I.

INTRODUCTION: STYLISTICS

Stylistics is the study of style. Ufot (2017) sees stylistics primarily as the analysis of the

language of texts. Ufot (2014, p. 28) argues that even though it is applicable to all kinds of texts,

whether literary or non-literary, stylistics appears to be more frequently associated with literary

texts. In fact, traditionally, as conspicuously seen in its checkered history, the preoccupation of

stylistics has been the language of literature. In this light, some scholars often typify literary

stylistics as a stylistics that focuses on the language of literary text(s), distinguishing it from a

non-literary stylistics which is concerned with the analysis of non-literary text(s) (Jeffries and

Mclntyre 2010, p. 2, Ufot 2017).

Essentially, owing to its nature, a good definition of stylistics considers both literary and

non-literary texts. An example of such definition has been given by Ufot (2012, p. 2460) who

sees stylistics as the linguistic study of the various components of a writer's literary (or

non-literary) style. Also, as pointed out by Wales (2014, p. 400), stylistics is confusingly called

linguistic stylistics "because its models or tools are drawn from linguistics". Ufot (2006, p. 13)

then defines stylistics as the linguistic study of style. Notably, the study is a systematic one that

aims appreciably at objectivity. Jeffries and Mclntyre (2010, p.) write:

Stylistics has been defined as a sub-discipline of linguistics that is

concerned with the systematic analysis of style in language and how this
can vary according to such factors as, for example, genre, context,
historical period and author....
Simpson (2004, p. 2) notes that modern stylistics is positively flourishing. It has embraced

different disciplines with its methods, and it has been enriched by the mingling. Wales (2014, p.

399) observes, "style can be viewed in several ways, so there are several different stylistic

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approaches." Thus, there are so many approaches identifiable in stylistics. Jeffries and Mclntyre

(2010, p. 3) write:

Stylistics draws upon theories and models from other fields more
frequently than it develops its own unique theories. This is because it is at
a point of confluence of many sub-disciplines of linguistics, and other
disciplines, such as literary studies and psychology, drawing upon these
(sub-)disciplines but not seeking to duplicate or replace them.
Prominent amongst these approaches are the linguistic and literary approaches to stylistics.

Hence, by approach, we have literary stylistics (which in addition to its aforementioned

description in paragraph one emphasises the use of "linguistic techniques" in the interpretation of

texts) and linguistic stylistics (which as indicated in paragraph one emphasises the use of

linguistic models or tools in textual analysis). The text can be literary or non-literary. What are

the differences between these two approaches? This paper sets about to present each of the

approaches. Citing considerable examples, it seeks to describe the two approaches by means of

empirical review of works that have employed the approaches, thereby highlighting the observed

salient differences between the two approaches.

II. Linguistic Approach to Stylistics

The linguistic approach to stylistics has to do with the linguistic study of literature. This

description is a rephrasing of the title of a locus classicus example of an essay that discusses the

linguistic approach to stylistics, written by M.A.K. Halliday entitled 'The Linguistic Description

of Literary Texts'. Halliday (1962, p. 2) writes:

We can define linguistic stylistics as the description of literary texts by

methods derived from general linguistic theory, using the categories of the
description of the language as a whole and the comparison of each text
with others by the same and by the different authors in the same and in
different genres.

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Linguistics studies language scientifically. It studies style as well in an impersonal and objective

manner. Aitchison (2003, p. 148) states that “the linguistic analysis of literary language is known

as stylistics… the words style and stylistics have acquired somewhat specialised, narrow usage of

linguistics applied to literature.”

However, beyond this, linguistic approach to stylistics is also concerned with non-literary

texts. This is in accordance with the views of Ufot (2013) that there have been “striking advances

in the discipline of stylistics resulting inevitably in increasing focus on its interdisciplinary

potential.” Ufot (2013, p. 620) enumerates the fields which stylistics has partnered as including

discourse analysis, pragmatics, eco-criticism, error analysis, etc. Notably, it is the linguistic

approach to stylistics that ably accommodates this interdisciplinariness as it is concerned with

both literary and non-literary texts. An example that captures this is Danjuma (2013) who studies

the technical and philosophical aspects of Gani Odutokun’s paintings. Danjuma (2013, p. 129)

claims that the study focuses on the stylistic approaches and the philosophical contents of the

paintings, and says:

The objectives of the paper are three: to sort out technical details of the
style used; second, to explore how the intricate technique is used to convey
message, and third, to reveal the philosophical meanings of the paintings.
Danjuma’s study traverses three disciplines: linguistic stylistics, fine arts, and philosophy.

