^, t h e r e had been a s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e i n t h e way line

engravings were v i e w e d . Even though Les Sabines was based upon

his own work F l a x m a n a p p a r e n t l y f o u n d i t s composition and

detail sufficiently fresh and v i g o r o u s t o use them as the b a s i s

o f h i s own d e s i g n f o r the S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s o f 1810 to 1818.

Some 50 years later when I n g r e s u s e d t h e Homer d e s i g n s to form

t h e b a c k g r o u n d o f h i s Homere Delfl6 t h e y had become a p a r t o f

the f o l k imagery, c r e a t e d i n an age beyond t h e memory o f working

artists, and now forming not a b a s i s f o r new work b u t rather

providing images s u i t a b l e f o r the background. By using them,

Ingres s y m b o l i c a l l y established the c r e d i b i l i t y of h i s s u b j e c t

100
and o f h i m s e l f , an a r t i s t s whose t r a i n i n g was based i n the

neo-classical tradition.

When a r t i s t s such as David, I n g r e s , Rude and G r o s began to

use t h e Homer d e s i g n s t o c r e a t e new works, t h e images were

fulfilling a particular a s p e c t o f an o b j e c t i v e often expressed

throughout Flaxman;s lifetime: that effort s h o u l d be directed

toward the c u l t i v a t i o n of s o c i e t y . The e n g r a v i n g s d i d , as

Wedgwood hoped f o r h i s own work, d i f f u s e "a good taste through

the a r t s " by t h e "power o f m u l t i p l y i n g copies of f i n e t h i n g s " . 1 5

After Flaxman's death, the E n g l i s h p a i n t e r G.F. Watts (1817-1904)

was t o suggest that t h e w a l l s o f s c h o o l s be a d o r n e d with the

outlines f o r the betterment o f young students. 1 6

In 1927 W i l l i a m G e o r g e C o n s t a b l e ended h i s b i o g r a p h y of

Flaxman w i t h t h e wish that artists and m a n u f a c t u r e r s might be

brought as c l o s e t o g e t h e r a s t h e y had been when F l a x m a n worked

f o r Wedgwood. 17
The same m i g h t be s a i d o f t h e Homer d e s i g n s .

In h i s own l e c t u r e s before the Royal Academy F l a x m a n was to

note some y e a r s a f t e r the completion o f t h e Homer d e s i g n s that

in ancient Greece p a i n t i n g and s c u l p t u r e had been ' s t u d i e d by

t h e n o b l e s t and b e s t e d u c a t e d persons; t h e y were i m p r o v e d by

the accumulation o f s c i e n c e ; t h e y were employed to excite and

celebrate virtue and e x c e l l e n c e ; and, f i n a l l y , to exalt the

mind of the beholder to the contemplation of d i v i n e qualities

and attributes.'18 i n F l a x m a n ' s mind, works of a r t i n major

f o r m s were t o e l e v a t e t h e t a s t e o f t h e ' n o b l e s t and b e s t educated

persons'. The Iliad and O d y s s e y were, of course, being s t u d i e d

101
in Flaxman's time f o r v i r t u a l l y the same r e a s o n s . Thus, to

best effect an amelioration of t a s t e , the episodes f r o m Homer's

epics, then acknowledged the greatest literary works o f the

ancient world, should have been d e p i c t e d i n p a i n t i n g s or sculp-

tures, the h i g h e s t forms of v i s u a l a r t of the ancient and

contemprorary world. The form used, simple line, was however,

fundamentally u n l i k e these visual forms. In the context of

ancient a r t simple l i n e was most c l o s e l y associated with the

craft traditions of Greek red and black figure pottery. Pieces

of this pottery were i n t e n d e d f o r e v e r y d a y d o m e s t i c use rather

than f o r profound contemplation or intellectual improvement.

Flaxman h i m s e l f had become i n t i m a t e l y f a m i l i a r with the line

form d u r i n g the years he submitted designs t o Wedgwood (Figure

6). T h e s e d r a w i n g s were n e v e r intended f o r profound contemplation

but rather f o r the shop u s e o f Wedgwood's p o t t e r s . In his

Homer d e s i g n s F l a x m a n combined a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l form of

ancient craft and contemporary industrial traditions and unwit-

tingly f u r t h e r e d the cultural o b j e c t i v e s of high arts.

This i d e a of u n i t i n g the traditions of c r a f t and the

o b j e c t i v e s of high a r t t h a t Flaxman e x h i b i t e d i n the Homer

designs was t o r e a p p e a r as a guiding principle i n the 19th and

20th C e n t u r i e s . A pamphlet p u b l i s h e d i n 1919 entitled Program

of the S t a t e Bauhaus i n Weimar s e t s o u t the o b j e c t i v e s of the

Bauhaus S c h o o l . I t reads i n part: " A r t comes i n t o b e i n g above

all methods; i t c a n n o t be taught as such, although the craft

can. A r c h i t e c t s , p a i n t e r s , s c u l p t o r s are craftsmen in the

102
original sense o f t h e word; c o n s e q u e n t l y a l l s t u d e n t s are

expected to a c q u i r e a thorough training i n t h e w o r k s h o p s and on

the p r a c t i c e and work s i t e s , since this i s the i n d i s p e n s a b l e

b a s i s of a l l c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y " . 1 9
The worksites cited were

t h o s e e n v i s i o n e d by t h e new director of the s c h o o l , Walter

Gropius. He had formulated the c u r r i c u l u m to s t r e s s the search

for solutions t o contemporary problems i n such a r e a s as housing,

urban p l a n n i n g , and high-quality, utilitarian mass-production.

Significantly, t h e s o l u t i o n s were t o u n i t e the fundamentals of

craft tradition with a s o c i o - c u l t u r a l objective, in particular

an a m e l i o r a t i o n o f living c o n d i t i o n s i n post World War I Germany.

Although not planned beforehand, Flaxman's path to the

artistic competence t h a t he d i s p l a y e d i n t h e Homer d e s i g n s

paralleled t h e Bauhaus c u r r i c u l u m . He was 37 y e a r s o l d when he

undertook the commission. Of those years, the f i r s t 15 had

been spent in his father's shop where he l e a r n e d the principles

of m o d e l l i n g and sculpture. The p r o d u c t s o f t h e shop were made

to the s p e c i f i c a t i o n s of a c l i e n t e l e that included the sculptors

Roubilliac and Scheemakers. He p r o g r e s s e d t o a more f o r m a l

training a t t h e R o y a l Academy where i t was impressed upon the

students that i t was the "wish of the genuine painter [to]

improve mankind".20 From t h e t i m e o f h i s g r a d u a t i o n f r o m the

R o y a l Academy i n 1775 until 1792 when he began t h e Homer illus-

t r a t i o n s he had worked f o r Wedgwood ( f r o m 1775 t o 1787 almost

exclusively). The industrialist had expressed a wish "to

diffuse a good t a s t e through the a r t s " by the s a l e of h i s

103
mass-distributed products;^ 1
however, i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t i t

was F l a x m a n ' s i d e a l i s m t h a t made him a t t r a c t i v e t o Wedgwood.

When Wedgwood w r o t e t o h i s p a r t n e r B e n t l e y t h a t he was

"glad F l a x m a n i s a s v a l u a b l e an a r t i s t " — a s he soon p r o v e d be

— t h e r e i s no i n d i c a t i o n o f what q u a l i t i e s p r o m p t e d t h e

praise. 2 2
Yet, the varied nature o f t h e work he was d o i n g f o r

Wedgwood s u g g e s t s an answer. F l a x m a n was e x e c u t i n g w i t h equal

facility, portraits from life ( s u c h a s o f Mrs S i d d o n s (Figure

12)), d e s i g n s based upon t h e a n t i q u e ( s u c h a s The C r o w n i n g o f

a Kitharist ( F i g u r e 1 4 ) ) , and o r i g i n a l designs to f i l l a

particular commission (The M a n u f a c t u r e r ' s Arms ( F i g u r e 6 f o r

example)). He was v a l u a b l e b e c a u s e he c o u l d f u n c t i o n e q u a l l y

well a s an a r t i s t o r as a modeller. He was m o d e l l i n g w i t h t h e

eye o f an a c c o m p l i s h e d artist, and, p e r h a p s more i m p o r t a n t , he

was creating designs i n a form t h a t c o u l d be r e a d i l y utilized

by the craftsmen who were making t h e moulds which formed t h e

clay components t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d Jasperware. With Flaxman's

designs no i n t e r m e d i a t e r e n d e r i n g s were n e c e s s a r y between

artist's p r e s e n t a t i o n and shop u s e .

