Metamorphic Evolution of the Holenarsipur Greenstone Belt,

Western Dharwar Craton, South India: Insights Into Early Earth

Tectonics

Extension Report 2019

Submitted by
AnamitraDasgupta

Roll No:15GG91R02

Under Supervision Of
Prof.Santanu Kumar Bhowmik

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND GEOPHYSICS

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
KHARAGPUR-721302
December– 2019

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 1. Introduction:

Accretion of Earth at ca. 4.55 Ga, its differentiation into core, mantle, and crust, and its
consequent thermal history requires an evolving tectonic model (Cawood et al., 2006) rather
than a uniformitarian model (modern horizontal plate dynamics). There are divergent opinions
regarding the emergence of modern style plate tectonics, based on fragmentary rock records.
These are namely: (i) Oxygen isotope composition of Hadean zircons (ca. 4.4 Ga age, e.g.
Wilde et al., 2001) and thermobarometric analyses of mineral inclusion assemblages within
these zircons appear to suggest the existence of a cooler hydrosphere and surface heat flow
analogous to that presented in modern planet earth (Hopkins., 2008). This has the potential
significance that plate tectonics could have operated even at ca. 4.4 Ga. (ii) Co-existence of
two types of TTG gneisses with signatures of contrasting source reservoirs in Archaean cratons
of Wyoming, Zimbabwe, North-Atlantic, Yilgran, Itsaq gneisses (Kamber., 2003) by 3.6-3.7
Ga: (a) a pre 3.8 Ga, Hadaean in situ rocks and zircon with high µ (238U/204Pb) composition and
(b) younger (ca. 3.65-3.70 Ga) gneissic rocks with low µ (low U/Pb ratio) were taken as
evidence for Eoarchaean subduction tectonics (Kamber., 2003). (iii) An Eoarchaean (ca. 3.6-
3.65 Ga) collisional orogeny has been suggested based on tectonic repetition of migmatites
from Itsaq Gneissic Complex (Nutman et al., 2002). (iv) Based on the first record of duality of
thermal regime in Archaean metamorphic terrain, Brown (2008) opined that modern style plate
tectonics could have initiated on planet earth by 2.8 Ga. (v) Based on a trinity of evidence:
unequivocal appearance of ophiolite sequence and blueschist and ultra-high pressure (UHP)
facies metamorphic rocks in rock record at ca. 1.0 Ga, Stern et al.(2005) suggested initiation of
modern-style subduction tectonics at the transition between Meso- and Neoproterozoic time
periods.

It is evident from the above summary that there is a considerable debate both on the
timing and the type of material evidence that are used in support of the advent of modern-style
plate tectonics in planet earth. One of the mechanisms that is said to explain material transport
in earth interiors, before the onset of modern-style plate tectonics invokes gravity-driven
vertical movements, referred to as sagduction (Goodwin and Smith., 1980). There is also a
general consensus that the emergence of the plate tectonics is linked to a change in the thermal
regime from one of heat generation through radioactive decay to heat loss by conductive
cooling (e.g. Michaut and Jaupart, 2007; Herzberg et al., 2010). The general occurrence of
ultramafic lava flows (cf. komatiites) in Palaeo-Mesoarchaean greenstone belts world over
reflects high mantle potential temperature (Herzberg et al., 2007,2008, 2010). 2D petrological
and thermomechanical models predict a causative linkage between styles of plate motions and
potential mantle temperatures with a change over from a “no-subduction” through transitional
“pre-subduction” to the "modern style subduction" regime being controlled by progressive
cooling of upper mantle with time (e.g. Sizova et al., 2010). This tectonic transition, which is
said to have coincided with (a) a change in petrotectonic assemblages from TTG-type to
potassic granite continental crust and from komatiite-dominant ultramafic crust to less mafic,
basaltic composition of oceanic crust, (b) the first appearance of an arc system (van
Kranendonk et al., 2007), (c) the earliest record of eclogite (Rollinson., 2007, Kranendonk et
al., 2011) and (d) the advent of a dual thermal regime, reflecting unequivocal convergent plate
margin processes (Brown, 2008) appears to have taken place between 3.2 -2.8 Ga. time period
(Sizova et al., 2010, 2015; Brown 2008).

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 Metamorphic P-T-t path reconstructions from Archaean TTG-supracrustal terranes
provide new insights into the tectonics of switch-over between 3.2 Ga. to 2.7 Ga. Moyen et al.
(2006) suggested a clockwise (CW) P-T path from different components of high grade
supracrustals (> 3.2 Ga.) of Slotzburg terrane from the Barberton greenstone belt, which was
interpreted to be of mid-to lower-crustal section. The findings were taken as evidence for the
advent of accretionary tectonics in the terrain at ca. 3.23 Ga (Cutts et al., 2014). More recently
from two adjacent localities, Bandelierkop and Brakspruit quarries from the Limpopo mobile
belt, South-Africa, CW metamorphic P-T path has been reported from metapelites (Taylor et
al., 2014, Nicoli et al., 2015). Zircon grains extracted from metapelites from the Brakspruit
quarry yielded core age at 2.8-3.1 Ga and subsequent metamorphic rim age at 2.7 Ga. (Nicoli
et al., 2015). This has been explained as evidence for Himalayan-style collisional orogenesis in
the time interval of 3.1-2.7 Ga. Mints et al. (2014) has reported ca. 2.9 Ga eclogites from
Belomorian province, NE Fennoscandian shield and interpreted ca. 2.9 Ga age for the timing of
subduction initiation and subsequent eclogite formation.

Despite the potential significance of TTG-greenstone terranes for metamorphic

reconstructions, well-preserved amphibolite-granulite facies Mesoarchean crustal sections are,
however, rather rare, in part due to their incomplete preservation in the rock record and also
due to the effects of strong superposed Neoarchaean deformation and metamorphism, that in
most cases, have obliterated the older history. Therefore to apply metamorphic constraints to
model Meso- to Neoarchaean plate tectonic transition, it is necessary to look through the veil of
superposed orogenesis, and obtain Mesoarchean time information in a metamorphic context.