Another is Alimi (1991) who attempts an analysis of stylistic markers in the language of cartoons

in Nigeria. Focusing on the printing styles, stylistic registers and textual features of the texts that

constitute the corpus of the research, she reveals that the informal style (typical of the use of

Pidgin English, colloquial forms, loan blends, ellipsis, etc.) characterises the language of

cartoons in Nigeria. Her research borders on journalism.

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 One marker that readily identifies an analytical essay, dissertation, or thesis as a

(linguistic) stylistic endeavour is the presence of any or some or all categories of the description

of language. The categories of the description of language are mainly four viz. phonological

level (where phonological features are explored), graphetic level (where graphological features

are explored), lexico-semantic level (where lexical and semantic features are explored), and

grammatical level (where morphological and syntactic features are explored). Another important

identity marker (particularly distinctive of a linguistic stylistics) is the use of a linguistic theory.

The linguistic theory is more often than not needed as an anchor that validates the stylistician's

explication. In modern linguistic stylistics, there are many theories but two theories have

assumed dominance: Noam Chomsky's Transformational Generative Grammar and M.A.K.

Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics. These two theories are of commonplace in the long

essays, dissertations, and theses of stylistics researchers.

With its popularity, Halliday's Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) seems to be

preeminent in linguistic stylistics. Also known as Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG), it is a

theory which views language as linked with the society and is applicable for ‘analysis of

text/context relationship in language’ (Olutoke 2015, p. 20). In the view of Fairclough (2003),

SFL is concerned with the relationship between language and other elements and aspects of

social life. Olutoke (ibid.) believes that it is an approach oriented to the social character of texts.

According to Fairclough (1995), systemic linguistics is a functional theory of language

orientated to the question of how language is structured to tackle its primary social functions.

Ayoola (2008) in presenting Halliday’s notion of textual grammar observes that SFG concerns

itself with the analysis of text. Text in this sense refers to any passage, spoken or written, of

whatever length, that does form a unified whole (Halliday and Hassan, 1976). Context of

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situation is an important notion in SFL. According to Halliday and Hassan (ibid.), field (the total

event in which the text is functioning), mode (function of the text in the event; channel taken by

language) and tenor (role interaction amongst participants of the event), collectively define the

context of situation of a text. According to Olutoke (2015, p. 20), Halliday (1994) writes about

three meta-functions of language: ideational (states of affair in the world), interpersonal (social

relationships between participants in an interaction), and textual (a coherent account of the world

of the message).

To identify a study that has employed the linguistic stylistic approach, therefore, one

must look out for these basic criteria. One, we check if the study analyses text or language use at

any or some or all categories of language description. Two, we check if the analysis has been

anchored on a linguistic theory. Ufot (2013) studies the phonological features of Thomas Gray's

'Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard,' focusing on phonaesthesia and prosody. Famous for the

signal employment of iambic pentameter, Ufot (2013) notices that very little prior work had been

done on the "phonaesthetic structure" of the poem. He then attempts "a detailed investigation of

all the phonaesthetic devices which identify the poem as a happy and celebratory elegy". He

observes:

Employing metrical phonological theories from Stallworthy, Wales,

Katamba, Leech, Roach and Boulton, the study appraises all the
suprasegmental features of poetry such as syllabification, metre, rhyme,
elision, onomatopoeia, alliteration, assonance and consonance, and
exemplifies the ways in which these devices support the meaning of the
poem.
Presenting the suprasegmental features of the poem as pieces of evidence, Ufot (ibid.) concludes

that "Gray’s ‘Elegy’ is indeed not a poem of mourning as such, but a posthumous ‘musical’

contemplation of the virtues of simplicity and hard work".

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 Robert and Edem (2017) attempt a lexico-semantic analysis of the national anthems of

Nigeria and Senegal. Theirs is a very good example of a linguistic stylistics. Robert and Edem

(2017, p. 15) say:

The concepts of linguistic stylistics and presupposition are adopted as the

theoretical framework for the study. Using Halliday’s Triple
Categorisation of context, the authors apply issues of field of discourse,
mode of discourse and tenor of discourse to the texts to reveal their hidden
characteristics which help expand their interpretation.
Their study reveals that the two anthems have meanings that go beyond the everyday meaning of

the lexical items employed in the texts. They conclude that the anthems have been stylistically

couched to appeal to the sensibilities of the citizens to make them patriotic and embrace the

national ethos of “statesmanship” thereby ensuring peace and stability.

