fluids
Article
Integration of Fluidic Nozzles in the New Low Emission Dual
Fuel Combustion System for MGT Gas Turbines
Bernhard Ćosić *, Dominik Waßmer and Franklin Genin






Citation: Ćosić, B.; Waßmer, D.;
Genin, F. Integration of Fluidic
Nozzles in the New Low Emission
Dual Fuel Combustion System for
MGT Gas Turbines. Fluids 2021, 6,
129. https://doi.org/10.3390/
fluids6030129
Academic Editor: Rene Woszidlo
Received: 18 February 2021
Accepted: 18 March 2021
Published: 21 March 2021
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4.0/).
Fluids 2021, 6, 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/fluids6030129
MAN Energy Solutions SE, 46145 Oberhausen, Germany; dominik.wassmer@man-es.com (D.W.);
franklin.genin@gmail.com (F.G.)
* Correspondence: Bernhard.Cosic@man-es.com
Abstract: Fluidic oscillators have proven their capabilities and advantages in terms of the generation
of oscillating jets without moving parts for many years, mainly in experimental studies. In this
paper, the design, development, and integration of fluidic atomizers into the liquid-fuel system of the
dual-fuel low NOX Advanced Can Combustion (ACC) system of the MAN Gas Turbines (MGT) are
presented. The two-stage system comprises a pressure-swirl nozzle as a pilot stage and an assembly
of four main premixed nozzles, based on fluidic technology. The design and the features of the pilot
nozzle are briefly presented, whereas the focus lies on the functionality and layout of the fluidic
nozzles. The complete integration, validation, and verification of this innovative liquid-fuel injection
unit are presented. The final system features fast fuel-switchovers, low complexity, high reliability,
and dry low emissions in liquid-fuel operation.
Keywords: dual fuel; gas turbine combustor; liquid fuel; injection nozzle; industrial gas turbine; dry
low NOx combustion; fluidic nozzle
1. Introduction
Industrial gas turbines in the power range of 5 MW to 20 MW are often used in
two settings: either as mechanical drivers of compressors and pumps in the oil and gas
industry or for combined heat and power (CHP) scenarios. The main fuel type for gas
turbines is natural gas. However, in many parts of the world, the natural gas supply may
be interrupted several times in the year. This may disturb the production process or the
supply of households with heat in the middle of the winter. Such danger can be avoided
by using a backup fuel. In case of a compressor drive application, with a gas extraction
site close by, a backup fuel is of crucial importance for restarting the extraction process of
natural gas, once the gas exploration has been intermitted. Due to its high availability all
over the world and its easy storability, liquid diesel no. 2 is a standard backup fuel for gas
turbines.
Since land-based gas turbines are commonly operated with natural gas, the combus-
tion systems are developed and optimized for this fuel in terms of emissions and flexibility.
In contrast to that, liquid fuels are widely used in gas turbines for aero applications em-
ploying diffusion combustion technology [1–3] giving more priority to operation stability
than to low emissions. Implementing dual-fuel capabilities to the sensitive dry low NOX
combustion systems of land-based gas turbines is demanding in terms of development and
testing efforts [4–13]. While the development of fuel-gas combustion systems benefits from
the transferability of atmospheric combustion tests to high pressure conditions [14], liquid-
fuel systems cannot substantially profit from comprehensive cost-effective atmospheric
testing. This is caused by the pressure sensitivity of liquid fuel combustion due to the
dependency of atomization and vaporization on pressure [2]. Additionally, the liquid-fuel
injectors are designed for full load fuel flow. Using them at atmospheric conditions and,
thus, at fuel flow rates 10 to 15 times smaller, significantly affects the atomization behavior
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/fluids
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 2 of 20

due to the much smaller feed pressure at the nozzle. Scaling the nozzle to atmospheric con-
ditions, on the other hand, is difficult due to the extremely small dimensions resulting from
downscaling the geometries and a lack of other proper scaling rules. Moreover, numerical
investigations of gas turbine burners and combustion systems by means of computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) allow for quick optimization loops in the development process of
fuel-gas systems. Even high fidelity simulations are more and more integrated in the design
process [15]. However, the two-phase flows associated to liquid-fuel combustion make
numerical simulations very expensive in terms of computational power and a lot more
difficult to validate experimentally [16].
This paper describes the development and implementation process of a low emission
liquid-fuel system for the MAN Energy Solutions industrial gas turbines of the modern
MGT family [17–19] and its advanced can combustor (ACC) system in the 6–10 MW class.
These high efficiency gas turbines are available for CHP and mechanical drive applications.
A particular focus is given to the evaluation and characterization of the implemented
fluidic nozzles within this specific liquid-combustion solution.
The MGT gas turbines are equipped with six combustor cans featuring single digit
NOX emissions for various gaseous fuels. The gas turbine is also available with a dual-fuel
option for gas and liquid fuels as backup or main fuel. The liquid-fuel system consists of
two separate stages with the main fuel nozzles based on fluidic oscillators. Important to
the durability and reliability of the system, this jet oscillation is achieved by an oscillating
motion of the emanating jet without any moving parts. Instead, this oscillating motion is
generated by the unsteady flow pattern inside the fluidic nozzle [20], as the liquid jet is
flipping in a two-dimensional domain from one side to the other of the nozzle. Droplets
are formed due to the distinct shear stresses in the moving jet. The use of fluidic oscillators
in gas turbines [21] and other energy conversion machines [22] has been considered for
several years due to its potential to achieve good mixing [23] and rapid atomization [24].
Additionally, fluidic nozzles have been considered for flow control [25], especially for the
performance improvement of airfoils [26], and for the attenuation of acoustic tones excited
by flows in cavities [27]. A recent review of studies about available fluidic technology has
been published by Ghanami and Farhadi [28]. However, to the knowledge of the authors,
up to now these kind of nozzles have never been integrated in an industrial gas turbine
combustor.
Two features of the fluidic devices are most important for the present study. Firstly,
the rapid atomization of liquid fuel at relatively low supply pressure. This allows for better
economics in terms of supply pressure and enables for a good premixing of fuel and air
before entering the flame zone, which is of crucial importance for low emissions. Secondly,
the improved mixing of the emanating jets from fluidic oscillators and air crossflows as
shown by Ostermann et al. [29]. These investigations suggest that the crossflow should
have an attacking angle of 90◦ to the sheet formed by the fluidic oscillators. Detailed
investigations of the penetration and mixing of pulsed jets in crossflow have been published
by Eroglu and Breidenthal [30], claiming a higher penetration compared to steady jets.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: first, we describe the combustor design
and the design of the pressure swirl atomizer used as a pilot nozzle. Afterwards, the
different variants of fluidic nozzles that have been studied and the investigated properties
of the atomizers are discussed. Subsequently, the experimental test facilities are presented.
Finally, we present measurement results from the high-pressure and engine tests and
summarize this study.

2. Dual-Fuel Combustor Design

2.1. Overview of the Combustor Design
In this section, the operating principle and the key features of the MGT advanced can
combustor (ACC) are introduced.
The main hardware parts of one single can are depicted in Figure 1. The blue arrows
indicate the air path of the compressor air, which is guided from the compressor outlet
 2. Dual-Fuel Combustor Design
2.1. Overview of the Combustor Design
In this section, the operating principle and the key features of the MGT advanced can
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 3 of 20
combustor (ACC) are introduced.
The main hardware parts of one single can are depicted in Figure 1. The blue arrows
indicate the air path of the compressor air, which is guided from the compressor outlet
into the combustor casing, passing
into the the transition
combustor duct and
casing, passing thethe cylindrical
transition ductflame tube
and the from
cylindrical flame tube from
the outside. A portion theofoutside.
the compressor
A portionairofserves as outer cooling
the compressor air of
air serves as the transition
outer cooling air of the transition
duct and flame tube duct
wallsand
in order
flametotube
ensure acceptable
walls in ordermaterial
to ensure temperatures.
acceptable High effi-temperatures. High
material
ciency cooling with aefficiency
minimumcooling withof
generation a minimum
pressure dropgeneration of pressure
is achieved dropcool-
via various is achieved via various
cooling methods such as, e.g., effusion
ing methods such as, e.g., effusion cooling and impingement cooling.cooling and impingement cooling.

Figure
Figure 1. 3D cross-sectional 1. 3D
view ofcross-sectional view assembly
the can combustor of the can of
combustor
the MGTassembly of theMain
ACC system. MGT ACC system. Main parts,
parts, as well as important positions, are named in the figure. Blue arrows indicate compressor
as well as important positions, are named in the figure. Blue arrows indicate compressor airflow,
airflow, red arrows show
redgaseous
arrows fuel
showflow, and the
gaseous fuelpurple arrow
flow, and theindicates exhaust
purple arrow air afterexhaust
indicates com- air after combustion.
bustion. Fuel-gas and liquid-fuel flames are usually stabilized in the region of the area jump be-
Fuel-gas and liquid-fuel flames are usually stabilized in the region of the area jump between swirler
tween swirler and flame tube.
and flame tube.

Subsequently, the compressor

Subsequently, air enters a plenum where
the compressor air entersit isaguided
plenumfrom whereaxial
it isinto
guided from axial into
radial direction and radial
from where it finally enters the radial swirler.
direction and from where it finally enters the radial swirler. At the edges of the At the edges of the
swirler vanes, the main fuel-gas
swirler vanes,injection
the main holes are located
fuel-gas to allow
injection holes for
arealocated
properto mixing
allow of for a proper mixing of
fuel-gas and air. In fuel-gas
fuel-gasoperation
and air. Inatfuel-gas
baseload, the flame
operation at can be considered
baseload, the flameascan almost
be considered as almost
perfectly premixed. perfectly premixed.
A gas pilot is used toAstabilize
gas pilot theis flame
used to atstabilize
low partthe load and at
flame start-up
low part conditions.
load and The start-up conditions. The
pilot fuel-gas is introduced by means of a number of injection
pilot fuel-gas is introduced by means of a number of injection holes at the burner backholes at the burner back
plate, just upstream plate,
of the just
swirler center of
upstream (indicated
the swirler in Figure 1 by the red
center (indicated inarrows).
Figure 1 by the red arrows).
The flame tube is located downstream
The flame of the radial
tube is located swirler. of
downstream Here, in the swirler.
the radial region ofHere, the in the region of the
area jump between flame tube between
area jump and swirler, flame thetube
main andflame reaction
swirler, zone flame
the main is located.
reactionThezone is located. The
flame stabilizes in the shearstabilizes
flame layers ofin the
theswirling flow that
shear layers of thegenerates
swirlingaflow largethatrecirculation
generates a large recirculation
zone going up to the zone
burnergoing
backup plate.to the
Theseburner
flowback plate.
features areThese
the sameflow forfeatures
dual-fuel areand the same for dual-fuel
fuel-gas only burners. The transition duct connects the cylindrical flame tube to the annu- flame tube to the
and fuel-gas only burners. The transition duct connects the cylindrical
annular
lar shape of the turbine inlet shape
section. of the turbine inlet section.
In the case of the dualInfuel
the burner,
case of the the dual fuel burner,
combustor head is theadditionally
combustor equipped
head is additionally
with equipped with
two injectors,
two types of liquid fuel types of liquid fuel injectors,a each
each representing representing
separate fuel stage. a separate
An explosion fuel stage. An explosion
view of
view of a dual-fuel burner a dual-fuel
is provided in burner
Figure 2. is Analog
provided in Figure
to the fuel gas 2.system,
Analogthe to two-
the fuel gas system, the
two-stage concept of the liquid fuel operation
stage concept of the liquid fuel operation concept allows for a stable, safe, and flexible concept allows for a stable, safe, and flexible
operation of the combustion system from
operation of the combustion system from ignition and idle up to full load. The primary ignition and idle up to full load. The primary
stage consists of one central pilot nozzle. In case of ignition and startup, the full amount the full amount of
stage consists of one central pilot nozzle. In case of ignition and startup,
liquid
of liquid fuel is injected viafuel
thisisnozzle.
injected Forviapart
thisload
nozzle.andForfullpart
loadload and fullthe
conditions, load conditions, the share of
share
fuel guided through the pilot nozzle is continuously reduced. However, even at baseload,
this pilot nozzle is kept in operation to provide stable operation and to make harsh load
jumps to idle possible, the so-called load rejections.
x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Fluids 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Fluids 2021, 6,of fuel

129 guided through the pilot nozzle is continuously reduced. However, even at base- 4 of 20
load, this pilot nozzle
of fuelisguided
kept inthrough
operation
theto provide
pilot nozzlestable operation and
is continuously to make
reduced. harsh even at base-
However,
load jumps to idle possible,
load, the nozzle
this pilot so-called loadinrejections.
is kept operation to provide stable operation and to make harsh
load jumps to idle possible, the so-called load rejections.

