VIDYADHAN COLLEGE

N-3, CIDCO, AURANGABAD

DEPT. OF MANAGEMENT AND COMMERCE
PROF.BANKAR SAVITA RAMESH
CLASS: BBA TY V SEM
SUBJECT: MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE V
NOTES

Unit I
Decision making
Concept of DM
Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering
information, and assessing alternative resolutions.
Using a step-by-step decision-making process can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful
decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives. This approach increases
the chances that you will choose the most satisfying alternative possible.

Step 1: Identify the decision

You realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the nature of the decision you
must make. This first step is very important.

Step 2: Gather relevant information

Collect some pertinent information before you make your decision: what information is needed,
the best sources of information, and how to get it. This step involves both internal and external
“work.” Some information is internal: you’ll seek it through a process of self-assessment. Other
information is external: you’ll find it online, in books, from other people, and from other sources.

Step 3: Identify the alternatives

As you collect information, you will probably identify several possible paths of action, or
alternatives. You can also use your imagination and additional information to construct new
alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible and desirable alternatives.

Step 4: Weigh the evidence

Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be like if you carried out each
of the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need identified in Step 1 would be met or
resolved through the use of each alternative. As you go through this difficult internal process,
you’ll begin to favor certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential for reaching
your goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a priority order, based upon your own value system.

Step 5: Choose among alternatives

Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select the alternative that seems to be
best one for you. You may even choose a combination of alternatives. Your choice in Step 5 may
very likely be the same or similar to the alternative you placed at the top of your list at the end of
Step 4.

Step 6: Take action

You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the alternative you
chose in Step 5.

Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences

In this final step, consider the results of your decision and evaluate whether or not it has resolved
the need you identified in Step 1. If the decision has not met the identified need, you may want to
repeat certain steps of the process to make a new decision. For example, you might want to
gather more detailed or somewhat different information or explore additional alternatives.

Significance of Decision-Making:
i. Managers who use a rational, intelligent, and systematic approach are more likely to come up
with high quality solutions to the problems they face than the ones who do not use this approach.

ii. Rational decision-makers have a clear understanding of alternative courses of action to

accomplish a goal under a particular set of circumstances.

iii. Rational decision-making is based on the information available with the decision-makers and
their ability to evaluate alternatives.

iv. Rational decision-making aims at deciding the best solution by selecting the alternative that
most effectively facilitates goal achievement

Models for DM

The decision-making process though a logical one is a difficult task. All decisions can be

categorized into the following three basic models.

(1) The Rational/Classical Model.

(2) The Administrative or Bounded Rationality Model.

(3) The Retrospective Decision-Making Model.

All models are beneficial for understanding the nature of decision-making processes in

enterprises or organisations. All models are based on certain assumptions on which the decisions

are taken.

1. The Rational/Classical Model:

The rational model is the first attempt to know the decision-making-process. It is considered by

some as the classical approach to understand the decision-making process. The classical model

gave various steps in decision-making process which have been discussed earlier.

Features of Classical Model:

1. Problems are clear.

2. Objectives are clear.

3. People agree on criteria and weights.

4. All alternatives are known.

5. All consequences can be anticipated.

6. Decision makes are rational.

i. They are not biased in recognizing problems.

ii. They are capable of processing ail relevant information

iii. They anticipate present and future consequences of decisions.

iv. They search for all alternatives that maximizes the desired results.
2. Bounded Rationality Model or Administrative Man Model:
Decision-making involve the achievement of a goal. Rationality demands that the decision-

maker should properly understand the alternative courses of action for reaching the goals.

He should also have full information and the ability to analyse properly various alternative

courses of action in the light of goals sought. There should also be a desire to select the best

solutions by selecting the alternative which will satisfy the goal achievement.

Herbert A. Simon defines rationality in terms of objective and intelligent action. It is

characterised by behavioural nexus between ends and means. If appropriate means are chosen to

reach desired ends the decision is rational.

Bounded Rationality model is based on the concept developed by Herbert Simon. This model

does not assume individual rationality in the decision process.