Ayeomoni and Abiodun (2014) investigate the pronominal ‘I’ as a communicative

linguistic device and protest in Helon Habila’s Waiting for an Angel. Their study can be

classified as a study in the lexico-semantic category of language description. According to them:

Approaching the text from a linguistic stylistic perspective, the study

discovered (sic) that the use of the pronominal item by the implied author
is significant in frequentative terms and also foregrounded his
preoccupation with literature as a weapon of social survival and a signal of
the power of literary creativity, even in the face of physical limitations
imposed by repressive state apparatuses. The paper showed (sic) that
Habila, as a major voice in the third generation of Nigerian writers, uses
repetition as a schematic device for foregrounding the contradictions of
military rule in Nigeria and the triumph of the creative spirit.
Examples of linguistic stylistic studies abound. Importantly, the linguistic stylistician

investigates the style of whatever language use in literary and non-literary texts essentially with

the aid of a linguistic theory or model. The ultimate goal is to expose how language is used to

achieve certain ends, and such exposition more often than not contributes to existing linguistic

theory.

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III. Literary Approach to Stylistics

Essentially, literary stylistics is that stylistics that has assumed or adopted a literary

approach. Like linguistic stylistics, it is concerned with the analysis of literary and non-literary

texts. As noted in I., it simply has to do with using linguistic techniques (i.e. considering the

phonological, graphological, lexico-semantic, and grammatical features) in the interpretation of

literary texts, whereby, the style of a writer or a speaker, group of writers or group of speakers is

ascertained. Ghazalah (1987), drawing insights from Carter and Nash (1983), gives the following

as the tenets of literary stylistics:

1. There are elements of literariness in literary texts which can be

identified.
2. The recognition of these elements is not a straightforward process; it is,
rather, implicit in the stylistic patterning of language, the effects produced
and their interaction in texts.
3. The language of literary texts is multi-layered and, thus, the
identification of the literary element should be sought at its different
levels, and not at one or two only.
4. Literariness is not an intrinsic property of a lexical item, a stylistic
device, a special linguistic feature, or any kind of overt property of
language; it is the product of the investigation of the overlapping of the
different levels of the language of texts and the effects of that overlapping.
5. Finally, the so-called properties of literariness are not present in literary
texts only; other types of text can display few of them, however very
occasionally and not with such a degree of intensity and richness as in
literary texts. These properties are the point of departure between the
literary and the non-literary and the criteria in terms of which literary texts
can be defined more properly.
In the early 1900s, there was an intense debate on whether it is valid to employ linguistic

techniques in the explication of literary texts. Roman Jakobson a renowned formalist in his

seminal paper entitled 'Closing statement: Linguistics and poetics' makes historical statements

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that sort of put the controversy to rest. One of those that have been widely quoted by

practitioners of literary stylistics is presented by Carter and Simpson (1989, p. 2):

If there are some critics who still doubt the competence of linguistics to
embrace the field of poetics, I privately believe that the poetic
incompetence of some bigoted linguists has been mistaken for an
inadequacy of the linguistic science itself. All of us here, however,
definitely realize that a linguist deaf to the poetic function of language and
a literary scholar indifferent to linguistic problems and unconversant with
linguistic methods are equally flagrant anachronisms.
Alawonle (2016) puts it clearly. He says, "stylistic analysis is, without doubt, one area of

linguistic studies which is aimed at closing the gulf between literary studies and linguistic

investigations of literary texts." Widdowsin (1990) argues that literary stylistics is the marriage

of linguistic studies with literary studies. Being that literary stylistics aims at objectivity, it

complements literary criticism that is largely based on intuitive judgments and subjective

inclinations.