Figure
Figure 2. Explosion view 2. Explosion
of the view ofView
dual-fuel burner. the dual-fuel burner.
on the outside View
of the oncap.
can theFour
outside of the can cap. Four main
main
Figure 2. Explosion view of the dual-fuel burner. View on the outside of the can cap. Four main
nozzles are connectednozzles
by a fuelaredivider and one
connected by apilot nozzle with
fuel divider two pilot
and one connectors
nozzleiswith
plugged in the
two connectors is plugged in the
nozzles are connected by a fuel divider and one pilot nozzle with two connectors is plugged in the
center. center.
center.

The main stage of The The

the
main main
liquid stage
fuel
stage of the
ofdesign
the liquid
is
liquid fuelfuel
also design
embedded
design is
in also
is also the embedded
swirler
embedded back inplate.
in the the swirler
swirler backback plate. It
plate.
comprises
It comprises fourItdecentralized four
comprises fourfluidicdecentralized
liquid-fuel
decentralized fluidic liquid-fuel
nozzles
fluidic nozzles
distributed
liquid-fuel distributed
evenly
nozzles evenly
on theevenly
distributed on the
cir- on the cir- circum-
ference
cumference at a defined
cumference atata adefined
radius. All main
defined radius.
stage All
radius. All main
main stage
liquid-fuel liquid-fuel
nozzles
stage nozzlesare
are connected
liquid-fuel nozzles arean
to connected
X-
connected totoananX-X-type
type fuel dividertype
andfuel divider
thus are and thus
collectively are collectively
controlled. controlled.
fuel divider and thus are collectively controlled.
TheThe
The liquid-fuel stages liquid-fuel
are described
liquid-fuel stages
stages and are described
are discussed
described and
in more
and discussed in following
detailininmore
discussed the more
detaildetail
in theinfollowing
the following
subsections. subsections.
subsections.

2.2.2.2.
2.2. Design of the Pilot Design
Stage
Design of Pilot
of the the Pilot
StageStage

A liquid pilot injectorA liquid

A liquid pilot injector
pilot injector
is installed at the is installed
is installed
centerline atof at
the the centerline
centerline
the combustor, of theofcombustor,
themounted
flush combustor,flush flush mounted
mounted
with
with
with the inner combustor thethe inner
inner
wall combustor
combustor
(swirler wall
wall
back (swirler
(swirler
plate); backplate);
back
upstream plate);
of the upstream
upstream
flame and ofofthe
the flame and
flame
down- and down-
downstream
of the
stream of air
stream of the combustion combustion
theswirler.
combustion air
The air swirler. The
swirler.situation
assembly assembly
The assembly situation is illustrated
situationinisFigure
is illustrated illustrated in Figure
3a inin Figure 3a in 3a in a
schematic
a schematicview. cross-sectional
cross-sectional view.
view.swirl It is a pressure
It is aatomizer
pressure swirl swirl atomizer
atomizer with lines sharing one one
two lines sharing
a schematic cross-sectional It is a pressure with two lines with
sharingtwoone
spill chamber.
spill chamber. spill chamber.

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure3. (a): Schematic
3. (a) Schematiccross-sectional view
cross-sectional of dual-fuel
view combustor,
of dual-fuel central
combustor, pilotpilot
central and one
andout
oneofout of four
Figure 3. (a): Schematic
four cross-sectional
main nozzles areview
in ofcutting
the dual-fuel combustor,
layer; β denotes central
the pilot
total and one out
characteristic of angle of the pilot
spray
main nozzles are in the cutting layer; β denotes the total characteristic spray angle of the pilot fuel
four main nozzles are
fuelin theψcutting
and denoteslayer; β denotes
the total the total
characteristic characteristic
spray angle of thespray
pilot angle of Detailed
fuel. (b) the pilot view of central
and ψ denotes the total characteristic spray angle of the pilot fuel. (b) Detailed view of central pilot
fuel and ψ denotespilot
the total
nozzle;characteristic
symbols ‘A’spray
denoteangle of the pilot
pre-swirler fuel.‘B’
plenum, (b)plate
Detailed view
cooling air of central‘C’ primary 2
plenum,
pilot nozzle; symbols nozzle;
‘A’ line,
denotesymbols ‘A’ denote pre-swirler plenum, ‘B’ plenum,
plate cooling air plenum, ‘C’ primary 2 liquid
liquid ‘D’ pre-swirler plenum,
primary 1 liquid line,‘B’
andplate cooling
γ denotes theair ‘C’ primary
swirling angle of the cap2 cooling air, re-
line,
liquid line, ‘D’ primary ‘D’ primary
1 liquid
spectively. 1 liquid
line, and line, the
γ denotes andswirling
γ denotes the swirling
angle of the capangle of the
cooling air,cap
re- cooling air, respectively.
spectively.
In Figure 3b, the two fuel-lines are marked as ‘C’ and ‘D’, respectively. Channel ‘C’
has a central axial swirler and line ‘D’ is equipped with a radial swirler. The radial swirler
is formed by tangential drills to the spill chamber. Both swirlers connect the two lines to
the same spill chamber. The joint swirling oil flow emanates into the combustion chamber
 In Figure 3b, the two fuel-lines are marked as ‘C’ and ‘D’, respectively. Channel ‘C’
has a central axial swirler and line ‘D’ is equipped with a radial swirler. The radial swirler
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 5 of 20
is formed by tangential drills to the spill chamber. Both swirlers connect the two lines to
the same spill chamber. The joint swirling oil flow emanates into the combustion chamber
and forms one single conical spray of liquid fuel inside the central recirculation region of
the combustor.
and forms one single conical spray of liquid fuel inside the central recirculation region of
The twotheliquid lines are needed to provide two different spray angles and flow num-
combustor.
bers. One is neededThe twofor ignition conditions
liquid lines and the
are needed toother
provideone two
for normal
different gasspray
turbine op- and flow
angles
eration. The spray resulting
numbers. from thefor
One is needed first one isconditions
ignition qualitatively and shown
the other in the picture
one of Fig-gas turbine
for normal
ure 4a andoperation.
is obtainedThe by operating with line
spray resulting from‘D’the
only. Here,
first one aislarger cone angle
qualitatively shownβ of in
ap-the picture
proximately 70° with a very fine spray is achieved at relatively low flow
of Figure 4a and is obtained by operating with line ‘D’ only. Here, a larger cone anglerates, represent-
ing ignition β flow
of approximately 70◦ with
conditions. During ramp up of
a very finethespray
gas turbine,
is achieved the second line ‘C’
at relatively lowisflow rates,
switched on representing
in additionignition flow
to line ‘D’. conditions.
This decreasesDuring
the sprayramp up of
angle β totheapproximately
gas turbine, the 44°second line
‘C’ isthe
and increases switched on in addition
flow number to line A
significantly. ‘D’. This decreases
qualitative picturetheof spray angle βangle
the spray to approximately
is
◦ and increases the flow number significantly. A qualitative picture of the spray angle is
44picture
given in the of Figure 4b. The increased flow number would allow for pilot only
operation at given in the picture
maximum pressure of conditions
Figure 4b. of The 65increased
bar(g) upflow to a number
certain loadwould allow
level. How-for pilot only
ever, usually the gas turbine is operated at maximum liquid pilot ratios (LPR) of 30–50% However,
operation at maximum pressure conditions of 65 bar(g) up to a certain load level.
even at lowusually the gas
part load turbine because
conditions is operated thisatismaximum
beneficialliquid
in terms pilotofratios (LPR) of 30–50%
soot emissions. At even at
low part load
high load conditions, theconditions because
pilot fuel flow this is beneficial
is minimized in orderintoterms
optimizeof soot
NOemissions.
X emissions. At high load
conditions,
The joint operation the pilot
mode fuel flow
provides is minimized
stability to the flame in order
at lowtopart
optimize NOX emissions.
load conditions and The joint
avoids any risk of wetting the wall of the combustion chamber thanks to the smaller sprayavoids any
operation mode provides stability to the flame at low part load conditions and
angle. risk of wetting the wall of the combustion chamber thanks to the smaller spray angle.

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Spray cone
Figure 4. angle
Sprayβcone
for (a) liquid
angle fuel
β for (a)operation onoperation
liquid fuel primary 1ononly at gas 1turbine
primary only atignition
gas turbine ignition
flow conditions and (b) liquid fuel operation on primary 1 and 2 at high pilot fuel flow
flow conditions and (b) liquid fuel operation on primary 1 and 2 at high pilot rate in fuel
qui- flow rate in
escent air. quiescent air.

The mountingThe position

mounting ofposition
the central pilot
of the lancepilot
central is particularly challenging
lance is particularly in terms in terms
challenging
of thermal of
loading.
thermal This is because
loading. Thisofisthe hot combustion
because of the hotproducts
combustion thatproducts
are forcedthatby the
are forced by
central recirculation zone of the combustor directly towards the nozzle position.
the central recirculation zone of the combustor directly towards the nozzle position. This This chal-
lenge is addressed
challengewith special cooling
is addressed with specialmeasures.
cooling Therefore,
measures.compressor air is extracted
Therefore, compressor air is extracted
directly upstream
directly of the main
upstream ofswirler
the main at swirler
the burnerat theplenum
burner‘A’. It is supplied
plenum to plenum
‘A’. It is supplied to plenum ‘B’
‘B’ where itwhere
is used
it istoused
coolto the central
cool nozzlenozzle
the central and the and surrounding
the surroundingplate.plate.
This cooling air air feeds
This cooling
feeds a small radial
a small air swirler
radial that that
air swirler is illustrated in Figure
is illustrated 3b. Subsequently,
in Figure 3b. Subsequently, thethe
air air
cools
cools the cap
of the
the cap of the nozzle
nozzle from
from thethe inside
inside andand emanates
emanates fromthe
from thenozzle
nozzlewithwithaaswirling
swirlingangle
angle of γ. This
anglehelps
of γ. This angle helpsto toshield
shieldthethecap
capfrom
fromthe thehot
hotflow
flowinside
inside the
the combustor.
combustor.
Additionally,
Additionally, the coolingthe aircooling
of the cap air supports
of the capthe supports the atomization
atomization of the liquidof fuel
the liquid
at fuel at
very small very
masssmall
flows.mass Thisflows. This is illustrated
is illustrated in Figure 5,inwhichFigureshows
5, which shows
a case a case
without without cooling
cooling
air (Figure air
5a)(Figure
and a case 5a) and
withacooling
case with aircooling
(Figureair5b)(Figure
for very 5b)
lowforliquid-fuel
very low liquid-fuel
mass flowsmass flows
representingrepresenting
the low pilot the mass
low pilot
flowmassat baseflow at base
load load conditions.
conditions. Without coolingWithout air,cooling
the air, the
small supply pressure is not sufficient for good atomization because velocities in the spillin the spill
small supply pressure is not sufficient for good atomization because velocities
chamber are chamber
too small aretotooformsmall to form
a proper conea proper coneDue
at the exit. at the exit.additional
to the Due to the additional
cooling air cooling
air that interacts with the liquid fuel at the exit of the lance (see Figure 3b), a sufficient
atomization and the formation of a proper cone is established. This is qualitatively shown
in the picture of Figure 5b.
uids 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 21

Fluids 2021, 6, 129 that interacts with the liquid fuel at the exit of the lance (see Figure 3b), a sufficient atom- 6 of 20
ization and the formation of a proper cone is established. This is qualitatively shown in
the picture of Figure 5b.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Spray cone
Figure 5. angle
Sprayβcone
for liquid
angle fuel
β foroperation onoperation
liquid fuel primary 1onand 2, without
primary (a)2,and
1 and with (a)
without (b) and with (b)
co-flowing of shielding air at very low pilot fuel flow rate in quiescent air.
co-flowing of shielding air at very low pilot fuel flow rate in quiescent air.