2. Geological background and previous works

The Western Dharwar Craton (WDC) is located in the southern, cratonic part of the Indian
Peninsula (Fig. 1) and consists mainly of large swaths of tonalite – trondhjemite-granodioritic
(TTG) gneiss (locally known as the Peninsular Gneiss complex) with intercalations of linear,
generally N-S trending, belts of metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary units and associated
granite (greenstone belts, Swaminath and Ramakrishna, 1981). The TTG gneisses record three
periods of felsic magmatism in the terrain at 3.41-3.3 Ga, 3.23-3.2 Ga and 3.1 Ga (Beckinsale
et al., 1980; Bhaskar Rao et al., 1991, 2008; Jayananda et al., 2015, Guitreu et al., 2017).
Existence of an even older proto-crust up to 3.6 Ga (Nutman et al., 1992) in the WDC has been
supported by the recent documentation of ca. 3.5 Ga dioritic gneiss in the Coorg massif
(Santosh et al., 2015). However, there is also a suggestion that the Coorg massif with the oldest
zircon ages is an exotic microcontinent and is not part of the Dharwar craton (Santosh et al.,
2015).

The volcano-sedimentary units in the WDC are broadly subdivided into two types: the
older (c.3.3 - 3.1 Ga) Sargur Supergroup and younger (2.91-2.56 Ga) Dharwar Supergroup,
exposed as separate linear belts. The Dharwar Supergroup, which unconformably overlies the
basement Peninsular gneiss and Sargur rocks is further sub-divided into the lower Bababudan
Group (2.91-2.72 Ga) and the upper Chitradurga Group (2.68-2.56) (Swaminath and-

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Fig. 1: Simplified geological map of the Western Dharwar Craton and the adjoining Coorg granulite massif. Published
Mesoarchaean geochronological constraints from different parts of the craton are listed below. Age (in Ma) with superscript as a
reference to authors:1, Peaucat et al. (1995); 2, Jayananda et al.(2008); 3, Mukherjee et al. (2012); 4, Jayananda et al. (2015); 5,
Guitreau et al. (2017). Age with subscript as dating methods. 1, U-Pb Zrn; 2, U-Pb Ttn; 3, Sm- Nd WR. Rectangular box shows the
location of the Holenarsipur Greenstone Belt, shown in detail in Fig.1b. Inset shows the two fold subdivision of the Dharwar craton
into western (WDC) and eastern (EDC) types, being separated by the Closepet Granite.

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Ramakrishnan, 1981). Two stages of crustal recycling and attendant granite magmatism have
affected the Chitradurga Group and associated basement rocks: (a) an earlier potassic granite
plutonism at 2.64–2.60 Ga (Jayananda et al., 2006) and (b) a pervasive granite plutonism and
metamorphism at 2.55 Ga, the latter as part of the final cratononization event in the WDC.

In the proposed PhD dissertation work, the older Sargur belt rocks will be the main
focus of study (Fig. 1). They are dominated by metamorphosed komatiite–basalt volcanics with
occasional minor felsic volcanics and interlayered sediments (Swaminath and Ramakrishnan,
1981). The antiquity of the Sargur supracrustals is indicated by the following observations: (a)
Sm–Nd whole-rock isochron age of komatiite at 3352±110 Ma (Jayananda et al., 2008) for the
timing of eruption of komatiite lavas, (b) 3.3 Ga rhyolite volcanism in Holenarasipur belt
(Peucat et al., 1995), (c) detrital zircons in associated metapelites from the Holenarsipur
greenstone belt, ranging in age from 3.6 to 3.3 Ga (Nutman et al., 1992; Bhaskar Rao et al.,
2008; Bidyananda et al., 2011), (d) detrital zircons from cherty quartzites of the adjoining J.C.
Pura belt indicate a provenance age of ca. 3230 Ma (Ramakrishnan et al., 1994), (e) detrital
zircons from quartzites from Banavara yielded SHRIMP U–Pb ages between 2940 and 3230
Ma (Nutman et al., 1992), (f) intrusive TTGs in the Sargurs have been dated between 3.2 and
3.1 (Beckinsale et al., 1982; Peucat et al., 1993; Jayananda et al., 2015).

Metamorphic grade of the Sargur supracrustals increases from middle-amphibolite

grade in the north to granulite grade in the southern-most parts of these belts (Janardhan et al.,
1978, 1979; Rollinson et al., 1981; Srikantappa et al., 1985; Jayananda et al., 2013) (Fig. 1).
There is considerable debate regarding the fact that whether this variation in metamorphic
grade is a reflection of one single metamorphic field gradient or due to tectonic superposition
of two temporally separate events. In general, Garnet Sm-Nd dating of medium-grade
(Holenarsipur domain) and high-grade (type Sargur and adjoining Gundlupet domains) Sargurs
(Fig. 1) have yielded a uniform garnet growth age between 2.53 and 2.43 Ga (Jayananda et al.,
2013). This signifies a latest Neoarchaean-earliest Palaeoproterozoic regional metamorphic
event that affected all the litho-tectonic components in the WDC. In contrast, imprints of an
older Mesoarchaean tectono-thermal event in the WDC have been indicated by the following
observations (a) resetting of Pb isotope ratios of detrital zircon in Sargur supracrustals between
3.1 and 3.0 Ga (Nutman et al., 1992; Lancaster et al., 2015), (b) crustal anatexis and veination
of 3.15 Ga grey granite within older ca. 3.35 Ga Garur gneiss (Jayananda et al., 2015) and (c)
development of U rich zircon overgrowth at 3.2 Ga in 3.3 Ga granodioritic gneiss (Jayananda
et al., 2015; Fig. 5a).

With a primary goal to address this fundamental problem regarding the transition in
tectonic environment during Meso- to Neoarchaean period, the area around the Holenarsipur
greenstone belt (HGB) of the Western Dharwar craton (Fig.2) has been chosen for the
following reasons: (a) The HGB and surrounding TTG gneisses constitute the oldest nucleus of
the Dharwar craton (e.g. Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986, Naqvi et al., 2009) and it represents
an excellent exposure of TTG-(volcano-sedimentary) supracrustal terrane. (b) ca. 3.3-3.1 Ga

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Fig. 2: Simplified geological map of the Holenarsipur Greenstone Belt (HGB) and adjoining
Halekotetrondhjemite pluton and Garur TTG gneisses. Also shown are the locations of the samples of this study.