Considerable e f f o r t m i g h t be expended r e n d e r i n g an a r t i s t ' s

concept i n t o working drawings f o r t h e use of a craftsman ina

shop. Such i s demonstrated by t h e a c t i v i t i e s of Rundell,

B r i d g e and R u n d e l l , t h e f i r m of silversmiths, from whom F l a x m a n

received t h e commission f o r the Shield of A c h i l l e s and whose

smiths executed various other of h i s d e s i g n s . 2 3

F i g u r e 80

represents a design (now i n t h e B r i t i s h Museum) f o r a w i n e - c o o l e r

104
by F l a x m a n ' s R o y a l Academy c l a s s m a t e and long time friend

Thomas S t o t h a r d . 2 4
I t i s an impressionistic sketch that includes

comparatively little detail. In an album o f s i l v e r plate

designs i n the V i c t o r i a and Albert museum i s a r e n d e r i n g (Figure

81) after the S t o t h a r d o r i g i n a l . I t was prepared for Rundell

Bridge and Rundell probably by one of t h e i r e m p l o y e e s who was

well acquainted with silversmithing. 2 5

The draughtsman has

transformed the o r i g i n a l concept by setting down more precisely

the d e t a i l s t h a t were t o c o v e r the finished piece.

Original d e s i g n s were a l s o p r o d u c e d by R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and

Rundell. I n an effort to o b t a i n complete c l a r i t y of concepts,

d e s i g n s were r e n d e r e d in a s t i l l more p r e c i s e manner. Figure

82 represents another design f o r a wine c o o l e r p e r h a p s after

W i l l i a m Theed R . A . 2 6
head o f t h e R u n d e l l design department. It

was c r e a t e d e x p r e s s l y f o r the use of the silversmiths themselves

and a c c o r d i n g l y was reduced to simple pen l i n e without any

shading. While clarity i n the p r e s e n t a t i o n of the o u t l i n e s of

figures and animals i n the r e l i e f and floral forms beneath the

r i m was s t r e s s e d , p e r s p e c t i v e was compromised to a degree clearly

e v i d e n t when t h e d e s i g n i s compared w i t h the finished cooler

(Figure 83). In s i l v e r , the relief covers the curved surface

and the extreme l e f t and right a r e not visible from a single

view p o i n t . On paper i t appeared t o have been a p p l i e d t o a

flat panel. More d r a w i n g s t o c l a r i f y the p o i n t t h a t a flat

d e s i g n was t o be a p p l i e d to a curved s u r f a c e were clearly

unnecessary because v the c o n v e n t i o n of the two-dimensional line

105
drawing conveyed sufficient information f o r the modeller or

silversmith to produce a f i n i s h e d three-dimensional piece.

Significantly, Flaxman's d e s i g n s f o r Jasperware, the Homer

illustrations and silverware were s i m i l a r i n t h e i r common

purpose. None were c r e a t e d t o be a f i n i s h e d work i n i t s e l f but

t o be i n t e r p r e t e d and rendered i n a n o t h e r medium. The technical

problems a s s o c i a t e d with the production and s a l e of the ultimate

f o r m were t o be solved by someone e l s e , o r , i n the case of bas

reliefs, by Flaxman, i n the capacity of a s c u l p t o r at some

unspecified time i n the future. To be most u s e f u l for the

potter, engraver or s i l v e r s m i t h h i s d e s i g n s needed t o be presented

in a form which s p e c i f i e d d e t a i l clearly and unambiguously so

that as little adaptation as p o s s i b l e was required.

The problems a s s o c i a t e d with presenting line drawings on

flat sheets f o r rendering on curved objects had long been known

t o F l a x m a n t h r o u g h h i s work f o r Wedgwood. Although the sample

of designs executed by h i s hand and delivered t o Wedgwood i s

unfortunately small, 2 7
i t i s nonetheless s i g n i f i c a n t . Figure

6, drawn w h i l e F l a x m a n was still i n Wedgwood's employ, shows

both that the designer was submitting work t o t h e industrialist

in a s t y l e which foreshadowed that of the Homer illustrations,

and also that the design Wedgwood was accepting from h i s artist

was consistent with industrial shop d r a w i n g i n use through the

period. I f , as C o n s t a b l e implies, Flaxman c o n s t i t u t e d the

bridge between t h e a r t s and industry i t would seem t h a t the

traffic of ideas flowed t h r o u g h him i n both d i r e c t i o n s . Flaxman

106
took t o Wedgwood his skill as a m o d e l l e r , h i s knowledge o f

ancient work, and h i s w i l l i n g n e s s t o d e s i g n i n a manner t h a t

could be a d a p t e d into.products reminiscent of ancient work.

Wedgwood's design requirements f o r c e d Flaxman t o take back a

s t y l e of graphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t h a t c o u l d be a p p l i e d with

equal facility t o the manufacture of Jasperware, engravings and

silverplate.

Flaxman's f r i e n d C o c k e r e l l wrote e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y of the

illustration t h a t they a r e " t h e works by w h i c h he w i l l live

... clearly the f r u i t o f Flaxman's l i f e a s an a r t i s t a r e those

works."28 Strictly speaking Flaxman never d i d t r a n s f o r m t h e

Homer i l l u s t r a t i o n s i n t o t h e s c u l p t u r e he e n v i s a g e d and t h u s

did not achieve the d i c t i o n a r y definition of a r t i s t a s "one who

cultivates one o f t h e f i n e arts, w h i c h p l e a s e by p e r f e c t i o n o f

execution".29 j n fact, f o r h i s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e Homer

commission, the actual production of the designs, he fulfill

the d e f i n i t i o n of a designer r a t h e r than an a r t i s t : "one who

makes an a r t i s t i c design or plan of c o n s t r u c t i o n : specifically

one who makes d e s i g n s or patterns f o r the manufacturer or

constructor".30

If Flaxman's Homeric i l l u s t r a t i o n s are considered only

from t h e s t a n d p o i n t of h i s contemporaries, that i s , i n the

context o f what t h e y regarded a s t h e g r e a t e s t o f human societies,

the a s s o c i a t i o n with ancient a r t i s inevitable. But i t i s o n l y

when t h e l i n e drawings are considered i n the l i g h t of h i s

stated p u r p o s e f o r them — the p r e l i m i n a r y stage i n the production

107
of s c u l p t u r a l works i n a f o r m a k i n to industrial drawings

suitable f o r submission t o Wedgwood o r R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and

Rundell — that h i s reaction to h i s contemporaries' interpretation

and praise c a n be e x p l a i n e d . Hailed as c a p t u r i n g the essence

of ancient work, F l a x m a n r e g r e t t e d that the c r i t i c s were judging

his creativity on t h e b a s i s of a project never f u l l y realized.

108
 Footnotes Chapter 5

MSS F i t z w i l l i a m Museum, Flaxman l e t t e r - b o x no. 4, Flaxman

t o H a y l e y , Rome, 26 O c t o b e r 1793.

P.O. Runge, H l n t e r l a s s e n e S c h r l f t e n (Hamburg 1 8 4 1 ) , I,

p. 54.

The S h o r t e r O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y ed C.T. Onions

(Oxford, 1975) v . I I p.1580 no. 4.

I b i d V . I p.539, no.2.

See note 1 Chapter V.

R o b e r t Wood, An E s s a y on t h e O r i g i n a l G e n i u s o f Homer
(1769; New Y o r k , 1 9 7 1 ) , p.298.

Hugh Honour, N e o c l a s s i c i s m (Harmondsworth, 1968), p.71.