Prior to fullPrior to full gas

gas turbine turbine
testing, testing, the
the ignition ignition
window window
of the of the
pilot lance haspilot
beenlance
as- has been
sessed by means of atmospheric combustion tests. The cone angle and flow number of line number of
assessed by means of atmospheric combustion tests. The cone angle and flow
‘D’ has beenlineoptimized
‘D’ has been optimized
to achieve to achievelarge
a sufficient a sufficient
ignitionlarge ignition
window. window. Additionally,
Additionally, the the
nozzle has nozzle has been thermally
been thermally analyzed analyzed and the analytic
and the analytic thermalthermal
model model
has beenhasvalidated
been validated with
extensive
with extensive thermocouple
thermocouple measurements.
measurements. The temperatures
The temperatures areenough
are low low enough to ensure high
to ensure
component
high component lifetimes.
lifetimes. Moreover,
Moreover, the temperatures
the temperatures in theinliquid-fuel
the liquid-fuel channels
channels are sufficiently
are suf-
low to avoid coking of remnants of liquid fuel in the channels when
ficiently low to avoid coking of remnants of liquid fuel in the channels when the liquid- the liquid-fuel supply
is stopped and the combustor is operated in fuel-gas
fuel supply is stopped and the combustor is operated in fuel-gas mode. mode.

3. Main Stage 3. Main StageDesign

Injectors Injectors Design
3.1. Requirements for the Main Liquid-Fuel Stage
3.1. Requirements for the Main Liquid-Fuel Stage
The pilot stage described so far has been designed to enable ignition on liquid fuels,
The pilot stage described so far has been designed to enable ignition on liquid fuels,
and is very effective in stabilizing the flame from idle up to any load. This very robust
and is very effective in stabilizing the flame from idle up to any load. This very robust
combustion behavior originates from the direct injection of the pilot fuel into the reaction
combustionzone, behavior originates
creating a very from the directflame
hot diffusion injection
at theof center
the pilot of fuel into the reaction
the combustion chamber. This
zone, creating a very hot
robustness comes diffusion flameofata NO
at the price the center of the combustion chamber. This
X penalty associated with locally high temperatures.
robustness comes Toat the price
enable of a NOliquid-fuel
the overall X penalty associated with locally high temperatures.
system to operate at a globally low emission level, a
To enable
main liquid stage is integrated intotothe
the overall liquid-fuel system operate
burner. at From
a globally low emission
idle load of the gaslevel, a onwards,
turbine
main liquidthe stage is integrated into the burner. From idle load of the gas turbine
majority of the liquid-fuel flow is injected from there. The primary function of the main onwards,
the majority of the
liquid liquid-fuel
fuel stage is toflow is injected
provide from there.
an injection strategy The primary
that will leadfunction of the fuel–air
to an effective
main liquidmixing
fuel stage
at theis to provide
global and an injection
local strategy
scales prior thatflame
to the will lead
front. to an effective fuel–
air mixing at theGood global and local scales prior to the flame front.
mixing quality of the liquid fuel with the incoming air requires a good penetra-
Good tion
mixing quality
of the liquid ofinto
the the
liquidair fuel
streamwithto the incoming
ensure a rather airuniform
requiresfuel–air
a good ratiopene-at the large
tration of the liquid into the air stream to ensure a rather uniform
scales. Liquid jets, often in the form of plain jets, are thus often employed fuel–air ratio at the large
in liquid fuel
scales. Liquid jets, often in the form of plain jets, are thus often employed
systems, due to their high-momentum, penetration capacity and ease of implementation in liquid fuel
systems, due to [9]).
(e.g., theirExcessive
high-momentum,penetration penetration capacitybe
should, however, and ease oftoimplementation
avoided prevent the risk of burner
(e.g., [9]). Excessive penetration
walls wetting, whichshould,
could lead however,
to local be thermal
avoidedstresses,
to prevent orthe risk of reactions,
localized burner as well
walls wetting, which could
as material lead to local
overheating. thermalmixing
To achieve stresses, at or
thelocalized
small scales,reactions, as well as
atomization of the liquid
material overheating. To achieve
stream is required. Themixing
generationat the
and small scales, atomization
distribution of droplets of the liquid
enhances the local fuel
stream is required. The generation and distribution of droplets enhances
placement and further fuel–air uniformity prior to the heat release zone. Additionally, the the local fuel
placement formation
and furtheroffuel–air
smalleruniformity
droplets leads priortotoantheincreased
heat release zone.toAdditionally,
surface volume ratiothe of the liquid,
formation of smaller
thereby droplets leads
improving the heat to an increased
transfer to the surface
liquidto volume
and ratio of the
its subsequent liquid,
evaporation. In the
thereby improving
case of athe heatjet,
liquid transfer to the liquid
the process and its subsequent
of atomization is triggered evaporation.
by the shear In exerted
the at the
interface
case of a liquid between
jet, the process the
of liquid column
atomization is and the surrounding
triggered by the shearairflow.exertedTherefore,
at the in- high fuel
jet velocities
terface between the liquid andcolumn
crossflow andintensity promote the
the surrounding break-up
airflow. processhigh
Therefore, andfuelthe generation
jet of
smaller droplets. The proper design and placement
velocities and crossflow intensity promote the break-up process and the generation of of the main stage injectors is therefore
critical to the performance of the liquid fuel combustion system.

3.2. Investigations of Fluidic Oscillators

In order to tackle the requirements presented in the previous section, fluidic oscillators
have been adopted to serve as main fuel nozzles. This development has been a joint project
 smaller
smaller droplets.
droplets. The proper
The proper design
design and placement
and placement ofmain
of the the main
stagestage injectors
injectors is therefore
is therefore
critical to the performance of the liquid fuel combustion
critical to the performance of the liquid fuel combustion system.system.

3.2. 3.2.
Fluids Investigations
2021, 6, 129
Investigations of Fluidic
of Fluidic Oscillators
Oscillators 7 of 20

In order
In order to tackle
to tackle the requirements
the requirements presented
presented in theinprevious
the previous section,
section, fluidicfluidic oscilla-
oscilla-
tors have been adopted to serve as main fuel nozzles. This
tors have been adopted to serve as main fuel nozzles. This development has been a joint development has been a joint
project by MAN
project by MAN and FDX. FDX byand FDX. FDX conducted
conducted
MAN and the
theFDX. measurements
measurements
FDX conducted presented
presented in this Section
3.2 3.2 in this Section 3.2 about
in this Section presented
the measurements
about the investigations
about the investigations of fluidic of fluidic oscillators.
theoscillators.
investigations of fluidic oscillators.
The The
workingworking principle
principle of these
of these The injectors
working
injectors relies
principle
relies on theon the generation
of generation
these injectors of
of areliesa on
two-dimen-
two-dimen-the generation of a two-dimensional,
sional,
sional, high-frequency
high-frequency oscillating
oscillating jet asjet
high-frequencyasliquid
the the oscillating
liquid
streamstream passes
jet as
passes the through
liquid
through the passes
stream
the nozzle,nozzle,
form- form- the nozzle, forming a thin
through
ing a thin liquid sheet as it is discharged init the
is combustor.
discharged inFigure
the 6 visualizes
combustor. the
Figure droplet
ing a thin liquid sheet as it is discharged in the combustor. Figure 6 visualizes the dropletvisualizes the droplet generation
liquid sheet as 6
generation
generation in the inspray
the spray
sheetsheet
of in
theof
thethe fluidic
spray
fluidic with
sheet
with anof an
theinstantaneous
fluidic with
instantaneous high-speed
an
high-speed photo
instantaneous
photo in the in the
high-speed photo in the vicinity
vicinity of the nozzle exit.
vicinity of the nozzle exit. The photo The photo
of thereveals reveals
nozzlethat that
exit.theThe the jet
jetphoto break
breakreveals up happens
that the
up happens extremely
jet break
extremely upclose
close happens extremely close to the
to theto nozzle
the nozzle exit. exit.
This This is anozzle
consequence
is a consequence exit.ofThis
theofisshear
the shear
a consequence
forcesforces ofintroduced
the shear
introduced by the by flipping
forcestheintroduced
flipping by the flipping motion of
motionmotion
of theofjet.
the jet. the jet.

Figure
Figure 6. Instantaneous
6. Instantaneous high-speed
high-speed photophoto of fluidic
ofInstantaneous
fluidic atomizer
atomizer spray.
spray. Photo Photo indicates
indicates flapping
flapping mo- mo-
Figure 6. high-speed photo of fluidic atomizer spray. Photo indicates flapping motion
tion
tion of theoffluid
the fluid generated
generated by unsteady
by unsteady oscillation
oscillation induced
induced by byfluidic
the the fluidic
innerinner geometry.
geometry.
of the fluid generated by unsteady oscillation induced by the fluidic inner geometry.

An exemplary
An exemplary mean mean
liquid liquid
sheet sheet
An formed formed
exemplaryby theby theliquid
oscillating
oscillating
mean jet isjet
sheet is illustrated
illustrated
formed in Figure jet is illustrated in Figure 7.
in Figure
by the oscillating
7. There, the intensity
7. There, the intensity of the spray of the spray
There,isthe is visualized
visualized
intensityby by post-processing
post-processing
of the spray is visualized and
and analyzing analyzingthe the and analyzing the bright-
by post-processing
brightness of spray images,
brightness of spray images, indicating indicating the distribution
the distribution
ness of spray of the
of the density
images, indicating density downstream
downstream
the distribution of the anof an downstream of an injector.
of density
injector. In the present
injector. In the present case, dieselcase, diesel
In the is
present
is used used as working
case, diesel
as working medium
is used
medium and and
asinjectedinjected
workinginto into
medium a
a quies- quies-
and injected into a quiescent en-
cent environment. For
cent environment. For the injector the injector
vironment. analyzed
analyzedFor in Figure
the injector
in Figure 7, the
7, the analyzed liquid
liquid jet forms jet forms
in Figurea sheeta sheet
7, the
with with jet forms a sheet with an
liquid
an opening
an opening angleangle
betweenbetween approximately
opening angle
approximately 30° and The
between
30° and 40°. 40°. The fuel
approximately
fuel dispersion
dispersion ◦
30 isandnotis40not. perfectly
◦ The fuel dispersion is not perfectly
perfectly
homogeneous across the spray angle, as indicated by the red color in Figure 7. ThisThis
homogeneous across the spray angle,
homogeneous as indicated
across the by the
spray red
angle, color
as in Figure
indicated 7.
by the is color in Figure 7. This is
is red
particularly observed
particularly observed in the close in the close proximity
particularly
proximityobserved of the injector
in the nozzle.
of the injector nozzle.
close proximity Ten
Ten nozzle nozzle
of the diameters
injector nozzle. Ten nozzle diameters
diameters
downstream
downstream of theof injector,
the injector,however,however,
downstream the
the mass of mass
the
flow flow
injector,
in theinhowever,
the liquid
liquid the
sheet sheet
ismass is flow
more more inevenly
evenly the liquid sheet is more evenly
distributed. This initial inhomogeneous
distributed. This initial inhomogeneous distributed. distribution
This initial
distribution can can be
inhomogeneous beneficial
be beneficial for for the
distribution penetration
the penetration can be beneficial for the penetration
of liquid
of the the liquid jet into
jet into the swirling
the swirling of air. air. Further
the liquid
Further intodownstream,
jetdownstream,
the swirling
a smallaair.
small deficit
Further
deficit of flow
of downstream,
flow in the in the
a small deficit of flow in the
center is observed due to the turning
center is points
observed of
duethe oscillating
to the turning
center is observed due to the turning points of the oscillating jet at the edge of the sheet jet at the
points edge
of the of the sheet
oscillating jet at the edge of the sheet
that feature more flow due to
that the extended
feature
that feature more flow due to the extended residence time. more residence
flow due time.
to the extended residence time.

Figure
Figure 7. Spray
7. Spray imageimage analysis,
analysis, highlighting
Figure
highlighting7. Spray the
the angleangle
image ofspray
the spray
analysis,
of the (dotted
lines)lines)
highlighting
(dotted the andfuel
andangle
the thethe
of fuel flow(dotted lines) and the fuel flow
spray
flow
density (brightness is connected to
density (brightness is connected to density local
local mass mass flow
(brightness rate intensity—red
flow rateisintensity—red
connected to =local = high;
high;mass yellow
flow
yellow = medium;
rate intensity—red = high; yellow = medium;
= medium;
greengreen = low).
= low). MassMass
flow flow distribution
distribution =islow).
retrieved
is retrieved
green fromfrom
Mass flow spray
spray photophoto
light light
distribution is intensity.
intensity.
retrieved from spray photo light intensity.