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Sargur supracrustal sequences in the HGB were intruded by a trondhjemite pluton (cf. Halekote
trondhjemite), as part of a major Mesoarchaean tectono-thermal and tectono-magmatic event
(Jayananda 2015). (c) The dome and keel trondhjemite–greenstone outcrop pattern (Bouhallier
et al., 1993, 1995) has been previously explained by syn- to late-kinematic diapiric
emplacement of the trondhjemites into the HGB (Bouhallieret al., 1993). (d) The presence of a
basal oligomictic Kaldurga conglomerate at the base of the Bababudan Group, the lowermost
unit of the younger Dharwar greenstone, and marking the initiation of a new vocano-
sedimentary sequence suggests cratonization of the WDC at ca. 3.0 Ga, following a major
Mesoarchaean tectono-thermal event. (e) Additionally, pelitic schists of the HGB show the
occurrences of chloritoid, garnet, staurolite and kyanite with plagioclase, ilmenite, rutile,
quartz and accessory monazite (Swaminath and Ramakrishnan, 1981; Jayananda et al., 2013).
The mineralogy and reaction textures offer excellent opportunities to reconstruct the
metamorphic P-T path of evolution of the older event.

3. Work Done So Far :

Four major objectives (Unpublished registration report., 2017) were chosen based on the
gaps in knowledges (marked a-d in section 3 in the Unpublished registration report., 2017) in
the proposed PhD thesis. The first two of these relates to (a) the reconstruction of metamorphic
reaction history and metamorphic P-T path of evolution from various components of the Sargur
supracrustal sequence from the HGB, namely metapelites, meta-BIFs and meta-basalts and (b)
reconstruction of the metamorphic reaction history and P-T path of evolution from different
components of the Gorur gneiss. Metamorphic studies of 8 pelitic schist samples, spread over 5
locations in different parts from the southern margin of the HGB (sample locations in Fig. 2)
have been carried out. The pelitic schists, which are interlayered with fuchsite quartzite,
ultramafic schist and amphibolite show a pervasive biotite + muscovite + chlorite ±
staurolite-defined metamorphic foliation. Based on careful textural analysis, they are classified
into two groups: (a) Samples recording syn- to post-kinematic growth of porphyroblasts (e.g.
staurolite, garnet and kyanite) with respect to the foliation stated above. Pelitic schists of this
type (e.g. samples HNP-1, HNP-1C, 09-HN-01, HNA-1A, HG-6B, HG-8) have undergone
peak kyanite-, and locally kyanite + garnet or staurolite-zone metamorphism, generally in the
stability field of rutile. (b) In the second group, pelitic schists are polyphase metamorphosed
with porphyroblasts having grown both pre- and post-kinematic with respect to the foliation
(samples HNP-10 and 09-HNP-10). Despite low abundance of the second group of pelitic
schists, they are potentially important to pin point the older Mesoarchaean metamorphism.
Detailed P-T path information of this Mesoarchaean event has been summarised in the next
section. Other litho components of the supracrustal association e.g. psammo-pelitic schists,
metamorphosed banded Iron Formation and garnetiferous amphibolite rocks and meta-
ultramafites collected from different localities of the belt. The detailed petrographic studies of
ultramafic units are presented in unpublished extension report 2018. The ultramafic rocks are
varied based on their field occurrences as well as texture and mineralogy. The 3rd objective of
the dissertation work was combined in situ monazite total Th-U-Pb and SHRIMP U-Pb dating
of the same monazite compositional domains in metapelites to develop precise chronological
constraints of possible Mesoarchaean and pervasive Neoarchaean to Palaeoproterozoic
metamorphic events. The in situ monazite total Th-U-Pb chemical dates were previously

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presented in detail (Unpublished registration report., 2017). SHRIMP U-Pb dating of the
Mesoarchean monazite compositional domains (CD1 and CD2) are presented in section 7
below.

4. Fieldwork and petrological sampling:

Supracrustal rock components i.e. pelitic schists, fuchsite-quartzites, ultramafic-schists,
amphibolites and occasionally meta-BIF are occurring as mappable scale interbanded units and
also as detached thin bands within the TTG gneiss. Fieldwork was carried out along the NW-
SE corridor extending from Gorur in the west through Modulgudda in the center to Gunjurbetta
in the east and also in and around Markull village in the northern arm of the trident shaped
HGB and along the N-S narrow corridor towards eastern part of the belt (Fig.2). Detailed
account of field work upto the year 2018 and all corresponding sample locations have been
presented in previous reports. A compiled geological map with all of the sample locations
including those from fieldwork 2019 will be presented in the next progress report. In this report
the locations of the 8 pelitic schists that are studied in detail for metamorphic reconstruction
and geochronology in the following sections are presented in Fig. 2.

5. Petrography and mineral chemistry

5.1 Petrography

5.1.1. Sample HNP-10

This sample is a high alumina, garnet - staturolite - sillimanite - biotite - muscovite - chlorite -
ilmenite - plagioclase - quartz schist with minor paragonite, monazite and zircon. We have
studied two slices of the sample (named HNP-10-1 and HNP-10-2). Both the slices show a low
abundance of garnet (1.5-3 modal%) and are thinly banded with alternate layers rich in
staurolite + ilmenite ± chlorite, biotite + muscovite ± chlorite and quartz + plagioclase,
defining a pervasive foliation (Fig. 3a-b). The foliation wraps around garnet porphyroblasts
(Fig. 3c). In the interfolial domain, there are coarse aggregates of staurolite (Fig. 3d) and
locally muscovite (Fig. 3e). The foliation is also overgrown by a later generation biotite (Fig.
3a), staurolite (Fig. 3f) and chlorite (Fig.3g). Garnet is generally inclusion-free (Fig. 3c),
excepting minor presence of biotite, paragonite (Fig. 3h), quartz and chlorite (Fig. i) within it.
It is partially rimmed by biotite (Fig. 3a,g). Coarse matrix muscovite grains in the interfolial
domain show presence of thick seams of fibroliticsillimanite, particularly in its core (Fig.3e).
Thin flakes of muscovite in the foliation domain are characteristically free of sillimanite (Fig.
3j).In HNP-10, the analysed monazite grains occur in three textural settings (Figs. 3a):
inclusions within garnet (grains M1 to M3 in HNP-10-1 and M1 in HNP-10-2),inclusions
within quartz in the interfolial domain (grain M5 in HNP-10-1) and in the foliation domain
(grains M4, M6, M7 in HNP-10-1 and M2 to M4 in HNP-10-2).