M e t e y a r d , op. c i t . , p. 506 i n c l u d e s a copy o f t h i s i n v e n -

tory. I t l i s t s as w e l l as p e r s o n a l e f f e c t s "Some C l a s s i c a l
B o o k s " and a r t i s t s ' s u p p l i e s .

I r w i n , op. c i t . , p . 224 f n 7 3 , n o t e s " A u g s b u r g f o r example

i s m e n t i o n e d i n B r i t i s h L i b r a r y , Add. MS. 39781, f . 382,
unnamed c o r r e s p o n d e n t t o M r s . Flaxman (4 November 1794)
and K a s s e l i n same volume, f . 386, M r s . G. H a r e - N a y l o r t o
Mrs F l a x m a n , 8 November 1794."

Honour, op. c i t . , p.71.

Flaxman t o H a y l e y Rome 26 O c t o b e r 1793.

R e p r o d u c e d by D o v e r P u b l i c a t i o n s a s F l a x m a n ' s I l l u s t r a t i o n s
t o Homer (New Y o r k , 1977) w i t h an i n t r o d u c t i o n and commentary
by R o b e r t E s s i c k and J e n i j o y L a B e l l e .

W i l l i a m Hogarth, A n a l y s i s of Beauty (London, 1753), p.37.

John Flaxman, L e c t u r e s on S c u l p t u r e (London, 1881) p.160.

N o t e d by D a v i d I r w i n , J o h n Flaxman 1755-1826 (London,

1 9 7 9 ) , p . 19.

George F r e d e r i c W a t t s , Works ( 1 9 1 2 ) , V o l . I l l , p. 109.

W.G. C o n s t a b l e , op. cit., p.77.

Flaxman, op. cit., 1881, p.179.

109
Hans W i n g l e r , Graphic Work From t h e Bauhaus (London, 1965),
p. 18.

Reynolds Discourse I I I , 11. 23-26.

See n o t e 15 a b o v e .

Wedgwood t o B e n t l e y , 14 J a n u a r y 1775. Q u o t e d by M e t e y a r d ,
op. c i t . , V o l . I I , p . 321.

See C h a p t e r IV n o t e . A l s o Mary H e n d e r s o n , "The B e r e s f o r d

Hope S i l v e r " A p o l l o ns 99 J a n u a r y 1974 pp.34-37, w h e r e i n
t h e B e r e s f o r d Cup i s a t t r i b u t e d t o F l a x m a n ; J o h n F. Hayward,
" R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and R u n d e l l , A u r i f i c e s R e g i s P a r t I "
A n t i q u e s 99 ( J u n e 1 9 7 1 ) , pp. 860-865, P a r t I I A n t i q u e s 100
( J u l y 1 9 7 1 ) , pp.110-115; N.M. P e n z e r , "Some R o y a l P l a t e o f
t h e Regency by P a u l S t o r r " , A p o l l o 62 September 1955 p.66
has s p e c i f i c d a t a on F l a x m a n ' s T h e o c r i t u s Cup and C h a r l e s
Oman, "A P r o b l e m o f A r t i s t i c R e s p o n s i b i l i t y : The f i r m o f
R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and R u n d e l l " , A p o l l o ns 83 ( M a r c h 1966)
pp.174-183, w h i c h d i s c u s s e s R u n d e l l , B r i d g e and R u n d e l l
w o r k i n g methods a s t h e y r e l a t e t o an ablum o f s i l v e r p l a t e
d e s i g n s (now i n t h e V i c t o r i a and A l b e r t Museum) t i t l e d
D e s i g n s f o r p l a t e by J o h n F l a x m a n , e t c .

S t o t h a r d ' s s i l v e r d e s i g n s i n c l u d e d The W e l l i n g t o n S h i e l d .
C h a r l e s Oman, E n g l i s h S i l v e r s m i t h s ' Work ( L o n d o n , 1965)
r e p r o d u c e s S t o t h a r d ' s d e s i g n i n l i n e ( P l a t e 205) and
i n c l u d e s a photograph of the s h i e l d ( P l a t e 206).

Oman, o p . c i t . , p . 8 0 .

B r y a n ' s D i c t i o n a r y p f P a i n t e r s and E n g r a v e r s e d . G e o r g e
C. W i l l i a m s o n ( L o n d o n , 1 9 2 1 ) , V o l . V p.164 n o t e s t h a t
W i l l i a m Theed 1764-1817 was a g r e a t f r i e n d o f F l a x m a n ,
s u b m i t t e d d e s i g n s t o Wedgwood and f r o m 1803 worked f o r
R u n d e l l and B r i d g e " f o r whom he p r e p a r e d t h e d r a w i n g s t h a t
t h e e n g r a v e r s m i g h t work on t h e i r p l a t e . "

A l i s o n K e l l y , The S t o r y o f Wedgwood ( L o n d o n , 1975) r e l a t e s

t h a t i n 1828 Wedgwood's ' s t o c k o f ware, o l d m o u l d s and
m o d e l s was s o l d f o r L16,000' p . 5 1 . T h e r e may h a v e been
F l a x m a n d r a w i n g s amongst t h i s m a t e r i a l b u t more l i k e l y
when m o u l d s o r m o d e l s were made f r o m a d e s i g n t h e d r a w i n g s
were s i m p l y d i s c a r d e d .

C.R. C o c k e r e l l , D i a r i e s , 2 7 t h November 1824.

The S h o r t e r O x f o r d E n g l i s h D i c t i o n a r y e d . C.T. O n i o n s
( O x f o r d , 1975) V. I p . I l l n o . I I I . 1.

Ibid., p.528 no.2.

110
 Selected Bibliography

T i t l e s f o r Works C e n t e r i n g on Flaxman

Books

Bindman, D a v i d , J o h n F l a x m a n , L o n d o n : Thames and Hudson, 1979

w h i c h i s t h e E n g l i s h e d i t i o n o f Hofmann, Werner, D a v i d
Bindman e t a l . J o h n F l a x m a n M y t h o l o g i e und I n d u s t r i e Hamburg,
1979.

C h r i s t i e , Manson and Woods, C a t a l o g u e o f t h e s m a l l b u t v a l u a b l e

L i b r a r y o f Books ... o f J o h n F l a x m a n , E s q . , R.A. Dec,
London, 12 J u n e 1828.

C h r i s t i e , Manson and Woods, C a t a l o g u e o f a v a l u a b l e a s s e m b l a g e

o f E n g r a v i n g s by a n c i e n t and modern M a s t e r s •.. t h e
p r o p e r t y o f t h e l a t e J o h n F l a x m a n , E s q . , R.A. Dec,
London, 1 J u l y 1828.

C h r i s t i e , Manson and Woods, M a r i a Denman S a l e Catalogue,

London, 1862.

C h r i s t i e , Manson and Woods, C a t a l o g u e o f t h e r e m a i n i n g Works

o f J o h n F l a x m a n , R.A., L o n d o n , 26 A p r i l 1876.

C o n s t a b l e , W.G., J o h n F l a x m a n , 1775-1826, London: University

o f London P r e s s L t d . , 1927.

F l a x m a n , J o h n , 1755-1826, O e u v r e de F l a x m a n ( c o m p o s i t i o n s
gravies par R e V e i l ) , P a r i s : R e v e i l , 1836.
NC 1115 F64 1835

F l a x m a n , J o h n , Homer H e s i o d A e s c h y l u s , L o n d o n : Longman, Hurst,

Rees and Orme, 1805-1831.

F l a x m a n , J o h n , C o m p o s i t i o n s by J o h n Flaxman RA f r o m t h e Poem
o f D a n t e A l i g h i e r i , C o n t a i n i n g H e l l , P u r g a t o r y and P a r a d i s e ,
L o n d o n : Longman, H u r s t , Rees and Orme, 1807.

F l a x m a n , J o h n , C o m p o s i t i o n s From t h e T r a g e d i e s o f A e s c h y l u s
D e s i g n e d by J o h n F l a x m a n , E n g r a v e d by Thomas P i r o l i , The
o r i g i n a l drawings i n the p o s s e s s i o n of t h s ( s i c ) Countess
Dowager S p e n c e r Rome, 1793.