The oscillating jet generated at the exit of the nozzle finds its origins in the flow
dynamics inside the fluidic oscillators [20]. The internal design promotes a natural and
controlled flow instability, which forces the liquid jet to flip between two symmetric states
within a two-dimensional plane. This upstream periodic motion translates into a controlled
downstream oscillation of the jet. The internal fluid flow instability is promoted by two
 The oscillating jet generated at the exit of the nozzle finds its origins in the flow
dynamics inside the fluidic oscillators [20]. The internal design promotes a natural and
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 controlled flow instability, which forces the liquid jet to flip between two symmetric states 8 of 20
within a two-dimensional plane. This upstream periodic motion translates into a
controlled downstream oscillation of the jet. The internal fluid flow instability is promoted
by two feedback channels and the Coandă effect. Thus, the unsteadiness does not require
feedbackparts
moving channels and the
to achieve Coandă
this effect. Thus,
downstream the unsteadiness
flow behavior. The liquid does jetnot require moving
emanating from
parts to achieve this downstream flow behavior. The liquid
the injector leads to a good penetration of the liquid flow into the airflow while jet emanating from the injector
the
leads to aoscillations
periodic good penetration
of the jetofprovide
the liquid flow into
a spatial the airflow
distribution ofwhile
the fuel theover
periodic
a cycleoscillations
and an
of thejet
early jetbreak-up.
provide a spatial distribution of the fuel over a cycle and an early jet break-up.
The injection velocity,
The injection velocity,increased
increasedbyby thethe
lateral
lateralmotion induced
motion by this
induced byunsteady
this unsteadymotion,
leads to leads
motion, high levels
to high oflevels
shear ofstress
shearalong
stressthealong
interface of the liquid
the interface of thestream,
liquidthereby
stream, leading
therebyto
the rapid formation of small liquid fuel droplets. Exemplary size
leading to the rapid formation of small liquid fuel droplets. Exemplary size assessments assessments from a fluidic
oscillator tested during the development of the main injectors
from a fluidic oscillator tested during the development of the main injectors is providedis provided in Figure 8. The
measurement position with respect to the nozzle exit is indicated
in Figure 8. The measurement position with respect to the nozzle exit is indicated in Figurein Figure 8a. The analyses
were
8a. conducted
The 5 cm downstream
analyses were conducted 5 cm of the nozzle exitofatthe
downstream thenozzle
centerexitof the diesel
at the spray
center of sheet.
the
diesel spray sheet. The distance has been chosen with respect to the swirler height of thethe
The distance has been chosen with respect to the swirler height of the combustor. Since
mass flow rate
combustor. Sincedensity
the massdiffers
flowin flow
rate oscillation
density differsdirection (see Figure
in flow oscillation 7) the measurement
direction (see Figure
results
7) depend on the
the measurement measurement
results depend onposition. However, position.
the measurement we expect qualitatively
However, similar
we expect
results for the center and edge of the spray. A far field microscope
qualitatively similar results for the center and edge of the spray. A far field microscope has been used for the
measurement, covering an area of 4.3 mm times 3.3 mm. Figure
has been used for the measurement, covering an area of 4.3 mm times 3.3 mm. Figure 8b 8b illustrates the droplet
size distribution
illustrates in terms
the droplet of a probability
size distribution in terms density function (PDF)
of a probability density forfunction
a feed pressure
(PDF) forof
5 bar(g). The mean droplet size is 102 µm, while the Sauter
a feed pressure of 5 bar(g). The mean droplet size is 102 µ m, while the Sauter
mean diameter (D 32 or SMD)
mean
is
at 185 µm. The PDF is distributed broadly and the droplets sizes
diameter (D32 or SMD) is at 185 µ m. The PDF is distributed broadly and the droplets sizes are in the range of 40 µm
to 200 µm. Figure 8c shows the PDF for a feed pressure of 10 bar(g) at the center of the
are in the range of 40 µ m to 200 µ m. Figure 8c shows the PDF for a feed pressure of 10
spray sheet.
bar(g) Here, the
at the center droplets
of the spray are smaller
sheet. Here,with a mean droplet
the droplets are smallersize of
with92 aµm,
mean anddroplet
a Sauter
mean diameter of 148 µm. With increasing pressure, the PDF becomes sharper. This is also
size of 92 µ m, and a Sauter mean diameter of 148 µ m. With increasing pressure, the PDF
valid for a pressure of 15 bar(g) that is depicted in Figure 8d. Here, the mean diameter is
becomes sharper. This is also valid for a pressure of 15 bar(g) that is depicted in Figure
almost unchanged with 91 µm compared to 10 bar(g). However, the Sauter mean diameter
8d. Here, the mean diameter is almost unchanged with 91 µ m compared to 10 bar(g).
is significantly smaller with 134 µm.
However, the Sauter mean diameter is significantly smaller with 134 µ m.

(a)

(b) (c) (d)

Figure
Figure8.8.Droplet
Dropletsizing
sizingofofa aprototype
prototypepre-design fluidic
pre-design injector
fluidic operated
injector operated with Diesel
with No.2
Diesel at (b)
No.2 at (b)
55 bar(g), (c) 10 bar(g), and (d) 15 bar(g) feed pressure in quiescent air, (a) gives an overview of
bar(g), (c) 10 bar(g), and (d) 15 bar(g) feed pressure in quiescent air, (a) gives an overview of the the
measurement position indicated with letter m with respect to the nozzle exit, (b -d) show droplet
measurement position indicated with letter m with respect to the nozzle exit, (b -d) show droplet
diameter distribution at measurement position m in terms of a probability density function (PDF).
diameter distribution at measurement position m in terms of a probability density function (PDF).

As mentioned earlier, the atomization quality depends strongly on the momentum

of the liquid jet as it is injected, and depends therefore on the fuel mass flow and, at a
system level, on the gas turbine relative load. At higher loads, where the fuel flow and the
combustor firing temperature are higher, the quality of the droplets becomes more critical to
the performance of the combustor. Here, NOx emissions rise exponentially with the flame
 As mentioned earlier, the atomization quality depends strongly on the momentum
of the liquid jet as it is injected, and depends therefore on the fuel mass flow and, at a
system level, on the gas turbine relative load. At higher loads, where the fuel flow and the
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 9 of 20
combustor firing temperature are higher, the quality of the droplets becomes more critical
to the performance of the combustor. Here, NOx emissions rise exponentially with the
flame temperature, which increases the importance of the mixing quality of fuel and air.
However, it is notwhich
temperature, clear increases
whether achieving
the importance extremely
of thesmall
mixing droplets
qualityisofbeneficial,
fuel and air. since the
However,
spray needs to penetrate sufficiently into the air flow to achieve
it is not clear whether achieving extremely small droplets is beneficial, since the spray an efficient large-scale
spatial
needsmixing. Besides sufficiently
to penetrate penetration,into it isthe
moreairimportant for gasan
flow to achieve turbine combustor
efficient large-scale appli-
spatial
cations that Besides
mixing. a significant atomization
penetration, is achieved
it is more important at lower
for gasoperating pressures applications
turbine combustor already.
Figurethat9ashows the evolution
significant atomization of the Sauter mean
is achieved diameter
at lower (SMD)pressures
operating of the droplets
already. down-
Figure 9
streamshows the evolution of the Sauter mean diameter (SMD) of the droplets downstream as
of the injector as a function of the required feed pressure. The SMD is defined of the
the diameter
injector asofa afunction
dropletof having the same
the required volume
feed to surface
pressure. The SMD ratio as the entire
is defined as thespray [1], of
diameter
it is acommonly
droplet having used the
in combustion
same volume investigations
to surface ratio for the characterization
as the entire spray [1], of sprays. The
it is commonly
markers
used in in Figure
combustion9 represent the singlefor
investigations measurement points obtained
the characterization of sprays.at measurement
The markers in
position
Figure‘m’ 9 (see, Figure
represent the8a) and the
single curve showspoints
measurement a simple correlation
obtained based on theposition
at measurement square ‘m’
root(see,
of the feed 8a)
Figure pressure
and the of curve
the form shows a simple correlation based on the square root of the
feed pressure of the form
𝑆𝑀𝐷 = +δ 𝑐, (1)
SMD =√ √ + c, (1)
p
where δ and c denote constants and p the feed pressure of the nozzle, respectively. In this
case,where
δ is 272δ andµmc (bar) and c is 63
−0.5 constants
denote andµm. As feed
p the expected,
pressure the of
atomization
the nozzle,quality increases
respectively. In this
withcase,
increasing
δ is 272nozzle
µm (bar) −0.5 andlikely
pressure, c is 63saturating at a SMD
µm. As expected, thelevel of approximately
atomization 100
quality increases
µm.with increasing
However, nozzlebepressure,
it should emphasized likelythat
saturating
these data SMDonly
at agive levela of approximately
qualitative insight 100toµm.
the However, it should be
spray characteristics ofemphasized
fluidic atomizers that these dataofgive
because the only a qualitative
limitation insight to the
of the conducted
spray
droplet characteristics
measurement of fluidic
study. atomizersitbecause
Nevertheless, of theaslimitation
is clear that, of the operating
the gas turbine conductedload droplet
measurement
increases and thereby study.
theNevertheless,
fuel flow and it feed
is clear that, as the atomization
pressure, gas turbine operating
quality ofloadthe increases
main
stage and therebytoo.
increases, the fuel flow and feed pressure, the atomization quality of the main stage
increases, too.

Figure 9. Dependency
Figure 9. Dependencyof the
of Sauter mean
the Sauter diameter
mean diameter (SMD) particle
(SMD) sizesize
particle on the fuelfuel
on the pressure drop
pressure drop for
for the
thefluidic
fluidicinjector.
injector. Measurement
Measurement position
position is
is indicated
indicated in
in Figure
Figure 8a
8a with
with ‘m’.
‘m’.

Fluidic
Fluidic oscillators
oscillators are thus
are thus veryvery robust
robust approaches
approaches to generating
to generating high-velocity
high-velocity liquid
liquid
fuelfuel sheets,
sheets, andand therefore
therefore feature
feature efficient
efficient liquid-fuel
liquid-fuel atomizers.
atomizers. TheirTheir
use use in liquid-fuel
in liquid-fuel
combustion
combustion systems
systems has been
has long long considered.
been considered. Theintegration
The actual actual integration into liquid
into the MGT the MGT
liquid fuel combustion hardware is, to the best of the authors’ knowledge,
fuel combustion hardware is, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, the first actual imple- the first actual
implementation
mentation of fluidic of fluidicinnozzles
nozzles in the combustion
the combustion chamber of chamber of an industrial
an industrial product. product.
Practically,
Practically, fourfour single
single nozzles
nozzles are are
used used for the
for the main main stage
stage of the
of the current
current liquid-fuel
liquid-fuel
combustion
combustion system.
system. In order
In order to maximize
to maximize the the evaporation
evaporation andand mixing
mixing timetime of the
of the mainmain
liquid-fuel,
liquid-fuel, thesethese injectors
injectors are located
are located in the
in the burner
burner just just downstream
downstream of the
of the vanesvanes of the
of the
radial
radial swirler,
swirler, as depicted
as depicted in in Figure
Figure 3a.3a.An
AnX-type
X-typefuel
fueldivider
divider is
is used
used to
to distribute
distributethethefuel
to the four injectors. In this way, a minimal number of screw connections are required for
the assembly of the main stage parts, therefore reducing the risk of fuel leakage.

3.3. Integration of the Fluidic Injectors in the Main Stage of the Combustor
The integration of the fluidic nozzles into the combustion chamber brings additional
complexity on the design and utilization of the injectors: The impact of the surrounding
 fuel to the four injectors. In this way, a minimal number of screw connections are required
for the assembly of the main stage parts, therefore reducing the risk of fuel leakage.