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Fig. 3

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Fig. 3: Back-scattered electron (BSE) images (a, h-i) and photomicrographs (b-g, j-n) of two representative
pelitic schist samples (HNP-10 with thin sections numbering HNP-10-1 andHNP-10-2 and 09-HNP-10), showing
key textural features. Mineral abbreviations used in thisand other figures are after Kretz (1983). (a-j) SamplHNP-
10 showing the development of a thinly banded schistosity (a-b) that wraps around Grtporphyroblast (c). Coarse
aggregates of St (d) and locally Ms (e) occur in the interfolial domains. The schistosity is overgrown bytexturally
late Bt (a), St (f) and Chl (g). Grt with rare inclusions ofBt, Pa (h), Qtz and Chl (i) is partially rimmed by Bt (a, g)

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at places. Whereas thick seams of fibrolite occur at the core of the interfolial Ms (e), these are absent in the
foliation-defining Ms grains (j). Locations of monazite grains (M-1, M-2, M-3, M-4, M-5, M-6 and M-7) are
marked in Fig. 2a. (k-n) Sample 09-HNP-10 showing the occurrences of large Kyporphyroblast, locally with
included St (k) and Rt (l). The porphyroblasts overgrow a Bt + Ms ±Chl- defined schistosity (m). Aggregates of a
texturally later generation of St enclose relics of Ky (n).

5.1.2. Sample 09-HNP-10

The high alumina pelite sample 09-HNP-10 is a staurolite - biotite - muscovite - quartz schist,
and differs from HNP-10 by lacking garnet, sillimanite, paragonite and ilmenite, but having
kyanite (Fig. 3k) and rutile (Fig. 3l). The matrix foliation is defined by oriented muscovite,
biotite, staurolite and rarely chlorite (Fig. 3m). Porphyroblasts of kyanite overgrow the
foliation. There are two textural varieties of staurolite in the sample: (a) Staurolite1 occurs as a
protected inclusion within kyanite (Fig. 3k). (b) Staurolite2, often intergrown with quartz
partially rims biotite or its aggregates enclose kyanite relic (Fig. 3n). In 09HNP-10, all the
monazite grains occur in the foliation domain with shapes varying from elongated through
ovoid to amoeboid ones.

5.2. Mineral chemistry

Major-element mineral chemical compositions were measured using a CAMECA SX-100

electron microprobe fitted with four spectrometers at the Department of Geology and
Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kharagpur.Trace element measurements in
garnet and monazite were carried out at the Department of Geology and Geophysics, IIT,
Kharagpur using a Thermo-Fisher Scientific iCap-Q quadrupole-inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometer attached to a new wave 193 Ar-F Excimer laser ablation system.

5.2.1. Garnet

Mn-, Mg-, Ca- and Fe-X-ray element images of two representative garnet grains in the HNP-
10-1 and HNP-10-2 show a uniform feature of Mn-rich core and Mn-poor rim and a rimward
increase in Mg, Ca and Fe contents (Fig.4a-h), also reflected in the compositional profiles (Fig.
4i-r). This rimward depletion in spessartine (12→07-08) and enrichments in pyrope (14 →15)
and XMg(16→17) contents in garnet are attributed to compositional zoning due to prograde
garnet growth. One characteristic feature of garnet in this sample is the rimward enrichment in
grossular content (02 → 04). The outermost garnet rim (~115-250μm wide) in contact with
biotite shows a fall in XMg(17→14) and grossular contents (04→03).

A garnet core in sample HNP-10-1 is enriched in heavy rare earth elements (HREE, Gd to Lu)
relative to its inner rim ( Fig. 4s). Collectively and individually, all HREE elements and Y
show a steady decrease in their concentrations from core to inner rim (Fig. 4t-v). The outermost
garnet rim is, however, enriched in HREE and Y (Fig. 4t-u), also reflected in the changing
Lu/Dy ratios from core/inner rim (~0.16-0.21) to outer rim (~0.88-0.93). We attribute the
compositional zoning in garnet, reflecting core to rim depletions in HREE and Y contents, and
broadly resembling a bell-shaped REE distribution to prograde garnet growth (Hickmott&
Shimizu, 1990; Otamendi et al., 2002). The spikes in HREE and Y at the outermost rim of
garnet are explained by intragranular back-diffusion during garnet dissolution.

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Fig. 4: (a-h) X-ray element images in two representative Grt grains in thin sections HNP-10-1 (a-d) and HNP-10-2
(e-h). Also shown are the locations of selected compositional profiles in Grt grains [(i-m) and (n-r)]. (s) Chondrite
normalised REE plots for different textural locations in garnet in sample HNP-10-1. (t-v) Core to rim
compositional variations of trace elements Y, total HREE contents, Yb and Lu in garnet. Numbers refer to textural
locations of the analytical spots in garnet, shown in Fig. (v). The Lu plot is magnified in Fig. (u).

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5.2.2. Biotite and plagioclase

Biotite in the foliation domain is slightly more magnesian (0.58-0.60) than it its occurrence as a
partial rim around garnet (XMg=0.56-0.57) . Included biotite in garnet has XMgof 0.58-0.60.
Both included plagioclase in garnet (An11) and matrix plagioclase (An15-22) are oligoclase with
the matrix variety showing reverse zoning [An15-16(C)→An21-22(R)].

5.2.3. Muscovite and Paragonite

Matrix muscovite is generally sodic (Ms58-62Pa26-29Cel8-11Prl02-04) in composition. Paragonite

has a composition of Pa62Cel12Ms09Prl17.