F l a x m a n , J o h n , The I l i a d o f Homer e n g r a v e d f r o m c o m p o s i t i o n s
o f J o h n F l e x m a n , L o n d o n : Longman, H u r s t , Rees and Orme, 1805.

I r w i n , D a v i d , John Flaxman, 1755-1826, London, C a s s e l l L t d . ,

1979.

ill
Wark, R o b e r t R., D r a w i n g s by J o h n F l a x m a n i n t h e H u n t i n g t o n
C o l l e c t i o n , San M a r i n o C a l i f : H e n r y E . H u n t i n g t o n L i b r a r y
and A r t G a l l e r y , 1970.
NC 242 F57 W3 1970

Whinney M a r g a r e t and R u p e r t G u n n i s , The C o l l e c t i o n o f M o d e l s

by J o h n F l a x m a n R.A. a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e , L o n d o n : a
c a t a l o g u e and i n t r o d u c t i o n . L o n d o n , 1967.

Articles

B e n t l e y , G e r a l d E d d e s , " N o t e s on t h e E a r l y E d i t i o n s o f F l a x -
man's C l a s s i c a l D e s i g n s , " B u l l e t i n o f t h e New Y o r k P u b l i c
L i b r a r y V o l . 68 May 1964 no.5 p p . 277-307, 361-388.
( P u b l i s h e d s e p a r a t e l y a s The E a r l y E n g r a v i n g s o f F l a x -
man's C l a s s i c a l D e s i g n s New Y o r k : The New Y o r k P u b l i c
L i b r a r y , 1964).
Z 881 N4

Cameron, R., "Flaxman e t Wedgwood," O e i l , #53 May 1959 pp.48-

55.
N l 04

C r o f t - M u r r a y E . , "An A c c o u n t Book o f J o h n F l a x m a n R.A.,"

W a l p o l e S o c i e t y V o l . 2 8 [1939-1940] pp.51-101.
N l W3

G a u n t , W i l l i a m , "A S e t o f D r a w i n g s by J o h n F l a x m a n , " C o n -
noiseur,
Bd 153 1963 S 250-254.
N l C75

G i l l o w , N o r a h , "Some Flaxman D r a w i n g s a t Y o r k , " P r e v i e w , XXVI

A p r . , 1973 pp.915-19.
n l B95

I r w i n , D a v i d , "Flaxman: I t a l i a n J o u r n a l s and C o r r e s p o n d e n c e , "

B u r l i n g t o n Mag. C l [ 1 9 5 9 ] pp.212-17.

R o s c o e , E.S., "The C a r e e r and Works o f F l a x m a n , " M a g a z i n e o f

A r t , V4 ( 1 8 8 1 ) .
N l M22

Symmons, S a r a h , " F r e n c h C o p i e s a f t e r F l a x m a n ' s O u t l i n e s , "

B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e , V o l . 115 S e p t . 1973.
N l B95

Symmons, S a r a h , "J.A.D. I n g r e s : t h e a p o t h e o s i s o f F l a x m a n , "

B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e , V o l . 121 Nov. 1979.
N l B95

112
Symmons, S a r a h , "The S p i r i t o f D e s p a i r : P a t r o n a g e , P r i m i t i v i s m
and t h e A r t o f J o h n F l a x m a n , " B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e , V o l .
117 O c t . 1975.
N l B95

T e n i s w o o d , C.F., "Flaxman a s D e s i g n e r , " The A r t J o u r n a l , 1872.

N l A5

T e n i s w o o d , C.F., " M e m o r i a l s o f F l a x m a n , " The A r t J o u r n a l , 1867

& 1868.
N l A5

Thomas, J o h n , " J o h n F l a x m a n , R.A.," J o u r n a l of the Royal

S o c i e t y o f A r t s , CIV, 1955.
AP 4 R7

Watson, F r a n c i s , "Flaxman: t h e B i c e n t e n a r y o f an E n g l i s h Neo-

C l a s s i c i s t , " A r c h i t e c t u r a l Review, Bd 118 S e p t . 1955.
NA 1 A69

Whinney, M a r g a r e t , "Flaxman and t h e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y , "

J o u r n a l o f t h e Warburg and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s , V o l . 1 9
J u l y 1956 pp.269-282.
N 1 L65

Wick, P e t e r , A. "Flaxman a s a D r a u g h t s m a n , " Proceedings of the

Wedgwood I n t e r n a t i o n a l S e m i n a r .
Bd 3, 1958.

W i l l i a m , I o l o A. "An I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f some e a r l y d r a w i n g s by
J o h n F l a x m a n , " B u r l i n g t o n M a g a z i n e , C H , 1960, pp.246-
250.
N l B95

Titles f o r the C e n t r a l Issues

Books

Adam, R o b e r t ( 1 7 2 8 - 1 7 9 2 ) , The works i n A r c h i t e c t u r e o f R o b e r t

and James Adam, L o n d r e s : Aax d £ p e n s d e s a u t e u r s , 1778-
1822.
NA 997 A4 A4 1778a

Adam, R o b e r t , R u i n s o f t h e p a l a c e o f t h e Emperor D i o c l e t i a n a t
S p a l a t r o , L o n d o n : P r i n t e d f o r t h e A u t h o r , 1764.
NA 320 A5

A g o s t i n i , L e o n a r d o , L e gemme a n t i c h e figurate, Roma: G.B.

B r u s s o t t i , 1686.
NK 5565 A3

113
Bland, David, A h i s t o r y o f Book I l l u s t r a t i o n , London: Faber
and F a b e r , 1958.
NC 960 B62

B o a s e , T.S.R., E n g l i s h A r t 1800-1870, O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s ,
1959.
N 6761 09

B o l g a r , R.R., The C l a s s i c a l H e r i t a g e and I t s B e n e f i c i a r i e s ,

New Y o r k , E v a n s t o n and London: Harper Torchbooks, 1964.
CB 245 B 63

B o l t o n , A r t h u r Thomas, The A r c h i t e c t u r e o f R o b e r t and James

Adam, (1758-1794) L o n d o n : C o u n t r y L i f e , 1922.
NA 997 A4 B6 V 1-2

Booker, P e t e r J e f f r e y , A H i s t o r y of E n g i n e e r i n g Drawing,
L o n d o n : C h a t t o and Windus, 1963.
T 353 B69 1963

B u r k e , Edmund 1729?-1797, A P h i l o s o p h i c a l I n q u i r y i n t o the

S u b l i m e and t h e B e a u t i f u l , New Y o r k : G a r l a n d Pub., IU71.
N 62 B8 1759a

Burke, Joseph, E n g l i s h A r t 1714-1800, O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s ,

1976.
N 6761 09 V.9

B u t e n , H a r r y M., Wedgwood and A r t i s t s , Merion, Pennsylvania:

B u t e n Museum o f Wedgwood, 1960.
NK 4335 B73

C u m b e r l a n d , G e o r g e , T h o u g h t s and O u t l i n e , S c u l p t u r e and t h e
S y s t e m t h a t g u i d e d t h e A n c i e n t A r t i s t s i n Composing t h e i r
F i g u r e s and G r o u p s , L o n d o n , 1796.

D e l i e b , E r i c , The G r e a t S i l v e r M a n u f a c t o r y , Matthew B o u l t o n
and t h e B i r m i n g h a m s i l v e r s m i t h s , 1760-1790. London:
S t u d i o V i s t a P u b l i s h e r s , 1971.
NK 7143 D425 1971

D u f f , W., 1732-1815, An E s s a y on O r i g i n a l G e n i u s , 1767.

G a i n e s v i l l e F l a . : S c h o l a r s ' F a c s i m i l e s and R e p r i n t s ,
1964.
BF 412 D78 1767a

Du F r e s n o y , C h a r l e s A l p h o n s e , The A r t o f P a i n t i n g , t r a n s , by
W i l l i a m Mason w i t h a n n o t a t i o n s by S i r J o s h u a R e y n o l d s ,
D u b l i n : P r i n t e d f o r a W h i t e s t o n e e t a l . , 1783.
ND 1130 D8 1783

114
F a r r a r , L a d y K a t h e r i n e Euphemia ( E d i t . ) . L e t t e r s o f J o s i a h
Wedgwood, 3 V o l u m e s , L o n d o n : Women's P r i n t i n g S o c i e t y ,
1903-1906.