3.3. Integration of the Fluidic Injectors in the Main Stage of the Combustor
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 10 of 20
The integration of the fluidic nozzles into the combustion chamber brings additional
complexity on the design and utilization of the injectors: The impact of the surrounding
airflow on the injection characteristics and the influence of the spray-to-spray proximity
needs to be assessed. airflow on the injection characteristics and the influence of the spray-to-spray proximity
As already indicated needs
in Figuresto be3a,
assessed.
6, and 7, a single fluidic injector generates a sheet
As already
of liquid spray forming an opening angle Ψ. indicated
Since theininjectors
Figures are3a, flush
6 andmounted,
7, a singledirectly
fluidic injector generates a sheet
liquid spray forming an opening angle Ψ.
downstream of the vanes, the airflow, emanating from the swirler vanes, directly affectare flush mounted, directly
of Since the injectors
the liquid-fuel spray as it downstream
is dischargedofinthe thevanes,
burner.theThe
airflow, emanating
interaction from athe
between swirler vanes, directly affect the
gaseous
jet emanating from a fluidic liquid-fuel
injector and spray as it is discharged
air crossflows has beenininvestigated,
the burner. The interaction between a gaseous jet
for instance,
emanating from a fluidic injector and air crossflows
by Ostermann et al. [31]. In their study, the oscillation plane is oriented perpendicularly has been investigated, for instance, by
Ostermann et al. [31]. In their study, the oscillation
to the crossflow, and they showed that the coherent structures generated by the interac- plane is oriented perpendicularly to the
tion of the crossflow and the fluidic sheet is significantly different from that of a steady by the interaction of the
crossflow, and they showed that the coherent structures generated
jet. In another recent study crossflow
of the sameand the fluidic sheet
researchers [29],isthe
significantly
effects of different from that
the orientation of of a steady jet. In another
recent study of the same researchers [29], the effects
the fluidic relative to the crossflow has been investigated for a specific fluidic operating of the orientation of the fluidic relative
to the crossflow has been investigated for a specific fluidic operating with gaseous fluids.
with gaseous fluids. Ostermann et al. claim that the fluidic jet exhibits flow structures
Ostermann et al. claim that the fluidic jet exhibits flow structures similar to a steady jet if
similar to a steady jet if the fluidic is oscillating in line with the crossflow direction. During
the fluidic is oscillating in line with the crossflow direction. During the development of the
the development of the combustion system presented here, two different orientations of
combustion system presented here, two different orientations of the nozzle sheets were
the nozzle sheets were tested in the high-pressure tests. Figure 10 illustrates the two dif-
tested in the high-pressure tests. Figure 10 illustrates the two different orientations of the
ferent orientations of the spray sheet with respect to the swirling crossflow. This figure
spray sheet with respect to the swirling crossflow. This figure shows the CFD calculated
shows the CFD calculated steady flow field in the main air swirler. Additionally, a sheet
steady flow field in the main air swirler. Additionally, a sheet that is perpendicular to the
that is perpendicular to the crossflow emanating from the swirler vanes is indicated with
crossflow emanating from the swirler vanes is indicated with the letter ξ1. Moreover, an
the letter ξ1. Moreover, an oscillation that happens in line with the local flow path is
oscillation that happens in line with the local flow path is marked with the letter ξ2. In
marked with the letter ξ2. In the latter case, the nozzle was tangentially aligned to the
the latter case, the nozzle was tangentially aligned to the specific circle at the mounting
specific circle at the mounting position, while in the former case, the oscillation sheet was
position, while in the former case, the oscillation sheet was oriented perpendicularly to
oriented perpendicularly to thethejetjet emanatingfrom
emanating fromthetheswirler
swirlerchannel.
channel. As As described
described in in aa later section in detail, a
later section in detail, a perpendicular orientation is found to be significantly more advan-
perpendicular orientation is found to be significantly more advantageous to the combustor
tageous to the combustor performance
performance in in terms
terms of of NO
NOX emissions. This is attributed to the
X emissions. This is attributed to the improved mixing of spray
improved mixing of sprayand andcombustion
combustionair. air.

Figure 10. Mean flow field ofFigure

combustion air inflow
10. Mean swirler
fieldatofmedium height
combustion airofinthe swirler
swirler atchannel.
medium height of the swirler channel.
Position ξ1 marks a perpendicular orientation of the spray sheet to the airflow and position
Position ξ1 marks a perpendicular orientation of the spray sheet ξ2 to the airflow and position ξ2
indicates an oscillation inlineindicates
to the crossflow. Radii r1 and r2 indicate two different radial posi-
an oscillation inline to the crossflow. Radii r1 and r2 indicate two different radial positions
tions investigated.
investigated.

The integration of the four Thenozzles in theofsingle

integration main
the four stageinalso
nozzles carriesmain
the single the uncer-
stage also carries the uncertainty
tainty of the potential interaction between neighboring sprays and the fuel distribution
of the potential interaction between neighboring sprays and the fuel distribution across
across injectors from the X-divider. An imaging
injectors from of the very
the X-divider. fine spray
An imaging obtained
of the with
very fine water
spray obtained with water flowing
flowing of the complete main
of thestage assembly
complete maininto quiescent
stage assemblyairinto
is provided
quiescent inairFigure 11. in Figure 11. The water
is provided
The water flow rate is representative
flow rate isofrepresentative
base load operation
of baseofload
the gas turbine.
operation ofEach nozzle
the gas turbine. Each nozzle forms a
thin sheet of fine spray, exhibiting a homogeneity and spray characteristics similar to those
observed during single nozzle flow tests. Furthermore, it can be seen from the flow test of
the assembly in quiescent air that, over a distance larger than the swirler height, there is no
spatial spray-to-spray interaction between the four single spray sheets.
, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

forms a thin sheet of fine spray, exhibiting a homogeneity and spray characteristics similar
Fluids 2021, 6,to
129those observed during single nozzle flow tests. Furthermore, it can be seen from the 11 of 20
flow test of the assembly in quiescent air that, over a distance larger than the swirler
height, there is no spatial spray-to-spray interaction between the four single spray sheets.

Figure 11. Photo of base load11.

Figure fuel flowof
Photo forbase
fourload
main nozzles
fuel operated
flow for in parallel
four main nozzlesinoperated
one combus-
in parallel in one combustor.
tor. Water is used as medium in quiescent
Water is used air. in quiescent air.
as medium

3.4. Main
3.4. Main Stages Nozzles withoutStages Nozzles
Liquid without Liquid Fuel Flow
Fuel Flow
Most dual-fuel gas Most dual-fuel
turbines gas turbines
are mainly operated are
onmainly
gaseous operated
fuels and onswitchover
gaseous fuels to and switchover to
a backup liquid fuel operation is seldom performed. One of the major challenges in the challenges in the
a backup liquid fuel operation is seldom performed. One of the major
design and operation design and operation
of a dual-fuel systemof for
a dual-fuel
gas turbine system for gas turbine
combustors combustors
is to prevent cokingis to prevent coking
of the nozzles while those are not in liquid fuel
of the nozzles while those are not in liquid fuel operation. Coke deposits can obstruct operation. Coke deposits can obstruct
partially or completely the passages for the oil flow,
partially or completely the passages for the oil flow, leading to a fuel flow imbalance leading to a fuel flow imbalance across
across the injectors of a can and between the different cans of the turbine. Consequently, Consequently, an
the injectors of a can and between the different cans of the turbine.
increase in pollutant formation, an increase in fuel oil pressure requirements beyond the
an increase in pollutant formation, an increase in fuel oil pressure requirements beyond
oil pump capacity, and an overall lack of reliability and performance of the turbine can
the oil pump capacity, and an overall lack of reliability and performance of the turbine
be expected. Coking can be attributed to different formation mechanisms, as described
can be expected. Coking can be attributed to different formation mechanisms, as described
for instance in Brandauer et al. [32] as well as Chin and Lefebvre [33]. The coking risk
for instance in Brandauer et al. [32] as well as Chin and Lefebvre [33]. The coking risk
particularly relevant to gas turbine conditions manifests itself after switch-off of the liquid
particularly relevant to gas turbine conditions manifests itself after switch-off of the liquid
fuel flow. Residual films of liquid fuel remain within the passages and channels of the liquid
fuel flow. Residual films of liquid fuel remain within the passages and channels of the
fuel system. The injectors, integrated within the burner, reach temperatures approaching
liquid fuel system. The injectors, integrated within the burner, reach temperatures ap-
the compressor exit temperature. Furthermore, after shutting down the liquid fuel flow,
proaching the compressor exit temperature. Furthermore, after shutting down the liquid
hot air encounters the liquid films, leading to the quick coke formation reaction between
fuel flow, hot air encounters the liquid films, leading to the quick coke formation reaction
the liquid fuel and the oxygen of the air.
between the liquid fuel and the oxygen of the air.
As a part of the design and integration of the nozzles in the dual-fuel system, a nozzle
As a part of thepurging
design andand integration of theisnozzles
cooling strategy required into
the dual-fuel
avoid coking system, a nozzlesuch strategies were
risks. Several
purging and cooling strategy is required to avoid coking risks. Several such strategies
tested during simplified, atmospheric lab tests. To carry the tests, each test nozzle was
were tested duringflowed
simplified,
with atmospheric
diesel no.2 and labthetests. To carry theflow
corresponding tests, each test
capacity wasnozzle
recorded. Following this
was flowed with diesel no.2 and the corresponding flow capacity was recorded. Following
first step, a specific purge strategy was conducted, followed by the placement of the test
this first step, a specific
nozzle purge
in anstrategy was conducted,
oven running at temperaturesfollowed by the placement
simulating the compressorof theexit conditions. The
test nozzle in an oven running at temperatures simulating the compressor exit conditions.
flow number was measured again at the end of these steps, to assess any decrease in flow
The flow number was measured
capacity, whichagain
wouldat the endinternal
reveal of thesecoking.
steps, to assess
These anywere
cycles decrease in several times for
repeated
flow capacity, which would reveal internal coking. These cycles were repeated several
each purge strategy, and the main outcome is provided in Table 1. Five-second pulses of air
times for each purge or strategy, and theto
water, intended main
flushoutcome
out any is provided
residual oil in
fromTable
the 1. Five-second
main stage, did not eliminate the
pulses of air or water, intended
coking risk oftothe
flush out any
nozzles. Evenresidual
complex oil from the main
transient purgingstage, did not were unsuccessful,
strategies
eliminate the coking andrisk of theoccurred
coking nozzles. after
Even 30 complex
to 40 testtransient
cycles.purging strategies
It was found, were that a continuous
however,
unsuccessful, and coking occurred after 30 to 40 test cycles. It was found, however,
purge of cooled compressor air in the fuel lines could successfully eliminate that a the coking
continuous purge of cooled compressor air in the fuel lines could successfully eliminate
risk. This approach was thus adopted for the engine operation, and its functionality was
the coking risk. This approach
verified wasextensive
during thus adopted for the
full engine engine operation, and its func-
tests.
tionality was verified during extensive full engine tests.
Table 1. Results of coking and purge strategy tests.

Purge Medium Purge Scheme Result

Water 2 bar pressure pulse for 5 s First coking after 40 runs
Air 2 bar pressure pulse for 5 s First coking after 30 runs
Air Continuous No coking, test aborted after 80 runs
 Table 1. Results of coking and purge strategy tests

Purge Medium Purge Scheme Result

Water 2 bar pressure pulse for 5 s First coking after 40 runs
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 Air 2 bar pressure pulse for 5 s First coking after 30 runs 12 of 20
Air Continuous No coking, test aborted after 80 runs

4. Validation
4. Validation
4.1. Experimental Facilities
4.1. Experimental Facilities
It has many advantages to conduct single can high-pressure tests at full power before
It has many advantages to conduct single can high-pressure tests at full power before
using components using
at full engine
components tests. Components
at full engine can be extensively
tests. Components testedcanwithout com-
be extensively tested without
promising effects from other gas turbine components. The impact of different
compromising effects from other gas turbine components. The impact of different envi- environ-
mental boundary conditions
ronmentallike ambientconditions
boundary temperature likeand altitude
ambient on the compressor
temperature and altitudeexit on the compressor
conditions and, thus,exitthe combustor
conditions and,inlet conditions
thus, can be inlet
the combustor conveniently
conditions simulated. The
can be conveniently simulated.
tests were conducted at the facilities of the DLR Institute of Propulsion
The tests were conducted at the facilities of the DLR Institute of Propulsion Technology in Technology in
Cologne where inlet air mass
Cologne flow,inlet
where temperature,
air mass flow, andtemperature,
pressure canand be adjusted
pressureseparately
can be adjusted separately in
in wide ranges without significant restrictions. The serial gas turbine
wide ranges without significant restrictions. The serial gas turbine combustor compo-
combustor components
nents can be testedcanwithout special adaption. Custom MAN designs
be tested without special adaption. Custom MAN designs are used are used for the con- for the connection
nection of the singleof can
the to the DLR
single can to inlet
the and
DLRexhaust
inlet and interfaces.
exhaust interfaces.
The test-rig setup Theis illustrated
test-rig setupin Figure 12. The flow
is illustrated enters12.theThe
in Figure testflow
rig through
enters the a test rig through a
circular uncooled inlet connector (1). Subsequently, the flow enters a simulation
circular uncooled inlet connector (1). Subsequently, the flow enters a simulation of the of the
compressor plenum (2) that features
compressor plenum one (2)sixth
that of the volume
features of the
one sixth of compressor
the volume discharge
of the compressor discharge
plenum of the gas turbine
plenum of the gas turbine and is connected to the During
and is connected to the combustor casing (3). combustor high-pres-
casing (3). During high-
sure testing, multiple Kistler
pressure 6021multiple
testing, high temperature
Kistler 6021dynamic pressure sensors
high temperature dynamicwere pressure sensors were
mounted at the combustor
mountedmonitoring
at the combustorpossible pressure fluctuations
monitoring possible pressurein the fluctuations
combustor. A in the combustor. A
reduced number ofreduced
the same sensor-type
number are applied
of the same for full
sensor-type areengine
applied testing
for fulland continu-
engine testing and continuous
ous monitoring inmonitoring
customer installations. However, noHowever,
in customer installations. pressure no pulsations
pressureor thermo- or thermoacoustic
pulsations
acoustic instabilities have been have
instabilities observedbeenfor the finalfor
observed dual-fuel
the final combustion system neither
dual-fuel combustion system neither in the
in the high-pressure tests nor in the
high-pressure final
tests norengine tests.engine tests.
in the final

Figure 12. 3D model Figure 12. 3D model test

of the high-pressure of the
righigh-pressure
with the ACC test
can rig with theNumbers
combustor. ACC can 1–7
combustor.
are Numbers 1–7 are
explained in the section describing
explained thesection
in the experimental facilities.
describing the experimental facilities.