5.2.4. Staurolite, chlorite and apatite

Staurolite is compositionally homogeneous at XMg= 0.20. Matrix chlorite is more magnesian

(XMg=0.61) than that included within garnet (XMg=0.50). Apatite inclusion in garnet is
fluorapatite (XF = 0.93) with minor hydroxylapatite content (XOH =0.06).

5.3. Mineral Reaction History

We now use the textural and mineral compositional features to infer the possible reaction
pathways that shaped the metamorphic evolution of the HGB. While both the samples record a
common biotite + muscovite + staurolite + chlorite-defined foliation, mineral assemblage
evolution pre-and post-dating the foliation is different and is differentially preserved in the two
samples. In HNP-10, porphyroblastic garnet (together with its included phases such as biotite,
chlorite and paragonite) (Fig. 3h), coarse staurolite aggregates (Fig. 3d) and muscovite with
thick seams of fibrolitic sillimianite inclusions (Fig. 3e) have developed preceding the
pervasive deformation event. Although of fragmentary nature, these textural and compositional
attributes when applied together attest to three distinct metamorphic stages: (a) a partially
preserved prograde heating stage, as indicated by an early stability of chlorite (Fig. 3 a,i),
biotite (Fig. 3h) and paragonite (Fig. 3h) and formation of growth zoned garnet (Fig. 4)
following a model reaction, Chlorite + muscovite + plagioclase1 ± quartz → staurolite + biotite
+ plagioclase2 + paragonite + V, (b) peak metamorphism, represented by garnet and staurolite,
together with ilmenite, muscovite, biotite, sodic plagioclase and quartz and (c) a garnet
decomposition stage, producing biotite, sillimanite and relatively calcic plagioclase according
to a model reaction, garnet + muscovite + plagioclase1 → biotite + sillimanite + plagioclase2
(R2a, Table 3). The reaction is supported by features of partial biotite rim around garnet (Fig.
3i), developments of fibroliticsillimanite in muscovite (Fig. 3e), depletion in grossular contents
in garnet rim and reverse zoning in plagioclase (An15-16→21-22). Additional support for the
decomposition of garnet comes from the trace element zoning in the mineral (Fig. 4s-v). In the
garnet absent domain, sillimanite can also appear via reaction, staurolite + muscovite + quartz
→ biotite + sillimanite + H2O .The occurrences of staurolite (Fig. 3c), chlorite (Fig. 3b) and
sillimanite-free muscovite (3j) in the foliation domain indicate a low-temperature hydration
event, according to the model reaction, sillimanite + biotite + H2O → chlorite + staurolite +
muscovite.

Sample 09HNP-10, in contrast, has preferentially preserved mineral reaction history

following the foliation development. Textural features keep a record of a two stage mineral

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assemblage evolution in the rock: (a) the formation of kyanite (Fig. 3k) and rutile (Fig. 3l) from
the decomposition of staurolite1 (Fig. 3k) and ilmenite as part of a second kyanite-zone
prograde burial and heating event and (b) retrograde regrowth of staurolite2 (Fig. 3n) with or
without chlorite after kyanite. For a better description, we name these two prograde burial
events, pre- and post-dating the recorded deformation event as M1 and M2 respectively.
Summarising, the two investigated samples together record a polyphase metamorphic evolution
of the terrain.

6. Calculation of metamorphic phase diagram and reconstruction of metamorphic

P–T path

The mineral reaction pathways of the Mesoarchaean event are quantified using a
calculated metamorphic phase diagram. Equilibrium phase diagram has been constructed using
Gibb's free energy minimization technique in P–T space (pseudosections) for fixed bulk rock
compositions (Connolly 1990). P–T pseudosections have been computed in the model system
MnO -TiO2 - Na2O - CaO - K2O - FeO - MgO - Al2O3 -SiO2 -H2O (MnTiNCKFMASH) and
using the PERPLEX software (v. 6.7.3., updated at June 8, 2016) and the thermodynamic
dataset of Holland and Powell (1998). The following mixing models were applied: garnet:
Ganguly et al (1996); plagioclase: Newton et al. (1980); biotite: Powell and Holland (1999);
chlorite: Holland and Powell (1998); chloritoid/staurolite: Holland and Powell (1998); white
mica: Smye et al. (2010); ilmenite: Ideal mixing; cordierite: Ideal mixing; alkali feldspar:
Waldbaum and Thompson (1968). Kyanite, sillimanite, rutile and quartz are considered as
pure phases. The metamorphic phase relationships for quartz and water saturated condition are
presented in Fig. 5.

In the context of possible polyphase metamorphic history of the HGB, this early stage of
metamorphic evolution that has mostly escaped from later equilibration is unlike to that
previously documented by Bouhallier (1995). We consider this ideally suited to explore and
link with a possible older Mesoarchaeantectonothermal history of the terrain. For this, we
utilize sample HNP-10 for its excellent record of multistage reaction history of the M1 event,
the focus of this study.

The phase diagram predicts an early stability of staurolite before garnet (at P < 7.5 kbar) and
biotite during prograde heating along a medium-pressure-medium-temperature (MP-MT)
thermal gradient, consistent with their thermal and baric stabilities in high-alumina pelite bulk
rock composition as in HNP-10 (Fig. 5a). The P-T field of the M1 peak metamorphic
assemblage garnet + biotite + muscovite + staurolite + ilmenite + plagioclase + quartz is
demarcated by the kyanite-in curve at higher T (T>640-650 oC), the rutile-in curve at higher P
(P>8 kbar), the garnet-out and sillimanite-in curves at lower P (P between 6.0 and 6.8 kbar)
and the paragonite-out curve at lower T (T< 600-640 oC) (Fig. 5b). Assuming the bulk rock has
not been significantly fractionated prior to garnet growth, we constrain the P–T condition of the
first appearance of garnet by knowing the compositions of the earliest stabilized prograde
garnet core and applying the isopleth thermobarometry approach (after Vance and Mahar,