F i n e r Ann and G e o r g e S a v a g e , The S e l e c t e d L e t t e r s o f J o s i a h

Wedgwood, L o n d o n : C o r y , Adams and MacKay, 1965.
NK 4335 W4

F r i e d l a n d e r , Walter, David t o D e l a c r o i x , Cambridge, Mass.:

1952.
ND 547 F75

G e r a r d , A l e x a n d e r ( 1 7 2 8 - 1 7 9 5 ) , An E s s a y on G e n i u s , New York:
G a r l a n d Pub., 1970.
BF 412 G5 1774a

H a m i l t o n , S i r W i l l i a m 1730-1803, C o l l e c t i o n o f e n g r a v i n g s f r o m
a n c i e n t v a s e s m o s t l y o f p u r e G r e e k workmanship d i s c o v e r e d
... i n 1789-90. N a p l e s : W. T i s c h b e i n , 1791-95.
NK 4624 H25 V . l - 3

Hawley, H e n r y , N e o - C l a s s i e i s m , S t y l e and M o t i f w i t h an e s s a y
by R6my G. S a i s s e l i n C l e v e l a n d : t h e C l e v e l a n d Museum o f
A r t , 1964.
N 6410 H34

H a y l e y , W i l l i a m , The L i f e o f G e o r g e Romoney E s q . , L o n d o n : T.
Payne, 1809.
ND 497 R7 H4 1809 FAD M0RG

H i b b e r t , C h r i s t o p h e r , The G r a n d T o u r , L o n d o n : W e i d e n f e l d and
N i c o l s o n , 1969.
D 907 H56 1969

H I g h e t , G i l b e r t , The C l a s s i c a l Tradition, N.Y. and L o n d o n :

O x f o r d U P r e s s , 1949.
PN 883 H5 1949

H u t c h i s o n , S i d n e y , C , The H i s t o r y o f t h e R o y a l Academy 1768-

1968, L o n d o n : Chapman and H a l l , 1968.
N 1100 H78 1968

Irwin, David, E n g l i s h N e o c l a s i c a l A r t , Greenwich C o n n e c t i c u t :

New Y o r k G r a p h i c S o c i e t y , 1966.
N 6766 17

J e w i t t , L . L e w e l l y n n , L i f e o f J o s i a h Wedgwood, L o n d o n : Virtue
B r o t h e r s and Co., 1865.
NK 4210 W4 J 6 1865

115
J o h a n s e n , K. F r i i s , The I l i a d i n E a r l y Greek A r t , Copenhagen:
M u n k s g a a r d , 1967.
NK a4646 F713 1967

K e l l y , A l i s o n , The S t o r y o f Wedgwood, L o n d o n : F a b e r and Faber,

1962.
NK 4335 KA 1962

K l i n g e n d e r , F r a n c i s D., A r t and t h e I n d u s t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n
E d i t e d and R e v i s e d by A r t h u r E l t o n , Chatham E n g l a n d :
W i n i f r e d K l i n g e n d e r and E v e l y n , Adams and MacKay L t d ,
1968.
N 8218 1968

L u c e , J.V., Homer and t h e H o m e r i c Age, L o n d o n : Thames and

Hudson, 1975.
PA 4037 L68 1975

L e s s i n g , G o t t h o l d E p h r a i m , L a o k o o n and How t h e A n c i e n t s R e p r e -
s e n t e d D e a t h ( 1 7 6 6 ) , L o n d o n : G B e l l and Sons L t d . , 1914.
N 64 L7 1914

M a n k o w i t z , W o l f , Wedgwood, New York: E.P. D u t t o n and Co.,

I n c . , 1953.
NK 4335 M3 1953

Mead, W i l l i a m Edward, The G r a n d T o u r i n t h e 1 8 t h C e n t u r y ,

B o s t o n and New Y o r k ! Houghton M i f f l i n Company, 1914.
D 917 M4 1914

M e t e y a r d , E l i z a 1816-1879, The L i f e o f J o s i a h Wedgwood, f r o m

h i s p r i v a t e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e and f a m i l y p a p e r s 77~. London:
H u r s t and B l a c k e t t , 1865-66.
NK 4210 W4 M6 1865

M u l d e r , J o h n R., The Temple o f t h e M i n d : E d u c a t i o n and L i t e r a r y

T a s t e i n S e v e n t e e n - C e n t u r y E n g l a n d , New Y o r k : P e g a s u s
Backgrounds i n E n g l i s h L i t e r a t u r e , Western P u b l i s h i n g
Company, I n c . , 1935.
PR 438 T3 M84 1969

N o r t h c o t e , James E s q . R.A., The L i f e of S i r Joshua Reynolds,

L o n d o n : Henry C o l b u r n , 1818.
ND 497 R4 N8 1818

Oman, C h a r l e s , E n g l i s h S i l v e r s m i t h s ' Work, L o n d o n : Her Majesty's

S t a t i o n e r y O f f i c e , 1965.
NK 7143 V492 1965

116
P r e s s l y , Nancy L . , The F u s e l i C i r c l e i n Rome, E a r l y R o m a n t i c
A r t o f t h e 1770's, New Haven C o n n e c t i c u t : Y a l e C e n t e r f o r
B r i t i s h A r t , 1979.

R e i l l y , R o b i n and G e o r g e S a v a g e , Wedgwood - t h e P o r t r a i t
M e d a l l i o n s , London: B a r r i e and J e n k i n s L t d . , 1973.
NK 4335 R454 1973

Rosenblum, R o b e r t , T r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n L a t e E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y
A r t , P r i n c e t o n , 1967.

S h a r p e , W i l l i a m 1724-1783, A d i s s e r t a t i o n Upon G e n i u s , 1755,

Delmar N.Y.: S c h o l a r ' s F a c s i m i l e s and R e p r i n t s , 1973.
BF 412 S45 1755a

S m i t h , J . T . , N o l l e k e n s and H i s T i m e s , 2 V o l s , L o n d o n , 1828,
E d i t . W. W h i t t e n L o n d o n , 1920.

S p e n c e , J o s e p h 1699-1768, P o l y m e t u s New Y o r k : G a r l a n d Pub.,

1971.
N S613 S7 1755a

S t a n f o r d , W.B. and J . V . L u c e , The Q u e s t f o r Ulysses, London:

P h a i d o n P r e s s L i m i t e d , 1974.
NX 652 D3 S72 1974

S t i l l m a n , Damie, The D e c o r a t i v e Work o f R o b e r t Adam, London:

A l e c T i r a n t i , 1966.
NK 1535 A3 S8

S t u a r t , James and N i c h o l a s R e v e t t , The A n t i q u i t i e s o f A t h e n s ,

London: J o h n H a b e r k o r n , 1762; The A n t i q u i t i e s o f A t h e n s
V o l . I I , London: J o h n N i c h o l s , 1787; The A n t i q u i t i e s o f
A t h e n s V o l . I I I , London: J o h n N i c h o l s , 1794. ( A l l t h r e e
v o l u m e s r e p u b l i s h e d New Y o r k and London: B e n j a m i n Blom,
1968).
NA 280 S913

S w a r b r i c k , J o h n , R o b e r t Adam and h i s B r o t h e r s , London: B.T.

B a t s f o r d , 1915.
NA 997 A4 S85

R e y n o l d s , S i r J o s h u a , D i s c o u r s e s on A r t , R o b e r t R. Wark ( e d . ) ,
San M a r i n o C a l i f o r n i a : H e n r y E . H u n t i n g t o n , L i b r a r y and
A r t G a l l e r y , 1959.