One feature of literary stylistics is that it essentially employs stylistics as its theoretical

framework. Ruban and Backiavathy (2016, p.59) attempt and observe:

The objective of the research paper is to segment the poetic language of

Ted Hughes in stylistic perspective. In addition, it intends to analyse the
effective presence and functions of the two levels of stylistics: lexical and
phonological. The lexical level analysis encompasses hyperbole and
oxymoron. Similarly, the phonological level analysis includes alliteration,
assonance and consonance. The lexical level of stylistics deals with the
meaning of the word and their enhancement of the context and the
phonological level dissects and distinguishes the different sounds
produced at the time of articulation.
Alawonle (2016) examines the resourcefulness of graphology in K. G. Kyei's 'Time',

Osundare's 'Rain-coming' and Remi Raji's 'Silence'. The paper reveals that the meaning and

interpretations of the chosen poems cannot be exhaustive without recourse to graphological

explorations. In addition, the approach more often than not employs a functional theory; that is, a
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theory that gives room to the exploration of content – such that allows the sociological

dimension of a literary text. A veritable example is Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar

(discussed in II.). Though a pure linguistic theory, it is of great import to explicating social

commentary.

This must have informed Ushie (2014) to adopt it in an eclectic theoretical framework, in

an analysis of selected Nigerian poets. In a paper that studies the ecological poetry of five

relatively young Nigerian poets namely Babatunde Ajayi, Remi Raji, Ibiwari Ikiriko, Msc Okolo

and Nnimmo Bassey, with an eclectic theoretical framework that comprises Ecocriticm and

Systemic Functional Grammar, it is revealed that “the poets who wrote mainly during the

murderous military era employed self-protecting and self-preserving stylistic strategies such as

personification and agent-deletion in referring to the fearsome political power of the day”.

IV. Differences between Linguistic Approach and Literary Approach to Stylistics

Renowned practitioners of stylistics have differentiated between the two approaches.

Three examples shall be cited here. Jeffries and Mclntyre (2010), Carter and Simpson (1989),

and Ngara (1982).

Jefferies and Mclntyre (2010) observe that:

Literary stylistics in this case is concerned with using linguistic techniques

to assist in the interpretation of texts, whereas linguistic stylistics is about
doing stylistic analysis in order to test or refine a linguistic model (Wales
1989: 438) – in effect, to contribute to linguistic theory.

Carter and Simpson (1989) characterise linguistic stylistics as:

the purest form of stylistics, in that its practitioners attempt to derive from
the study of style and language a refinement of models for the analysis of
language and thus to contribute to the development of linguistic theory.

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In contrast, they describe literary stylistics by providing its distinguishing feature. They write:

A distinguishing feature of work in literary stylistics is the provision of a

basis for fuller understanding, appreciation and interpretation of avowedly
literary and author-centred texts. The general impulse will be to draw
eclectically on linguistic insights and to use them in the service of what is
generally claimed to be fuller interpretation of language effects than is
possible without the benefit of linguistics.

Ufot (2006) presents Ngara (1982) as follows:

Ngara (1982: 12) distinguishes between two types of style study, the
literary stylistician’s and the stylistic critic’s approaches. The literary
stylistician, he observes, ‘applies the methods of stylistics to the language
of literature.’ However, Ngara says, the stylistic critic ‘has a wider domain
because, in addition to using the analytic tools of the linguist and the
stylistician such as grammar, lexis, phonology and prosody, he must also
concern himself with the wider issues of deviation from the norm’.

The stylistic critic here is the linguistic stylistics; meanwhile, the domain it covers is wider than

the one expressed. It explores diverse disciplines as earlier illustrated in II.

Pitching the two together, the differences include:

 Linguistic approach thrives on linguistic theories and contributes to the latter (see

examples in II.). More often than not, the literary approach employs stylistics as a theory

(theoretical framework) and/or any functional theory in its interpretation (see examples in

III.).

 The ultimate goal of literary approach is textual evaluation, while linguistic approach

investigates an instance of language use to contribute to a linguistic theory.

 Literary approach is usually author-based and affects the reader, while linguistic

approach flourishes in interdisciplinarity with little or no attention given to affecting the

reader.
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  Linguistic approach emphasises form, while literary approach emphasises content.

IV. Conclusion

This paper, relying on empirical review as its strategy, has presented the differences

between linguistic and literary stylistics. The two essentially utilise linguistic techniques and

theories in analyses. They aim principally at objectivity. The point of departure between the two

is their ultimate goal. The general objectives of a linguist and a literary critic still help in

distinguishing between the two approaches. Most of the time, a linguist studies an instance of

language use for descriptive and/or prescriptive theorisations; while a literary critic evaluates a

text. They bring these doctrinaire sensibilities into stylistics. It can therefore be averred that the

literary critic has only resorted to stylistics for objectivity.

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