14
15
Fig. 5 (a) MnNCKFMASHTi P-T pseudosection for a representative bulk rock composition ofsample HNP-10,
showing stability of equilibrium mineral assemblage fields and key indexminerals. The P-T box indicates the

16
possible P-T limits of mineral assemblage evolution in the investigated rock and shown in details in Fig. (b) and
(c). (b) The mineral assemblage fields are contoured with compositional isopleths of XSps, XGrs, XPrp(for Grt
core and inner rim compositions) and XMg (Bt). For the estimations of P-T conditions of prograde
metamorphism, intersections of Grt compositional isopleths corresponding to growth zoned prograde Grt core are
considered. The peak P-T condition is calculated by intersections of the isopleths of Grtinner rim composition
(reconstructed XPrp value shown in the inset) and XMg in matrix Bt awayfrom its contact with Grt. (c) The same
mineral assemblage fields in Fig. (b) are contoured with mode isopleths for Grt, Ms, Bt, Pl, St. The deduced
metamorphic reaction pathways in HNP- 10 are evaluated with modal variations of these minerals and possible
metamorphic P-T paths of evolution (see text for details).

1998). Intersection of the three compositional isopleths of garnet, XPrp(Prp14), XGrs(Grs02) and
XSps(Sps12) that are contoured in the calculated phase diagram, yield a P–T condition of ~ 6.4
kbar and; 630oC for the first appearance of garnet in the rock (Fig. 5b). Due to relatively low
modes of garnet (~1.5-3 %) in the rock, we also consider that bulk rock fractionation due to
garnet growth is unlikely to be significant (e.g. Marmo et al, 2002) making it possible to use
the inner rim composition of growth zoned garnet to estimate peak P-T condition of
metamorphism. As discussed in the mineral chemistry section, the Mg-Fe composition of the
outer rim of growth-zoned garnet has been partially reset (Fig. 4m,r) due to the decomposition
of garnet. This implies that the maximum pyrope content in garnet outer rim is likely to be
higher than that measured (Prp15). We have estimated this pyrope content at ~16 mole% by
projecting the core-rim pyrope profile up to a distance where XGrs is at a maximum (Grs04)
(inset of Fig. 5b). We use these garnet (Prp16 Grs04 Sps07) and matrix biotite (XMg= 0.57)
compositions to calculate P-T conditions of peak metamorphism. Intersections of these
compositional isopleths of garnet and biotite have yielded a P-T value of ~7.5 kbar, 640°C
(Fig. 5b), which is taken as the estimate of peak metamorphism in the HGB. The P-T estimate
is in good agreement with the texturally constrained kyanite- and rutile-absent peak
metamorphic assemblage.

We now apply the reconstructed metamorphic reaction pathways and estimated P-T
conditions during garnet growth to deduce the metamorphic P-T path of evolution of the M1
event. The dispositions of paragonite-out, chlorite-out and garnet-in curves and garnet mode
contours reveal two segments of the prograde P-T path: (a) segment 1a indicating heating
accompanying loading intersects chlorite-out, paragonite-out and garnet-in curves in a
sequence (Fig. 5c). This is supported by textural features of the presence of chlorite and
paragonite inclusions within garnet and complete absence of paragonite in the matrix. The
phase diagram predicts a metamorphic sequence of an early stability of paragonite and chlorite
and subsequently their complete removals in the mineral assemblages along path 1a (Fig. 5c).
(b) Segment 1b with a steep dP/dT gradient marks a phase of prograde garnet growth, also
supported by intersections of progressively higher garnet mode contours (Fig.5c). There are
three possible P-T pathways of evolution following growth of garnet (Fig. 5c): (a) a phase of
near-isobaric cooling (Path 2), (b) a segment of heating accompanying decompression followed
by decompression and cooling (Path 3) and (c) a segment of near-isothermal decompression
(Path 4). Path 2, which intersects increasing garnet mode contours can be discounted as it
doesn't explain the post-peak reaction history of decomposition of garnet (Fig. 5c) and
appearance of sillimanite (Fig.3e). Path 3 is also unlikely as the segment of heating at lower
pressure will involve formation of kyanite, Which is not recorded in the sample. We favour

17
option (c) since the steep decompression path (path 4) intersects progressively decreasing
garnet and muscovite and increasing biotite and plagioclase mode contours (Fig. 5c),
culminating in the appearance of sillimanite and not kyanite at the lowest pressure end. This is
consistent with the construed post-peak reactions. Reappearance of chlorite and staurolite via
reaction: sillimanite + biotite + H2O → chlorite + staurolite + muscovitein the foliation
domain reflects a low-T hydration stage which can be part of the same retrograde P-T path and
marking a phase of post-decompressional cooling. Alternatively, the syntectonic formation of
chlorite and staurolite can be related with the temporally unrelated M2 event. Nevertheless, our
study reveals that this progressive change in P-T vectors from heating accompanying loading
(Path 1a) through isothermal burial (Path 1b) and finally to isothermal decompression (Path 4)
defines a clockwise P-T path of evolution of the M1 event (Fig. 5c) in the HGB.

7. SHRIMP U-Pb monazite dating

The same monazite grains that have been dated with the EMP are dated using the Sensitive
High Resolution Ion Micro-Probe Reverse Geometry (SHRIMP RG) facility housed at the
Research School of Earth Sciences (RSES), Australian National University, Canberra. (See
Dasgupta et al., 2019 for a detailed account)