W h i t n e y , L o i s , P r i m i t i v i s m and t h e I d e a o f P r o g r e s s i n E n g l i s h
Popular L i t e r a t u r e of the Eighteenth Century. Baltimore:
The J o h n s H o p k i n s P r e s s , 1934.
PR 448 P7 W5

117
Wood, R o b e r t 1717-1771, An E s s a y on t h e O r i g i n a l Genius of
Homer, New Y o r k : G a r l a n d Pub., 1971.
PA 4037 A2 W7 1775a

Young, Edward 1683-1765, C o n j e c t u r e s on O r i g i n a l Composition,

1759, New Y o r k : G a r l a n d Pub., 1970.
PR 3664 C43 R4 1970:3

Yarwood, D o r e e n , R o b e r t Adam, L o n d o n : J.M. Dent and Sons L t d . ,

1970.
NA 997 A4 Y3 1970b

Articles

C r o o k s h a n k , Anne, "The D r a w i n g s o f G e o r g e Romney," B u r l i n g t o n

M a g a z i n e , 99 F e b r u a r y 1957.
N l B95

I r w i n , D a v i d , " G a v i n H a m i l t o n : A r c h a e o l o g i s t , P a i n t e r , and
D e a l e r , " A r t B u l l e t i n , L C I V J u n e , 1962 pp.87-102.
N l A4

P r a z , M a r i o , " H e r c u l a n e u m and E u r o p e a n T a s t e , " American Magazine

o f A r t , D e c . 1939.

S p e n c e r , T . J . B . , " R o b e r t Wood and t h e P r o b l e m o f T r o y i n t h e

E i g h t e e n t h C e n t u r y , " J o u r n a l o f t h e Warburg and C o u r t a u l d
I n s t i t u t e , 1957 pp.75-105.
N l L65

Thomas J . Wedgwood c e r a m i c p o r t r a i t s , C o n n o i s s e u r , 98: 29-35

JI*36.
N l C75

Watson, F r a n c i s , "Canova and t h e E n g l i s h , " Architectural

R e v i e w , 122 S e p t . 1955.
NA 1 A69

W i e b e n s o n , D o r a , " S u b j e c t s f r o m Homer's I l i a d i n N e o - C l a s s i c a l
A r t , " A r t B u l l e t i n , V o l . XLVI M a r c h 1964 pp23-37.
N l A4

Wind, E d g a r , "Borrowed A t t i t u d e s i n R e y n o l d s and H o g a r t h , "

J o u r n a l o f t h e Warburg and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e , V o l . 2
(1938-1939).
N l L65

118
T i t l e s f o r S p e c i f i c P e r i p h e r a l Issues

Books

E i t n e r , L o r e n z , N e o c l a s s i c i s m and R o m a n t i c i s m , 1750-1850,
S o u r c e s and Documents V o l . 1 Enlightenment/Revolution,
E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e H a l l I n c . , 1970.
N 6425 N4 E35 1970 V . l

Hammelmann, Hanns, e d i t e d and c o m p l e t e d by TSR B o a s e , Book

I l l u s t r a t o r s i n Eighteenth-Century E n g l a n d , New Haven and
L o n d o n : Y a l e U. P r e s s , 1975.
NC 978 H28 1975

H u r d , R i c h a r d Bp o f W o r c e s t e r 1720-1808, L e t t e r s on C h i v a l r y
and Romance, 1762, New Y o r k : G a r l a n d Pub., 1971.
PN 56 C53 H8 1962a

K n i g h t , D o u g l a s , Pope and t h e H e r o i c T r a d i t i o n , A C r i t i c a l
S t u d y o f h i s I l i a d , New Haven: Y a l e U. P r e s s , 1951.
PA 4025 A2 P65 1951

L e e s - M i l n e , James, The Age o f Adam, London e t a l . : BT Batsford

Ltd., 1947.
NA 997 A4 L4

M a l c o l m s o n , R o b e r t W., Popular Recreations in English Society,

C a m b r i d g e : C a m b r i d g e U. P r e s s , 1973.
DA 485 M217 1973 C2 v

P a n o f s k y , D o r a and E r w i n , P a n d o r a ' s Box; The C h a n g i n g A s p e c t s

o f a M y t h i c a l Symbol, New Y o r k : P a n t h e o n B o o k s I n c . ,
1956.
N 7760

P e l l e s , G e r a l i n e , A r t A r t i s t s and S o c i e t y , O r i g i n o f a Modern
Dilemma, P a i n t i n g i n E n g l a n d and F r a n c e , 1750-1850,
E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s N.J., 1963.
ND 466 P4

Penny, N i c h o l a s , C h u r c h Monuments i n R o m a n t i c E n g l a n d , New

Haven and L o n d o n : Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1977.
NB 1860 P44 1977

P h y s i c k , J o h n , D e s i g n s f o r E n g l i s h S c u l p t u r e 1680-1860, L o n d o n :
Her M a g j e s t y ' s S t a t i o n e r y o f f i c e , 1969.
NB 464 P45 1969

P i r a n e s i , Giovanni B a t t i s t a , II Teateo d'Ercolano, Roma, nella

Stamperia Salmoni, 1783.
N 5775 P57

119
Plumb, J.H., The P u r s u i t o f H a p p i n e s s , A V i e w o f L i f e i n
G e o r g i a n E n g l a n d , New Haven: Y a l e C e n t e r f o r B r i t i s h A r t ,
1977.
N 6766 P58 1977

P r e s s l y , W i l l i a m L . , James B a r r y t h e A r t i s t a s H e r o , London:
T a t e G a l l e r y P u b l i c a t i o n s D e p a r t m e n t , 1983.
N 6797 B38 P72 1983

Pyke, E . J . , A B i o g r a p h i c a l D i c t i o n a r y o f Wax M o d e l l e r s , O x f o r d :
a t t h e C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1973.
NK 9580 P939 1973

Ray, G o r d o n N., The I l l u s t r a t i o n and t h e Book i n E n g l a n d f r o m

1790 t o 1914, New Y o r k : t h e P i e r p o n t Morgan L i b r a r y ,
1976.
NC 978 R37 1976

R e d g r o v e , Samuel, A D i c t i o n a r y o f A r t i s t s o f t h e E n g l i s h
S c h o o l , L o n d o n : G. B e l l and S o n s , 1878.
N 6796 R45 1878

Rowe, R o b e r t , Adam S i l v e r 1765-1795, London: F a b e r and F a b e r ,

1965.
NK 71A43 R6 1965

S l y t h e , R. M a r g a r e t , The A r t o f I l l u s t r a t i o n , 1750-1900,
London: The L i b r a r y A s s o c i a t i o n , 1970.
NC 960 S59 1970

Steegman, J o h n , V i c t o r i a n T a s t e , A S t u d y o f t h e A r t s and
A r c h i t e c t u r e f r o m 1830 t o 1870, L o n d o n : Thomas N e l s o n and
Sons L t d , 1970.
N 6767 S8 1970

Steegman, J o h n , The R u l e o f T a s t e , L o n d o n : M a c M i l l a n and Co.

L i m i t e d , 1936.
N 6766 S7

R o t h e n b e r g , J a c o b , The A c q u i s i t i o n and R e a c t i o n t o t h e E l g i n
M a s r b l e s , New Y o r k : G a r l a n d P u b l i s h e r s , 1977.
NB 92

Warton, J o s e p h , An E s s a y on t h e G e n i u s and W r i t i n g o f Pope

( 1 7 5 7 ) , New Y o r k : G a r l a n d P u b l i s h e r s , 1970.