Theof
The inlet guide vanes inlet
theguide vanes
turbine of the turbine
are simulated withare simulated
a so-called withsimulation
vane a so-called vane simulation
(4). This water-cooled part is located downstream of the transition duct (see Figure 1).duct (see Figure 1).
(4). This water-cooled part is located downstream of the transition
Removable circularRemovable
blockages circular blockages
are located in the are located
hot-gas pathin the hot-gas path
to accelerate thetoflow
accelerate
simi- the flow similarly
to the The
larly to the real turbine. real exhaust
turbine. pipe
The exhaust
(5) at thepipe
end (5) at the
of the testend
rigof the test rig
conditions theconditions
ex- the exhaust
flow to accurately measure emissions with emission
haust flow to accurately measure emissions with emission probes (6). The length of the probes (6). The length of the tube is
designed to achieve almost perfectly mixed exhaust
tube is designed to achieve almost perfectly mixed exhaust gases at the probe position. gases at the probe position. During
the tests, the exhaust gas has been analyzed
During the tests, the exhaust gas has been analyzed for NOX, CO, O2, UHC for NO X , CO, O , UHC
emissions,
2 emissions,
as as well as
soot particles. Several valves have been used to switch separately
well as soot particles. Several valves have been used to switch separately on and off pri- on and off primary 1 and
2, as well as secondary flow, and purging. The valves
mary 1 and 2, as well as secondary flow, and purging. The valves are mounted to a valve are mounted to a valve terminal (7).
Real engine
terminal (7). Real engine purging purging conditions
conditions have simulated
have been been simulated in thein the test-rig.
test-rig.
Recently, a new gas turbine test-bed for full engine tests has been installed at the
MAN gas turbine center in Oberhausen. The main challenge is the integration of cold-
end-drive and hot-end-drive units, and different power ratings, into one test-bed. The test
bed is designed to serve for high frequency full engine acceptance tests caused by serial
production and detailed development engine tests.
Depending on the type of gas turbine, a generator is coupled to the gas turbine
using one of three different load gears. The gas turbines generate electrical power that is
dissipated to heat, which is currently dumped in cooling towers. In a planned extension
 Recently, a new gas turbine test-bed for full engine tests has been installed at the
MAN gas turbine center in Oberhausen. The main challenge is the integration of cold-end-
drive and hot-end-drive units, and different power ratings, into one test-bed. The test bed
is designed to serve for high frequency full engine acceptance tests caused by serial pro-
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 duction and detailed development engine tests. 13 of 20
Depending on the type of gas turbine, a generator is coupled to the gas turbine using
one of three different load gears. The gas turbines generate electrical power that is dissi-
pated to heat, which is currently dumped in cooling towers. In a planned extension of the
of the
test stand, the heat test
will bestand,
fed intothe
theheat will heating
district be fed into the district
network heating network
of Oberhausen. Figure 13of Oberhausen.
shows a photograph of an MGT6000 installed at the described new test stand. Flexiblenew test stand.
Figure 13 shows a photograph of an MGT6000 installed at the described
Flexible
ducts are used to connectducts
the are usedand
exhaust to connect thethe
intake of exhaust and intake of the gas turbine.
gas turbine.

Figure 13. An MGT gas turbine

Figure installed
13. An MGT at the MAN
gas turbine Oberhausen
installed industrial
at the MAN gas turbine
Oberhausen test facil-
industrial gas turbine test facility.
ity.
For the presented study, an especially equipped prototype gas turbine for testing
For the presented
purposesstudy,
has beenan especially
used. Thisequipped
gas turbineprototype
is heavilygas turbine for and
instrumented testing
can deliver many
purposes has been used. This gas
supplementary data,turbine is heavily
like additional instrumentedand
thermocouples and can deliver
differential many measurements.
pressure
supplementaryHowever,
data, likefor
additional
the sake thermocouples
of robustness and and differential pressure
comparability between themeasure-
tests, the gas turbine
ments. However, is operated without
for the sake the newest
of robustness andefficiency upgrades.
comparability Duethe
between to the efficiency
tests, the gas penalty of the
validation
turbine is operated withoutunit,
theslightly
newesthigher NOXupgrades.
efficiency emissionsDue
are generated due to penalty
to the efficiency the higher turbine inlet
temperature
of the validation compared
unit, slightly higher NOto customer
X emissionsengines. Hence, the
are generated dueengine
to theemissions
higher tur- presented in this
study show
bine inlet temperature a worst-case
compared scenario
to customer while the
engines. high-pressure
Hence, the enginetests correspond
emissions pre- to a customer
engine
sented in this study behavior.
show a worst-case scenario while the high-pressure tests correspond
to a customer engine behavior.
4.2. High Pressure Tests of Different Fluidic Nozzles as Main Stage
High
4.2. High Pressure Tests pressureFluidic
of Different tests were conducted
Nozzles to optimize the spray angle, flow number and
as Main Stage
High pressure tests were conducted to optimize theterms
injection position of the fluidic nozzles in sprayof emissions
angle, and flame
flow number stability. Fluidic
and
nozzles with three different opening angles
injection position◦of the fluidic nozzles in terms of emissions have been designed, manufactured,
and flame stability. Fluidic and tested:
30 (in the following named variant V30), 50 ◦ (V50), and 60◦ (V60). In addition, a variant
nozzles with three different ◦ opening angles have been designed, manufactured, and
V50* of the 50 spray angle nozzle has been tested, which features a larger flow number
tested: 30° (in the following named variant V30), 50° (V50), and 60° (V60). In addition, a
and, thus, effective area A (A (V50*) = 1.36Aeff (V50)). The motivation for the larger
variant V50* of the 50° spray angle nozzleeffhas eff been tested, which features a larger flow
spray angles was the hypothesis that a better fuel distribution in the flow could be achieved,
number and, thus, effective area Aeff (Aeff(V50*) = 1.36Aeff(V50)). The motivation for the
whereas the variation of the flow number could influence the penetration of the droplets
larger spray angles was the hypothesis that a better fuel distribution in the flow could be
into the flow. Each of these hardware variants has been tested at the same simulated engine
conditions at the high-pressure test rig at the DLR in Cologne.
A comparison between the four different main liquid-fuel nozzle designs in terms
of NOX emissions is depicted in Figure 14. NOX emissions are normalized by the NOX
emission of the variant V30 at baseload. The tests were conducted without any additional
pilot flow, in order to evaluate and quantify the degree of mixing quality achieved by each
decentralized fluidics injector design, independently of the central injector. From part
load up to 90% relative engine power, a larger spray angle has a clear beneficial impact
 lated engine conditions at the high-pressure test rig at the DLR in Cologne.
A comparison between the four different main liquid-fuel nozzle designs in terms of
NOX emissions is depicted in Figure 14. NOX emissions are normalized by the NOX emis-
sion of the variant V30 at baseload. The tests were conducted without any additional pilot
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 flow, in order to evaluate and quantify the degree of mixing quality achieved by each 14 of 20
decentralized fluidics injector design, independently of the central injector. From part load
up to 90% relative engine power, a larger spray angle has a clear beneficial impact on the
NOX emissions. However, the benefit is decreasing with increasing power and, thus, fuel
on the
mass flow andNO X emissions.
injection However,
pressure. the benefit
Additionally, is decreasing
the compressor with increasing
air pressure, power and,
air tempera-
thus, fuel mass flow and injection pressure. Additionally, the compressor
ture, and firing temperature increases with relative load. Due to the limited available in- air pressure,
formation, only a hypothesis can be presented as reasoning. At lower loads, the flame islimited
air temperature, and firing temperature increases with relative load. Due to the
operatedavailable information,
at significantly loweronly a hypothesis
flame can be
temperatures, presented
which causesasthe
reasoning.
flame toAt lower loads,
stabilize
the flame is operated at significantly lower flame temperatures,
further downstream compared to baseload conditions. This increases the mixing timewhich causes the of
flame to
stabilize
the liquid fuel. further
Thus, adownstream compared
better distribution to baseload
of the relativelyconditions. Thisisincreases
large droplets beneficial theatmixing
time of the liquid fuel. Thus, a better distribution of the relatively large droplets is beneficial
part load. While the V30 exhibits a steady exponential increase of the NOX emissions with
at part load. While the V30 exhibits a steady exponential increase of the NOX emissions
respect to the relative power, the larger spray angle variants show an excessive rise of
with respect to the relative power, the larger spray angle variants show an excessive rise of
NOX emissions for relative powers larger than 90%. It is assumed that the fuel penetration
NOX emissions for relative powers larger than 90%. It is assumed that the fuel penetration
of all variants but V30 is not sufficient at higher loads. This causes locally fuel-rich areas
of all variants but V30 is not sufficient at higher loads. This causes locally fuel-rich areas
and helps to stabilize the flame upstream, thereby shortening the mixing time signifi-
and helps to stabilize the flame upstream, thereby shortening the mixing time significantly.
cantly. As a result, the NOX emissions rise disproportionately to the increase of the global
As a result, the NOX emissions rise disproportionately to the increase of the global flame
flame temperature. This reasoning is further supported by the following observations.
temperature. This reasoning is further supported by the following observations.

Figure Figure
14. Comparison of the normalized
14. Comparison NOX emissions
of the normalized (in logarithmic
NOX emissions scale) ofscale)
(in logarithmic main of
liquid-fuel
main liquid-fuel
nozzlesnozzles
with different spray opening
with different angles (V30,
spray opening V50,
angles and
(V30, V60)
V50, and
and flow
V60) number
and (V50 and
flow number V50*)
(V50 and V50*)
with respect to the relative
with respect engine engine
to the relative power.power.

Two phenomena
Two phenomena have been
haverecorded, whichwhich
been recorded, underline this finding:
underline A significantly
this finding: A significantly
increased dynamic
increased pressure
dynamic amplitude
pressure and a large
amplitude andfluctuation of the NOof
a large fluctuation X emissions.
the NOX Fig- emissions.
ure 15aFigure
shows15athe shows
normalized acoustic pressure
the normalized acoustic amplitude.
pressure Up to a relative
amplitude. Upload
to a of 70%, load
relative
of 70%,
the acoustic the acoustic
pressure pressure
fluctuations arefluctuations are mostly
mostly independent independent
of the of theangle.
spray-opening spray-opening
For
angle. For
an increasing an increasing
engine power, theengine power,
amplitude the amplitude
significantly significantly
rises for rises
larger spray for larger
angles com- spray
angles
pared to compared
the 30° to the 30to◦ avariant,
variant, leading threefoldleading to aofthreefold
increase increase
the 60° variant of the 60◦Note
at baseload. variant at
baseload.
that these Note that
amplitudes referthese amplitudes
to the refer toregime
low frequency the lowandfrequency regime and
are associated are associated to
to broadband
broadband
fluctuation. fluctuation.
The time traces ofThethetime
NOtraces of theprobe
X emission NOX emission
are shown probe are shown
in Figure 15a. in Figure 15a.
Under
steadyUnder steady
operation operation
conditions at conditions
base load, theat base
NOxload, the NOx
emissions emissions
fluctuate fluctuate
by about +/−50%by about
+/ − 50% for the 60 ◦ spray opening angle, whereas the variation of the NO emissions at
for the 60° spray opening angle, whereas the variation of the NOX emissions at baseload X
◦ variant lower than <5%. For injector V60, the general level of the
for thebaseload
30° variantforlower
the 30than <5%. For injector V60, the general level of the NOX emissions
NOX emissions points to a diffusion combustion regime (Figure 14), while the broadband
dynamic pressure fluctuations and the large scale NOX emissions fluctuations indicate
an unsteady switch between the premixed and diffusion combustion regime. It is not
uncommon for liquid fuel flames to exhibit different stabilization modes and regimes for
the same operating conditions [34]. This is triggered by the position of the vaporization of
the liquid droplets.
 points
pointstotoa adiffusion
diffusioncombustion
combustionregime
regime(Figure
(Figure14),
14),while
whilethethebroadband
broadbanddynamicdynamicpres-
pres-
sure
surefluctuations
fluctuationsand andthethelarge
largescale
scaleNONO emissions
X X emissionsfluctuations
fluctuationsindicate
indicateananunsteady
unsteady
switch
switchbetween
betweenthe thepremixed
premixedand anddiffusion
diffusioncombustion
combustionregime.
regime.It Itisisnot
notuncommon
uncommonfor for
liquid fuel flames to exhibit different stabilization modes and regimes for
liquid fuel flames to exhibit different stabilization modes and regimes for the same oper-the same oper-
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 ating
atingconditions
conditions[34].
[34].This
Thisisistriggered
triggeredbybythetheposition
positionofofthe
thevaporization
vaporizationofofthe theliquid
liquid
15 of 20
droplets.
droplets.