The selected monazite grains from HNP-10 with known textural settings and compositional
characteristics (e.g. compositional domains CD1 and CD2) are the ones whose chemical ages
have been determined. This makes it possible to directly compare monazite EPMA and
SHRIMP ages. Eight spots have been analysed in four monazite grains (numbering M1, M2,
M5 and M7; Fig. 3a for textural locations grains). The weighted mean 207Pb/206Pb age of all
analyses shows excess scatter with an MSWD of 6.5. The analyses can be divided into two
populations (P1 and P2) (Fig. 6e): P1 comprises the four analyses from sites M1-1, M5-2, and
M5-3 that yield a 204Pb/206Pb-corrected 207Pb/206Pb weighted mean age of 3144 ± 7 Ma (2σ,
MSWD = 0.74), while P2 comprises the four analyses from sites M2, M5-1, and M7 that yield
a weighted mean age of 3105 ± 10 Ma (2σ, MSWD = 1.15).
Three of the ages from the older domain have been obtained from monazite grains
occurring as inclusions in the inner rim of garnet (grain M1, Fig. 6a) or in matrix quartz from
the interfolial domain (grain M5, Fig. 6b). While three of the ages are from the CD1
compositional domain (Fig. 6b), the remaining one is from an overlapping area between CD1
and CD2 (Fig. 6a). The four younger Mesoarchaean ages are obtained from monazite grains
occurring as inclusions in the outermost rim of garnet (grain M2 with CD1 domain, Fig. 6c), in
the foliation domain (CD1 in grain M7, Fig. 6d) and in interfolial quartz (overlapping CD1-
CD2 in grain M5, Fig. 6b).
In terms of the Pb/U and Pb/Th chronometers, P1 has a 204Pb/206Pb-corrected
206Pb/238U age of 3270 ± 110 (MSWD = 0.65), and a 208Pb/232Th age of 3290 ± 80 (MSWD =
2.6). For P2, the 206Pb/238U age is 3200 ± 100 Ma (MSWD = 0.12), and the 208Pb/232Th age is
3190 ± 80 Ma (MSWD = 0.14). Thus a difference exists between the populations for both Pb/U
and Pb/Th chronometers, but the uncertainties are larger and the age distinction is not as clear
as that provided by the 207Pb/206Pb chronometry. While monazite has intrinsically high
concentrations of U and Th, and these monazites are old so also have high Pb, the external
reproducibility of monazite is apparently poorer for monazite than for zircon (Ireland and
Gibson, 1998; Ireland and Williams 2003). This may relate to matrix effects based on

18
mineralogical composition (huttonite-monazite solid solution), crystal orientation effects, or
chemistry of the constituent mineral
In the Tera–Wasserburgconcordia diagram (Fig. 6f), the monazite analyses range
from concordant to slightly reversely discordant, that is, the 206Pb/238U ages are generally
greater than the 207Pb/206Pb ages. In this data set, the reverse discordance ranges between 1 and
7 %. Reverse discordance is generally attributed to two different causes – geological and
analytical.Williams et al. (1984) first noted large degrees of reverse discordance in high
temperature metamorphic zircons. Reverse discordance in Palaeoarchaeanmonazite has also
been reported previously from the Barberton Granite-Greenstone Belt (Cutts et al., 2014).
These cases of reverse discordance are related to Pb redistribution during metamorphism. For
the monazite systematics described here, this appears to be unlikely because two discrete age
groups aremaintained in the monazites analysed, and early Pb redistribution should affect
207Pb/206Pb ages as well as Pb/U ages. U loss or Pb gain caused by recent alteration (e.g.
Rohr et al., 2004) has also been described. This is possible, but the uniformity of the offset
would not necessarily be expected from this process, with U gain and Pb loss being the most
common case. An additional geological cause, preferential incorporation of excess amount of
230Th, which decays to 206Pb (Schärer, 1984; Parrish, 1990), is not relevant here because it is
only an issue in much younger monazites.
Analytical artefacts relate largely to inappropriate calibration of inter-element ratios
because of matrix effects (Ireland 1995), or to sample preparation. A bias from standard‐
sample matrix‐mismatch (Stern and Berman, 2001; Fletcher et al., 2010; Hetherington et al.,
2017) does not appear to be an issue here. Relevant instrumental indicators (UO+/U+,
secondary tuning parameters) were very similar between standards and unknowns. An
analytical problem relating to sample preparation, i.e. the use of thin sections for the unknowns
and epoxy casting for the standards is the most likely possibility, but even here there is no
indication from instrumental conditions that this has caused a bias. Despite the issues with the
detailed calibration of Pb/U and Pb/Th, the 207Pb/206Pb ratio is immune to these issues and
also provides better age resolution. The significance of these ages in a metamorphic context are
further examined in the Discussion section.

8. Garnet-monazite thermometry

Garnet-monazite thermometry following the calibration of Pyle et al. (2001) to estimate peak
metamorphic temperature and compare the result with that obtained by pseudosection
modelling. Application of the thermometer requires compositional information of the phases
involved in the chemically balanced reaction: YAG (Y + Al Garnet) + (OH)-Apatite +(25/4)
Quartz = (5/4) Grossular + (5/4) Anorthite + 3 YPO4 (Monazite) +(1/2) H2O. The
methodology is shown to have yielded meaningful temperature estimates in medium- and high-
grade pelitic schists and migmatites respectively (Pyle et al., 2001; Hallett and Spear,
2015).Textural and compositional features reveal that in a xenotime-absent mineral assemblage
as in the HGB, monazite core (cf. CD1 compositional domain) grew in the presence of a
growth-zoned garnet inner rim at metamorphic peak. These are: (1) These monazite
compositional domains occur as protected inclusions in the inner rim of garnet or rarely as the
core of matrix monazite. (2) Chondrite normalized REE plots show steep LREE enrichment

19
and HREE depletion and a strong negative Eu anomaly (Fig. 7a), consistent with their growth
in the presence of plagioclase as indicated by the reconstructed peak metamorphic assemblage.

Fig. 6: Fig. 6: (a-d) X-ray Th images of Mnz grains (M-1,5,2,7) showing the locations of in situ SHRIMP 207Pb-
206Pb ages (reported in Ma ± 1σ) in HNP-10-1.(e) Probability density diagram showing two age populations in
monazite, P1 at 3144 ± 7 Ma (error in 2 σ) and P2 at 3105 ± 10 Ma. (f) Tera-Wasserburgconcordia plot of
monazite SHRIMP data. See text for details.