Wark, R o b e r t R., B r i t i s h S i l v e r i n t h e H u n t i n g t o n C o l l e c t i o n ,
San M a r i n o : H u n t i n g t o n L i b r a r y , 1978.
NK 7143 H45 1978

120
Watson, J . S t e v e n , The R e i g n o f G e o r g e I I I , 1760-1815, Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1960.
DA 505 W2

Waterhouse, E l l i s Kirkham, Three Decades of B r i t i s h A r t , 1740-

1770, P h i l a d e l p h i a : American P h i l o s o p h i c a l S o c i e t y , 1965.
N 6766 W3

W e i n g l a s s , D a v i d H. ( e d ) , The C o l l e c t e d E n g l i s h L e t t e r s o f
Henry F r e s e l i , M i l l w o o d N.Y. et a l . : Kraus I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Publications, 1987.
ND 853 F85 A3 1982

Whinney, M a r g a r e t , S c u l p t u r e i n B r i t a i n 1530 to 1830, Har-

mondsworth: P e n g u i n b o o k s I n c . , 1964.
NB 464 W5

W i l s o n , J o h n , The P a i n t i n g o f t h e P a s s i o n s i n T h e o r y , P r a c -
t i c e , and C r i t i c i s m i n L a t e r 1 8 t h C e n t u r y F r a n c e , Ph.D.
d i s s e r t a t i o n Iowa, U n i v e r s i t y , 1976.
ND 548 W 54 1981

Articles

C r a v e n , W. " H o r a t i o G r e e n o u g h ' s S t a t u e o f W a s h i n g t o n and

P h i d i a s ' O l y m p i a n Z e u s , " A r t Q u a r t e r l y , V o l . 2 6 #4 (1963)
p.435.
Nl A63

F r i e d l a n d e r , W a l t e r , " N o t e s on t h e A r t o f W i l l i a m B l a k e A
R o m a n t i c M y s t i c C o m p l e t e l y E x h i b i t e d . " A r t News, 18 Feb.
1939.

G o m b r i c h , E.H., "Debate on P r i m i t i v i s m i n A n c i e n t R h e t o r i c , "

J o u r n a l o f t h e Warburg and C o u r t a u l d I n s t i t u t e s , V o l . 29,
1966, pp.24-38.
N l L65 V.29

K n o w l s o n , James R., The I d e a s o f G e s t u r e as a U n i v e r s a l L a n g u a g e

i n t h e X V I I t h and X V I I I C e n t u r i e s , J o u r n a l o f t h e H i s t o r y
o f I d e a s , 26, 1965.
B l J54 V.26

R o g e r s o n , B r e w s t e r , "The A r t o f P a i n t i n g the Passions," Journal

o f t h e H i s t o r y o f I d e a s , 14, 1953.
B l J54 V.14.

S c h o r s c h , A n i t a , "Mourning A r t : A N e o c l a s s i c a l R e f l e c t i o n in
America," American A r t J o u r n a l , V o l . V I I I .

121
Smart, A l a s t a i r , " D r a m a t i c G e s t u r e and E x p r e s s i o n i n t h e Age
o f H o g a r t h and R e y n o l d s , " A p o l l o , 1965.
N l A255 V81/82

S n o d g r a s s , A.M., " H i s t o r i c a l H o m e r i c a S o c i e t y , " J o u r n a l o f

H e l l e n i c S t u d i e s , V o l . 94, 1974.
DF 10 J 8

Uphaus, R o b e r t W. "The I d e o l o g y o f R e y n o l d s D i s c o u r s e s on
A r t , " E i g h t e e n t h - C e n t u r y S t u d i e s , V o l . 12 #1, F a l l 1978.

W i l l s , G e o f f r e y , " E a r l y S i g n s o f N e o - C l a s s i c i s m and t h e Gout

G r e c , " A p o l l o , V o l . 9 6 O c t . 1972.
N l A255

122
124
3a Sosias Painter Red-Figure cup interior
A c h i l l e s and P a t r o c l u s

3b Sosias Painter R e d - F i g u r e cup e x t e r i o r

I n t r o d u c t i o n o f H e r a c l e s t o Olympus

125
126
5 William Sutherland : The S h i p - B u i l d e r ' s A s s i s t a n t o r
M a r i n e A r c h i t e c t u r e , 1755, P l a t e I I I S e c t i o n o f a S h i p .
6 The M a n u f a c t u r e r ' s Arms, 1 7 8 4 . The T r u s t e e s of the
Wedgwood Museum, B a r l a s t o n . Staffs.

128
7 John Flaxman, the e l d e r : A r c h i t e c t u r e , Marble, Lord
B a r n a r d , Raby C a s t l e , Durham. 117.7 cms high.

129
8a Ann R u s s e l l and h e r s o n H e n r y : monument Died 1780-81.
A l l S a i n t s , Lydd, Kent.

8b A f i g u r e f r o m The Tower o f t h e Winds i n A t h e n s . Depicted

i n James S t u a r t and N i c h o l a s R e v e t t : The A n t i q u i t i e s o f
Ajthens, 1762, V o l . I , C h a p t e r I I I , P l a t e X V I I .

130
9 Barbara Bourchier : monument. Died 1784. St Mary,
Newent, G l o u c e s t e r s h i r e .

131
1 1
R e v e r a n d Thomas and Mrs. B a l l : monument, 1784-86
Chichester Cathedral.

132
Mrs. Siddons : Jasperware p o r t r a i t , after Flaxman's
model of 1782.

Flaxman's own design for the Chessmen. Probably 1783.

Later executed i n Jasperware by Wedgwood.

133
The C r o w n i n g o f a K i t h a r i s t . Engraving from D H a n c a r v i l l e
1

C a b i n e t o f t h e Hon. William Hamilton, 1766-67, Vol.3.

134
135
Signorelli : Battle of the Nudes ( d e t a i l ) Duomo, Orvieto.

136
20 F u r y o f Athamas, 1790-1794. Marble, 208.5 cms. high.

137
138
22 W i l l i a m C o l l i n s : monument: d e s i g n : d e t a i l . Pen and ink
and wash, 39.5 x 27 cms. (whole s h e e t )

139
140
24 A u r o r a v i s i t i n g C e p h a l u s o n Mount I d a ,
1739-90. M a r b l e , 184 cms. h i g h .
H e r c u l e s and Hebe, 1792. P l a s t e r , c o l o u r e d , 190.5 cms. high.

142
27 Minerva Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s . Preliminary
p e n c i l , i n k , and brown wash. 22.9 x 27 cm. Huntington
L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y .

143
28 T h e t i s and Eurynome R e c e i v i n g t h e I n f a n t V u l c a n . E n g r a v i n g
a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 29.
 1IB SAID, AND ON THK CHIlii' IH'.S03n>S AMAIN,
INCIU'.ASH WITIr GOKJ', AND SWlli.l.lNC, WITH Till'. SI.AIS.

30 A c h i l l e s Contending with the Rivers. Engraving a f t

F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 33.
31 The F u n e r a l P i l e of P a t r o c l u s Engraving after Flaxman'
by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 35.
32 K i n g o f t h e L e s t r l g e n s S e i z i n g One o f t h e Companions o f
U l y s s e s . E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by James P a r k e r . O d y s s e y ,
1805, P l a t e 15.
 Odysily Plate 26 ULYSSES 1- HIS DOG.

j 33 U l y s s e s a n d H i s Dog. Engraving after Flaxman by James

| P a r k e r . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 26.

149
Oi stjtUttn
V ,< ULYSSKS TKKREFIKD BY T H E GHOSTS.

34 Ulysses Terrefied ( s i c ) by t h e G h o s t s . Engraving' a f t e r

F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 17.
35
36 The Embassy to A c h i l l e s . Engraving after Flaxman by
Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 18.
 WTIII.K H.w.r iTNSMi-:.vrni> AITKARD T H K UI.ITrauxr, KLADI:,

MIXKRVA SWIFT !ir.SCEM>Pft I'llOM AllOVK.

Ibgw't lUmnt lliul II llinf His.

37 M i n e r v a Repressing the Fury of A c h i l l e s . Engraving

a f t e r F l a x m a n by W i l l i a m B l a k e . I l i a d 1805, P l a t e 2.
H e c t o r ' s Body D r a g g e d a t t h e C a r o f A c h i l l e s . Engravin
a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 36.
Iliad Piatt 34 ANDROMACHE FAINTING ON T H E WALL.

39 Andromache F a i n t i n g on t h e W a l l . Engraving after Flaxman

by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 34.
 Odjuty PUlt 31 UJ.YSSKS ICII-MUG T H K SUITORS.

I—
1

(JI

HA8TK It RKTLTOT, ULYS8KB MADK B K l ' I . Y ,

WniLK YET TH* AVXILIAlt 8 I U T T 3 THIS HASH SWTl.Y.