(a)(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure15.15.
(a)(a)
15. Normalized
(a)Normalized
Normalized acoustic
acousticpressure
acoustic pressure
pressureamplitudes
amplitudeswith
amplitudes withrespect
with respecttoto
respect the
totherelative
the engine
relative
relativeengine
enginepower
power
power for
forforfluidic
fluidic
fluidic liquid-fuel
liquid-fuel
liquid-fuel nozzles
nozzles
nozzles of different
of of spray
different
different spray
spray opening
opening
opening angles
angles
angles (V30, V50,
(V30,
(V30, and
V50,and
V50, V60)
andV60) and
V60)and flow
andflow
flownumbers
numbers
numbers (V50 and V50*). (b)(b)
Fluctuation of the NO X emissions over time atat
stationary baseload
(V50 and(V50 V50*).and
(b)V50*).
FluctuationFluctuation
of the NOofX the NO X emissions
emissions over timeover time
at stationarystationary
baseloadbaseload
conditions for
conditions
conditions forfor
nozzle
nozzlevariants
variants V30V30and
andV60
V60 normalized
normalized with their
with theirrespective
respective mean
mean value.
value.
nozzle variants V30 and V60 normalized with their respective mean value.
TheThe
The change
change
change inin
inthe
themean
the meanflame
mean flameposition
flame positionisisistracked
position trackedby
tracked bybythermocouples
thermocouplesinstalled
thermocouples installedalong
installed alongthe
along
the
thecircumference
circumference at various
at various axial
axialpositions
positions along
along the
thehot-gas
hot-gas
circumference at various axial positions along the hot-gas path. Figure 16 depicts for path.
path. Figure
Figure 1616 depicts
depicts for
for
each
each
each of
of the the
ofmain main
the main liquid-fuel
liquid-fuel
liquid-fuel nozzle
nozzle nozzle variants
variants
variants the
the the normalized
normalized
normalized average
average
average value
value
value of
of of circumferen-
circumferen-
circumferentially
tially distributed
tially distributed
distributed thermocouple
thermocouple
thermocouple measurements
measurements
measurements atatat
two
twotwoaxial
axial
axial locations:
locations:
locations: TTTA
A at the
A at
at themixing
the mixing
mixingtube
tube
tube
just upstream
just upstream of the
of the flame
flame tube
tube inlet
inlet(Figure
(Figure 16a)
16a) and
andT T
B further
further
just upstream of the flame tube inlet (Figure 16a) and TB further downstream at about
B downstream
downstream at atabout
about twotwo
thirds
thirds ofofthe
two thirds thelength
oflength ofofthe
the length flame
theof the tube
flame tube(Figure
flame (Figure
tube 16b).
16b).The
(Figure Thetemperatures
16b). temperatures
The temperaturesare
arenormalized
normalized
are normalizedbyby
the
thevalue
value of V30
of V30 at baseload
at baseload conditions.
conditions. OnOn the
theupstream
upstream side
side
by the value of V30 at baseload conditions. On the upstream side of the flame tube, the of the
of theflame
flame tube,
tube, the
thetem-
tem-
perature
perature for
temperature forwider
for spray
wider sprayopening
wider opening
spray angles
anglesincreases
opening increases
angles significantly
significantly
increases for
forrelative
significantly forengine
relative engineloads
relative loads
engine
higher
higher than
than 90%
90% compared
compared totoanan opening
opening angle
angle ofof30°.
30°.TheThe
◦
loads higher than 90% compared to an opening angle of 30 . The opposite is found furtheropposite
opposite isisfound
found further
further
downstream
downstream
downstream inin
the
in theflame
the flame
flametube.
tube.
tube. Here,
Here,
Here,the
the flame
the flame
flamedoes
doesnot
does notpenetrate
notpenetrate
penetrateasasdeep
deep
as into
deep into the
into flame
the
theflame
flame
tube
tubefor
tubefor larger
forlarger spray
largerspray opening
sprayopening angles.
openingangles.
angles.

(a)(a) (b)
(b)
Figure 16.16.
Figure
Figure Normalized
16. Normalized
Normalized average temperature
average
average ofof
temperature
temperature four
of circumferentially
four circumferentially distributed
distributedthermocouples
thermocouples
thermocouples with
with respect
with respectto the
to relative
the engine
relative engine power;
power;measured
measured for four
for fluidic
four nozzle
fluidic nozzlevariants
variants
respect to the relative engine power; measured for four fluidic nozzle variants with with
withdifferent
different
different spray
opening angles (V30, V50, and V60) and flow numbers (V50 and V50*), respectively. Thermocouples
located (a) at the mixing tube exit (flame tube inlet) and (b) at an axial position further downstream
at two-thirds of the flame tube length.

In the last three figures, we also showed the respective results for a liquid-fuel main
nozzle variant V50* which has an opening angle of 50◦ but an effective area that is 36%
larger compared to the V50 variant. The performance of this nozzle in terms of NOX
emissions is apparently in between the V50 variant and the V60 variant. The reduced
pressure drop across the nozzle seems to cause a lower penetration depth of the injected
liquid-fuel (see Figure 16) and thus has a similar effect as the widening of the spray-opening
 In the last three figures, we also showed the respective results for a liquid-fuel main
nozzle variant V50* which has an opening angle of 50° but an effective area that is 36%
larger compared to the V50 variant. The performance of this nozzle in terms of NOX emis-
sions is apparently in between the V50 variant and the V60 variant. The reduced pressure
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 16 of 20
drop across the nozzle seems to cause a lower penetration depth of the injected liquid-fuel
(see Figure 16) and thus has a similar effect as the widening of the spray-opening angle at
constant pressure drop. The SMD of the V50* at baseload is comparable to the SMD of the
angle At
other variants. at constant pressurethe
high pressures, drop.
SMD TheisSMD of the
already in V50* at baseloadzone
the saturation is comparable
depicted in to the SMD
of the other variants.
Figure 9. Consequently, the V50* At does
high not
pressures,
stronglytheaffect
SMDvaporization
is already in the timesaturation zone depicted
of the liquid-
in Figure
fuel droplets; however, 9. Consequently, the V50*depth
its smaller penetration does due
not strongly
to the lower affect vaporization
momentum time of the
of the
liquid-fuel droplets; however, its smaller penetration depth
liquid-fuel leads especially at baseload to a less stable combustion behavior and a ten- due to the lower momentum
of thehigher
dency towards liquid-fuel
NOx leads
emissionsespecially
comparedat baseload
to V50.to a less stable combustion behavior and a
tendency
The fluidic towards
atomizer higher
V30, withNOx 30° emissions
spray angle, compared
is used to forV50.
the investigations pre-
sented hereafter.The fluidic
Even atomizer
though V30,towith
it leads higher30◦NO
spray angle, is used
X emissions at partforload
the investigations
than the otherpresented
hereafter.
injector variants (V50,Even though
V50*, anditV60),
leadsthese
to higher NOX emissions
emissions at part
are still well withinloadthethan the other injector
intended
emission guarantees of the engine. Furthermore, integrating the V30 injectors for the main emission
variants (V50, V50*, and V60), these emissions are still well within the intended
guarantees
injection ensures a veryof the engine.
stable Furthermore,
combustor operationintegrating
with the the bestV30 injectorsatfor
emissions the main injection
baseload.
ensures a very stable combustor operation with the best
Another parameter that has been varied and tested in the high-pressure campaign is emissions at baseload.
the orientationAnother
of the sprayparameter that has
sheet with beentovaried
respect and tested
the airflow (see in the high-pressure
Section 3.3, Figure 10). campaign is
the orientation
The orientation ξ1, whereofthe thespray
spraysheet
sheetiswith respect to the
perpendicularly airflow
aligned (seerespect
with Sectionto3.3,theFigure 10).
The orientation ξ1, where the spray sheet is perpendicularly
exit velocity vector of the swirler, provides clearly better NOX emissions compared to a aligned with respect to the
exit velocity vector of the swirler, provides clearly better
tangential arrangement (orientation ξ2). This is shown in Figure 17 by means of the nor- NO X emissions compared to
a tangential arrangement (orientation ξ2). This is shown
malized NOX emissions with respect to the relative engine power. The advantageous be- in Figure 17 by means of the
normalized
havior is based NOX emissions
on a significantly with
better respect
mixing to the
of the relative engine
liquid-fuel with the power. The advantageous
air emanating
from the swirler. Here, the air hits the spray with a maximum area of attack, whichthe
behavior is based on a significantly better mixing of the liquid-fuel with air emanating
causes
from the swirler. Here, the air hits the spray with a maximum area of attack, which causes
the droplets to be surrounded by air with a minimized risk of an accumulation of droplets.
the droplets to be surrounded by air with a minimized risk of an accumulation of droplets.
The latter would lead to locally rich streaks in the reaction zone causing higher overall
The latter would lead to locally rich streaks in the reaction zone causing higher overall
NOX emissions. The small level dynamic pressure amplitudes are not affected by the spray
NOX emissions. The small level dynamic pressure amplitudes are not affected by the spray
sheet orientation.
sheet orientation.

Figure 17. Normalized NOx emissions

Figure 17. Normalized NOxwith respectwith
emissions to therespect
relativetoengine powerengine
the relative obtained at the
power obtained at the
high-pressure test rig; two
high-pressure variants
test rig; twoξ1variants
and ξ2 ξ1
of liquid-fuel main nozzle
and ξ2 of liquid-fuel orientations
main as introduced
nozzle orientations as introduced in
in Figure 10; NOx 10;
Figure emissions normalized
NOx emissions with baseload
normalized value of value
with baseload burnerofvariant
burner with orientation
variant with orientation ξ1.
ξ1.
An additional design parameter that has been evaluated in the high-pressure tests is
An additional
the radialdesign
positionparameter thatfluidic
of the four has been evaluated
atomizers withinrespect
the high-pressure tests isaxis. This
to the combustor
the radial diameter
position of the fourwith
is limited fluidic
its atomizers
maximumwith respect
by the innerto the combustor
diameter axis. This
of the swirler and with its
diameter is limited with its maximum by the inner diameter of the swirler and
minimum by the space required for the incorporation of the central liquid-fuel with its nozzle
minimumand by the space required for the incorporation of the central liquid-fuel nozzle and
the fuel-gas pilot. Furthermore, a too large diameter boosts the risk of wetting the
inner walls of the mixing section and a small diameter restricts the premixing time. Two
variants have been tested, one radial position r1 and a radial position r2, with r1 < r2.
Neither positions caused any wetting of the wall with liquid-fuel. Figure 18 reveals that
the larger radial position has two advantageous effects. First, the NOX emissions are
considerably reduced especially at high load levels. Second, there is also a clear reduction
in the broadband dynamic pressure fluctuations observed for higher loads. The main
advantage of position r2 is the increased mixing and vaporization time with, at the same
time, a comparable penetration into the airflow.
 ants have been tested, one radial position r1 and a radial position r2, with r1 < r2. Neither
positions caused any wetting of the wall with liquid-fuel. Figure 18 reveals that the larger
radial position has two advantageous effects. First, the NOX emissions are considerably
reduced especially at high load levels. Second, there is also a clear reduction in the broad-
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 band dynamic pressure fluctuations observed for higher loads. The main advantage17of of 20
position r2 is the increased mixing and vaporization time with, at the same time, a com-
parable penetration into the airflow.