(3) Monazite cores showing relatively lower Y concentrations (Fig. 7a) and REE partitioning
relationship between monazite and inner garnet rim, broadly in agreement with natural rock
data (Fig. 7b) together reveal broadly co-eval crystallization of garnet and monazite (e.g.
Hermann and Rubatto, 2003; Warren et al., 2018). We combine these compositional features of
monazite and garnet with the composition of included apatite (XOH = 0.06) in garnet and
relatively sodic plagioclase composition (XAn = 0.11 to 0.15) either from its occurrence as
inclusion within garnet or from matrix plagioclase core. The peak P-T conditions at which the
fugacity of H2O was calculated were acquired from the results of pseudosection modelling. The
selected mineral compositions are: XYAG=0.00015, XGrs=0.04, , XYPO4 (Mnz)=0.03, XOH
(Ap)=0.06 and XAn=0.11-0.15 and calculated fH2Ois 6623.6. Garnet-monazite thermometry has
yielded temperatures of 605-610°C, in broad agreement with the estimated peak metamorphic
temperature at ~640 oC.

20
Fig. 7 a: Chondrite normalised REE plot of Mnz core from different textural locations in the pelitic schist sample,
HNP-10-1.(b) REE element partitioning relationship between matrix monazite core and garnet inner rim (dark
blue band) is compared with published data (cyan band). Abbreviations used: HR03, Hermann and Rubatto, 2003;
B06, Buick et al., 2006; R06, Rubatto et al., 2006; W18, Warren et al., 2018.

9. Discussion: Monazite age

SHRIMP U-Pb monazite dating has yielded higher precision, mean 207Pb-206Pb ages at
3143 ± 4 Ma and 3104 ± 4 Ma. Since the older age domain is largely derived from monazite
cores, being shielded from later equilibrations in garnet inner rim and interfolial matrix quartz-
domain, two of the analysed SHRIMP spots lie on monazite included in the outermost garnet
rim. This part of the growth zoned garnet rim is compositionally modified due to its dissolution
following peak metamorphism. The remaining two analyses of monazite are from the matrix.
There are two possibilities to interpret the 3.1 Ga monazite age domain: (a) a reset peak
metamorphic age due to modifications of isotopic compositions during the retrograde
metamorphism, (b) a variation in M1P age due to an initial compositional heterogeneity of
monazite core domain. A statistical evaluation of these two age domains in the context of
errors in monazite age standard (~1.07% as 2σ) shows that they are indistinguishable within
2σ errors. On the basis of this analysis, the best estimate of the timing of Mesoarchean
metamorphic event in the Holenarsipur Greenstone Belt is between 3.14 and 3.1 Ga.

10. Key Findings:

1. Rare high-alumina pelitic schists from the ca. 3.3-3.1 Ga HGB in the WDC, South India
record a near complete preservation of an older Mesoarchaean metamorphic history, despite a
strong superposed metamorphic overprint in the latest Neoarchaean to earliest
Palaeoproterozoic time period. The older history, now protected in low-strain domains of these
rocks reveals three distinct metamorphic stages i.e. (a) a partially preserved prograde heating
stage, which is indicated by an early stability of chlorite (XMg=0.50), biotite (XMg=0.58-0.60)
and paragonite (Pa62-68Cel11-12Ms09-15Prl07-17) and formation of growth-zoned garnet
[Sps12Grs02Prp14Alm72 (Core) → Sps07Grs04Prp16Alm73 (Rim)], (b) the peak metamorphism,
which is represented by an assemblage of garnet + staurolite(XMg=0.20) + ilmenite +
muscovite (Pa26-29Cel8-11Ms58-63Prl2-4) + biotite (XMg=0.57-0.59) + sodic plagioclase (An11 to
An15-16) + quartz, and (c) the retrograde metamorphism, which is marked by the decomposition

21
of garnet and formation of biotite (XMg= 0.56-0.57), fibrolitic sillimanite and calcic plagioclase
(An21-22).
2. On the basis of P-T pseudosection modelling in the MnTiNCKFMASH chemical system, we
interpret the three metamorphic stages in terms of a hairpin clockwise P-T trajectory. The
trajectory shows a two-stage prograde segment with an initial phase of heating accompanying
burial ( dP/dT gradient ~ 30 bar/ oC) and a later phase of steep burial (ΔP ~1.1 kbar, dP/dT
gradient ~110 bar/ oC), peak metamorphism at 7.5 kbar, 640 oC and a post-peak, steep
decompression stage (P~6.3 kbar at 635 oC).

3. Chemically zoned monazite grains shielded within garnet or occurring in low-strain matrix
domains attest to two stages of crystallization history during the Mesoarchaean metamorphism:
(a) Monazite cores with relatively lower Y concentrations, higher Th/U ratios and a strong
negative Eu anomaly crystallized in the presence of a growth-zoned garnet inner rim at
metamorphic peak. This interpretation is additionally supported by the application of garnet-
monazite trace element thermometry. The combinations of monazite core (XYPO4 = 0.03),
garnet inner rim (XGrs= 0.04; XYAG = 0.00015), included apatite (XOH = 0.06) in garnet and
relatively sodic plagioclase composition (XAn= 0.11 to 0.15) have yielded temperatures of 605-
610°C, in broad agreement with the estimated peak metamorphic temperature at ~640 oC. (b)
Monazite rims with higher Y and uraniferous compositions and lower Th/U ratios formed
during the post-peak decompression stage associated with coupled decompositions of garnet
and zircon.

4. The SHRIMP 207Pb-206Pb monazite dating method has yielded monazite core and rim ages at
3144 ± 7 Ma and 3105 ± 10 Ma respectively. On the basis of this finding, the timing of the
Mesoarchean metamorphic event in the Holenarsipur Greenstone Belt is constrained between
3.14 and 3.1 Ga
11. Future Work
• (A) Reconstruction of metamorphic reaction history, phase equilibria modelling and P-
T path of evolution of the meta-psammo-pelitic rocks, meta-BIFs and the metabasic
rocks.
• (B) An attempt will be made to to model the growth of Mnz using Gibbs program(Spear
et al., 1988) in both of these varities of pelitic samples to (i) better constrain the timing
of metamorphism (both Meso and Neoarchean) with respect to the growth of Mnz; (ii)
and also to understand the control of Grt, Xen and Ap on Mnz compositional zonation
in course of an Archaean metamorphic event.
• (C) Collation of all the findings to develop a robust tectonic model for the crustal
evolution of the WDC.

22
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