4 0
U l y s s e s K i l l i n g the S u i t o r s Engraving a f t e r Flaxman by
James N e a g l e . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 3 1 .
Two p r e l i m i n a r y drawings f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the Fury
o f A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. P e n c i l (top) : ink over p e n c i l
( b o t t o m ) s h e e t 26.7 x 21 cm. H u n t i n g t o n L i b r a r y and A r t
Gallery.

157
P r e l i m i n a r y drawing (lower) f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the
F u r y o f A c h i l l e s I l i a d 2. Ink o v e r p e n c i l . S h e e t 25.4 x
20.7 cm. Hungtington L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y .

158
P r e l i m i n a r y drawing (lower) f o r Minerva R e p r e s s i n g the Fury
of A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. P e n c i l , p a r t i a l l y erased.

159
44 P r e l i m i n a r y drawing f o r Minerva Repressing the Fury of
A c h i l l e s , I l i a d 2. Ink o v e r p e n c i l . 8.8 x 13.6 cm.

160
 F O K T U F R O M UKH SNOWY HAND NAUSICAA TIIKEW,

TlfK YARIOVB B A M . ,TIIK H A L L KKKO.VKOUS KLEW.

IWpn a o w ' l n^rOry II-*- L w L5J.

N a u s i c a a Throwing the B a l l . Engraving after Flaxman by

James P a r k e r . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 10.
Odjjsty PUtt 19 THE SIKKNS.

46 The S i r e n s . Engraving after Flaxman by James Parker.

O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 19.
 WINOIJ HAIU'IES SNATCIlfl Til' UNOL'ARUBJ* C1IAKOK AWAY.

VnjV. llnrri CMyfln B. 3<1. I.iar f»3 .

The H a r p i e s G o i n g t o S e i z e t h e Daughters of Pandarus.

E n g r a v i n g a f t e r F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . Odyssey—1805
P l a t e 29.
48 Penelope Carrying t h e Bow of U l y s s e s to the Suitors.
E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxxman by James N e a g l e . O d y s s e y , 1805,
P l a t e 30.
 AJAX DEFENDING THE GKEF.K SHIPS AGAINST THE TROJANS.

IU1.1. TWKLYK TJIK HOI.OUST. IN A MOMT.NT FELL,

SKNT 1)1 GHKAT AJAX TO THE SHADES O f U E L L .

49 Ajax Defending t h e Greek Ships a g a i n s t t h e T r o j a n s . !

E n g r a v i n g a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, j
P l a t e 24.
50 N e p t u n e R i s i n g f r o m t h e Sea. E n g r a v i n g a f t e r Flaxman by
Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 22.
I 51 U l y s s e s F o l l o w i n g the Car of Nausicaa. Engraving after
i F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 11.
52 Plate from S i r W i l l i a m H a m i l t o n , Collection of Vases, I,
1791.

53 A c h i l l e s D r a g g i n g H e c t o r ' s Body a r o u n d t h e W a l l s o f T r o y
E n g r a v i n g by Domenico Cunego, 1766, a f t e r a p a i n t i n g by
Gavin Hamilton.

168
170
56 T h e M e e t i n g o f H e c t o r and Andromache. Engraving after
F l a x m a n by James P a r k e r . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 14.
57 J u p i t e r S e n d i n g t h e E v i l Dream t o Agamemnon. Engraving
a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e
6.
Wat Plan 38

i 5 8
59 O t u s and E p h i a l t e s H o l d i n g Mars C a p t i v e . Engraving
a f t e r F l a x m a n by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e
The Voyage of the Argonauts 1799 One o f 24 d e s i g n s
e n g r a v e d by J o s e p h Koch a f t e r d r a w i n g s b y Asmus J a c o b
Carstens.

M r s . Mary B l a c k s h a w (Mary L u s h i n g t o n ) : monument. 1798-99.

S t . Mary Lewisham, K e n t . —"

175
63 L e u c o t h e a P r e s e r v i n g U l y s s e s Engraved after Flaxman by
James N e a g l e . O d y s s e y , 1805, P l a t e 9.
178
179
W a r r i o r s , by J a c q u e s - L o u i s D a v i d . From s k e t c h b o o k . (Musee
des B e a u x - A r t s , L i l l e . )

180
Plan 26
THE FIGHT FOR THE BODY OF fATROCLCS.

THE T R O J A N S SK1ZK TIIK SLAIN

67 F i g h t f o r t h e Body o f P a t r o c l u s E n g r a v i n g after Flaxman !

by Thomas P i r o l i . I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 26. I
6 8a The S h i e l d o f A c h i l l e s : d r a w i n g . (Henry E. H u n t i n g t o n
L i b r a r y and A r t G a l l e r y , San M a r i n o , C a l i f o r n i a )

182
S h i e l d of A c h i l l e s , 1821. S i l v e r g i l t , 94 cms diameter.
E x e c u t e d a f t e r Flaxman by P h i l i p R u n d e l l .

183
70 A c h i l l e deplore 1'enterrement de B r i s e i s . by Francois
Rude. P l a s t e r r e l i e f (Mus6e Rude, D i j o n ) .

A c h i l l e deplore 1 ' e n t e r r e m e n t de B r i s e i s . by F r a n c o i s
R u
^ d e
Pen and i n k , 21.5 by 37 cm. (Musc§e d e s B e a u x - A r t s ,
S t u d y a f t e r F l a x m a n ' s O d y s s e y , by A n t o i n e G r o s . From
s k e t c h b o o k , R.F. 2 9 9 5 5 , f . 2 8 v . P e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r
c h a l k , 16.3 by 22.5 cm. ( C a b i n e t d e s D e s s i n s Mus6e du
Louvre).

185
73 S t u d y a f t e r F l a x m a n ' s O d y s s e y , by A n t o i n e G r o s . From
s k e t c h b o o k , R.F.29955, f . 2 8 . Pen and brown i n k o v e r
c h a l k , 1 6 . 3 by 2 2 . 5 cm. ( C a b i n e t d e s D e s s i n s , Musee du
Louvre.)

186
S t u d i e s o f H o r s e s , and s t u d y a f t e r a p l a t e f r o m F l a x m a n ' s
O d y s s e y , by A n t o i n e G r o s . From s k e t c h b o o k , R.F. 29955,
f.20. P e n a n d b r o w n i n k o v e r c h a l k , 16.3 by 22.5 cm.
( C a b i n e t d e s D e s s i n s , Musee du L o u v r e )

187
75 J u p i t e r and T h e t i s by J-A-D I n g r e s , P e n c i l , 32.5 by 24.2
cm (Mus£e I n g r e s , M o n t a u b a n ) .

188
WadPUtei THETIS ENTREATING JUPITER TO HONOR ACHILLES.

TIH'S THETIS BI'OKK BIT J O V E IS SIMtNCE IIK1.I)

THE SAdlEl) COlTSriLS OF HIS 11RIIAST COSCKAI/IJ.

T h e t i s I n t r e a t i n g J u p i t e r t o Honor A c h i l l e s Engraved
a f t e r F l a x m a n by W i l l i a m B l a k e . I l i a d . 1805. P l a t e 5.
77 The C o u n c i l o f t h e Gods E n g r a v e d after Flaxman by Thomas
Piroli,, I l i a d , 1805, P l a t e 9.
191
'I T e l l You, I Know t h e W o r l d ' by P h i l May i n F. Berkeley
S m i t h , I n London Town London 1907.

192
D e s i g n f o r a w i n e - c o o l e r by
Thomas S t o t h a r d R.A. Pen and
Wash, 25.4 x 20.3 cm. British
Museum.
 1'

D e s i g n f o r a w i n e - c o o l e r (perhaps a f t e r W i l l i a m Theed, R.A.

1764-1817), Pen d r a w i n g , 26.7 x 24.7 cm.

194
83a Wine-cooler, maker's mark of Paul S t o r r (1771-1844),
London Hall-mark for 1809. S i l v e r g i l t , height 35.56 cm.
C o l l e c t i o n of the Marquess of Ormonde.

83b D e t a i l of wine-cooler i n 83a.

195