(a) (b)
Figure 18.18.
Figure (a) Normalized
(a) Normalized NONOX emissions and and
X emissions (b) normalized dynamic
(b) normalized pressure
dynamic amplitude
pressure with with
amplitude
respect
respect to the relative engine power obtained at the high-pressure test rig; two variants with dif-
to the relative engine power obtained at the high-pressure test rig; two variants with different
ferent radial
radial positions
positions of the
of the liquid-fuel
liquid-fuel main
main nozzles,
nozzles, withwith
r1 <r1
r2.< r2.

4.3.4.3. Performance
Performance of Serial
of Serial Liquid-Fuel
Liquid-Fuel System
System at Engine
at Engine Test
Test
In In
thethe previoussection,
previous section,we wediscussed
discussed selected design design variations
variationsofoffluidicfluidicnozzles
nozzles that
have
that have been
been experimentally
experimentally evaluated
evaluated ininsingle
singlecancanfull
fullload
loadtest.
test.This
Thissection
sectionpresents
presentsthe
theperformance
performanceofofthe thecomplete
completesystem
systemininthe thefull
fullengine
enginegas gasturbine
turbinetest.
test.
The NO
The NOX emissions
X emissions of the final variant, normalized
of the final variant, normalized to 15% O to 15%
2, areOdepicted
2 , are depicted in of
in of Fig-
ure 19 with respect to the relative engine power. Here, the high-pressure single-can testtest
Figure 19 with respect to the relative engine power. Here, the high-pressure single-can
results
results areare compared
compared to to full-scale
full-scale engine
engine testtest
datadata obtained
obtained at the
at the testtest
bedbed in Oberhausen.
in Oberhausen.
From
From partpart load
load conditions
conditions of 50%
of 50% upup to baseload,
to baseload, thethe constant
constant offset
offset between
between thethe full-scale
full-scale
validation test and the high-pressure single-can test is due to
validation test and the high-pressure single-can test is due to the different turbine inlet the different turbine inlet
temperatures reached in each test. The fully instrumented test
temperatures reached in each test. The fully instrumented test engine is a prototype rating,engine is a prototype rating,
which
which doesdoesnotnot deliver
deliver optimal
optimal performances
performances in terms
in terms of efficiency,
of efficiency, and andrunsruns at relatively
at relatively
high turbine inlet temperatures. Gas turbines of the MGT family from serial productiondo
high turbine inlet temperatures. Gas turbines of the MGT family from serial production
donotnotshow
showsignificant
significantvariations
variationsininturbine
turbine inlet temperatures
inlet temperatures at given
at given powerpoweroutputs,
outputs,in all
cases
in all lower
cases than
lower thatthat
than of the prototype
of the prototype testtest
engine. Therefore,
engine. Therefore, the high-pressure
the high-pressure combustion
com-
bustion tests have always been very representative of the operating conditions atcustomer’s
tests have always been very representative of the operating conditions at the the cus-
sites. Against this background, the agreement of the different test results in Figure 19 is
tomer’s sites. Against this background, the agreement of the different test results in Figure
very good. Due to operational considerations, the main stage is never operated without
19 is very good. Due to operational considerations, the main stage is never operated with-
pilot fuel. This is indicated by the coloring in Figure 19, which denotes the liquid pilot
out pilot fuel. This is indicated by the coloring in Figure 19, which denotes the liquid pilot
ratio. This is the share of pilot liquid-fuel with respect to the overall fuel-mass flow. The
ratio. This is the share of pilot liquid-fuel with respect to the overall fuel-mass flow. The
liquid pilot ratio is decreased as the load is increased to achieve better emissions. From
liquid pilot ratio is decreased as the load is increased to achieve better emissions. From
idle to 50% load, the NOX emissions are at an almost constant level of 40 ppm and increase
idle to 50% load, the NOX emissions are at an almost constant level of 40 ppm and increase
continuously up to baseload (Figure 19). Emissions of less than 75 ppm are representative
continuously up to baseload (Figure 19). Emissions of less than 75 ppm are representative
of a serial MGT engine operated at baseload conditions, as simulated in the high-pressure
of a serial MGT engine operated at baseload conditions, as simulated in the high-pressure
tests. The emissions of the full-scale prototype engine shown here can be considered as a
tests. The emissions of the full-scale prototype engine shown here can be considered as a
worst case scenario of a degenerated and less efficient engine; however, even in this case,
the NOX emission remain well below 90 ppm.
In addition to NOx, also CO emissions, UHC emissions, as well as soot particle den-
sities have been assessed. However, they are only of concern at part load conditions and
further down to idle. There, the LPR is relatively high, which means that the liquid-fuel
mass flow through the main stage nozzles is comparably low. Hence, these conditions
are rather beyond the most interesting design optimum of the fluidics injectors and con-
sequently the results are not shown in this study. Overall, the CO and UHC emissions
correspond to a typical partially premixed gas turbine flame and, in particular, the soot
emission levels are well within legal restrictions. The stable behavior of the fluidics oscilla-
tors also at low mass flows contributes to these good results.
ds 2021, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 21

Fluids 2021, 6, 129 worst case scenario of a degenerated and less efficient engine; however, even in this case, 18 of 20
the NOX emission remain well below 90 ppm.

Figure 19. NO X emissions

Figure 19. NO with respect towith
X emissions relative power;
respect color represents
to relative the Liquid-Pilot
power; color represents theRatio
Liquid-Pilot Ratio
(LPR); circles(LPR);
denotecircles
high-pressure test results and
denote high-pressure testsquares full engine
results and squarestests, respectively.
full engine tests, respectively.

In addition Into addition

NOx, also toCOthe emissions,
combustorUHC and gasemissions, as well as soot
turbine performance particle den-
implications, the impact of
the integration
sities have been of the dualthey
assessed. However, fuel combustion system on
are only of concern at the
partcombustor parts and
load conditions anddownstream
further down components has been
to idle. There, the LPR examined during
is relatively the validation
high, which means process.
that the Extensive
liquid-fuelthermocouple
instrumentation
mass flow through the main of the nozzles
stage combustor parts for high-pressure
is comparably low. Hence, these and full engine testing.
conditions are We did
not detect any significant difference in axial or azimuthal
rather beyond the most interesting design optimum of the fluidics injectors and conse- temperature distribution between
quently thefuel-gas
results areandnotliquid
shown fuelinoperation.
this study. Overall, the CO and UHC emissions cor-
A highly
respond to a typical important
partially premixed feature of a dual-fuel
gas turbine flame gas
and,turbine is the fast
in particular, theswitch from fuel-gas to
soot emis-
liquid
sion levels are wellfuel (andlegal
within vice versa) duringThe
restrictions. operation at any load.
stable behavior In order
of the fluidicsto oscillators
achieve a smooth and
fast switchover
also at low mass betweentofuel-gas
flows contributes these goodand liquid-fuel,
results. the combustion system, and its periphery
have to interact in an accurately and
In addition to the combustor and gas turbine performance well-defined sequence. Such athe
implications, transient
impactevent like a
fuel switchover benefits strongly from a key feature
of the integration of the dual fuel combustion system on the combustor parts and down- of fluidic nozzles: a good atomization
even at relatively low fuel mass flows. Fluidic atomizers
stream components has been examined during the validation process. Extensive thermo- only need little assistance of the
pilot stage to maintain a stable.
couple instrumentation of the combustor parts for high-pressure and full engine testing.
We did not detectFuel anyswitchovers have beenin
significant difference tested,
axial evaluated,
or azimuthal and optimized extensively
temperature distributionat the MAN
full-scale gas turbine
between fuel-gas and liquid fuel operation. test-bed in Oberhausen. Such a switchover can be conducted at any
load less than <90% and within a time span of <60 s. Since
A highly important feature of a dual-fuel gas turbine is the fast switch from fuel-gas the realization of such a complex
to liquid fuel (and vice versa) during operation at any load. In order to achieve a smooth for proper
procedure depends much on the fuel skid and the corresponding fuel pumps,
validation
and fast switchover purposes,
between the hardware
fuel-gas employed
and liquid-fuel, at the test bed
the combustion is identical
system, and itsto pe-what can be
found within a customer gas turbine package.
riphery have to interact in an accurately and well-defined sequence. Such a transient event
When the purging of the liquid-fuel lines is operated, the gas turbine is in normal
like a fuel switchover benefits strongly from a key feature of fluidic nozzles: a good atom-
fuel-gas mode and delivers the same performance as a MGT gas turbine with a single
ization even at relatively low fuel mass flows. Fluidic atomizers only need little assistance
fuel-gas combustion system. It has been verified that the emissions, as well as the dynamic
of the pilot stage to maintain a stable.
pressure amplitudes, are not affected by the dual-fuel equipment.
Fuel switchovers have been tested, evaluated, and optimized extensively at the MAN
full-scale gas
5. turbine
Summary test-bed in Oberhausen. Such a switchover can be conducted at any
and Conclusions
load less than <90% and within a time span of <60 s. Since the realization of such a complex
For islands without natural gas supply and for industrial applications with stringent
procedure depends much on the fuel skid and the corresponding fuel pumps, for proper
requirements for uninterrupted power and heat supply, gas turbines with liquid-fuel as
validation purposes, the hardware employed at the test bed is identical to what can be
backup or primary fuel are a viable option. Integrating a low emission liquid fuel system
found within a customer gas turbine package.
into an existing dry low NOX fuel-gas combustion system is challenging. This paper
When the purging of the liquid-fuel lines is operated, the gas turbine is in normal
presents our efforts for the design and integration of the liquid fuel system with a special
fuel-gas mode and delivers the same performance as a MGT gas turbine with a single fuel-
focus on the development of fluidic atomizers.
gas combustion We system.
gave It has been
a brief verified
overview of the that the emissions,
liquid pilot systemasthat well hasastwo
theliquid
dynamic stages and one
pressure amplitudes, are not affected by the dual-fuel equipment.
stage of swirling shielding air. The centrally placed nozzle features different flow numbers
and spray angles, which can be controlled with the two liquid feed lines. The focus of
5. Summary and Conclusions
this study is the integration of four fluidic nozzles in the main liquid stage. We presented
For islands without natural
our approach for thegas supply
design andand for industrial
integration applications
of the with stringent
fluidic nozzles and discussed data
requirements for uninterrupted
representing mass flowpower and heatorientation
distribution, supply, gas turbines
of the with
nozzle, andliquid-fuel
droplet sizeasdistribution.
Subsequently, we analyzed high-pressure results for different spray sheet angles and flow
numbers. It was found that larger spray angles have some benefits at lower loads, however,
at higher air and fuel mass flows smaller angles show much better results in terms of flame
Fluids 2021, 6, 129 19 of 20

stabilization and NOX emissions. The data indicate that the flame stabilization is altered
for higher angles at base load conditions. Additionally, our data indicates that, for the
specific system investigated, a perpendicular orientation of the spray sheet to the crossflow
improves fuel–air mixing. Finally, emission measurements of the high-pressure tests and
the full engine validation tests were compared and showed very good agreement.
The final industrialized design of the dual-fuel combustor has proven to be very
robust, stable, with competitive dry-low NOX emissions and very fast fuel switchover
times. Moreover, with the current central liquid pilot nozzle design, the gas turbine features
a start-up on liquid fuel.
To the knowledge of the authors, fluidic nozzles are integrated for the first time in
an industrial gas turbine combustor. They have shown great potential for robust and
fine atomization starting at low supply pressures. The formation of a fine sheet and
the interaction with the swirling crossflow air has great potential for further improved
premixing and good flexibility in terms of flame stabilization. Still, work will be conducted
to improve the combustion performance further.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, B.Ć.; methodology, B.Ć.; validation, D.W. and F.G.; inves-
tigation, B.Ć. and D.W.; data curation, D.W.; writing—original draft preparation, B.Ć., D.W., and
F.G.; writing—review and editing, B.Ć., D.W., and F.G.; visualization, B.Ć., D.W., and F.G.; project
administration, B.Ć.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The work has been supported by the German ministry of economy and technology under
grant number 03ET7070L.
Acknowledgments: This work has been conducted as a part of the joint research program COOREFLEX-
turbo in the frame of AG Turbo. We thank FDX Fluid Dynamix for the joint development of the
OsciJet fluidic nozzles. We thank Roman Proebster for his great personal dedication to the presented
development.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors are employed by MAN Energy Solutions SE. The presented study
has been funded by MAN Energy Solutions SE.

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