Instead, it assumes that people, while they may seek the best solution, normally settle for much

less, because the decisions they confront typically demand greater information, time, processing

capabilities than they possess. They settle for “bounded rationality or limited rationality in

decisions. This model is based on certain basic concepts.

a. Sequential Attention to alternative solution:

Normally it is the tendency for people to examine possible solution one at a time instead of

identifying all possible solutions and stop searching once an acceptable (though not necessarily

the best) solution is found.

b. Heuristic:
These are the assumptions that guide the search for alternatives into areas that have a high

probability for yielding success.

c. Satisficing:
Herbert Simon called this “satisficing” that is picking a course of action that is satisfactory or

“good enough” under the circumstances. It is the tendency for decision makers to accept the first

alternative that meets their minimally acceptable requirements rather than pushing them further

for an alternative that produces the best results.

Satisficing is preferred for decisions of small significance when time is the major constraint or

where most of the alternatives are essentially similar.

Thus, while the rational or classic model indicates how decisions should be made (i.e. it works as

a prescriptive model), it falls somewhat short concerning how decisions are actually made (i.e. as

a descriptive model).

3. Retrospective decision model (implicit favourite model):

This decision-making model focuses on how decision-makers attempt to rationalise their choices

after they have been made and try to justify their decisions. This model has been developed by

Per Soelberg. He made an observation regarding the job choice processes of graduating business

students and noted that, in many cases, the students identified implicit favorites (i.e. the

alternative they wanted) very early in the recruiting and choice process. However, students

continued their search for additional alternatives and quickly selected the best alternative.

The total process is designed to justify, through the guise of scientific rigor, a decision that has

already been made intuitively. By this means, the individual becomes convinced that he or she is

acting rationally and taking a logical, reasoned decision on an important topic.

Some Common Errors in Decision-Making:

Since the importance of the right decision cannot be overestimated enough for the quality of the

decisions can make the difference between success and failure. Therefore, it is imperative that all

factors affecting the decision be properly looked into and fully investigated.
In addition to technical and operational factors which can be quantified and analyzed, other

factors such as personal values, personality traits, psychological assessment, perception of the

environment, intuitional and judgemental capabilities and emotional interference must also be

understood and credited.

Some researchers have pinpointed certain areas where managerial thinking needs to be re-

assessed and where some common mistakes are made. These affect the decision-making process

as well as the efficiency of the decision, and must be avoided.

Common biases and errors in DM

Most of the manager have a tendency to take decisions based on rule of thumb. •Rule of
thumbs makes decision making quick and easy. •However, these rule of thumb may not be
reliable and may lead to error and biasness.
Types of Error or Biasness in Decision Making •
1. Overconfidence Bias
2. • Immediate Gratification.
3. • Anchoring effect
4. • Selective Perception
5. • Confirmation
6. • Framing
7. • Availability
8. • Representation Bias
9. • Randomness
10. • Sunk costs
11. • Self Serving
12. • Hindsight
1.Overconfidence •
This error occurs when the decision maker believe that they know more than what they
actually do.
•Another cause is holding too much positive views of themselves. •In simple words “ I can’t
go wrong”
2. Immediate Gratification
•Decision makers who can’t wait and want immediate results of their decision.
•They even don’t care of the cost. •For them any choice that provide quick payoff is more
appealing to them.
3. Anchoring effect
•Some decision maker have a tendency give more weightage to first piece of information.
 •They tend to ignore the information received in the later stages. •First impression their
priority
4. Selective Perception Bias
•When decision makers selectively organise and interpret events based on their biased
perception
. • They create a perception (which may be wrong) and take decision based on that.
5. Confirmation Bias
• There are decision makers who seek out information that reaffirms their past judgements
and leave out information that challenges their preconceived views.
6. Confirmation Bias
• There are decision makers who seek out information that reaffirms their past judgements
and leave out information that challenges their preconceived views.
7. Framing Bias
• When a decision maker highlight certain aspect of a situation while excluding others.
• they have a tendency to omit certain parts and end up on incorrent reference point.
8. Availability Bias
• When decision makers only remembers events that are more recent
. • This distorts their judgements as they are not able to recall past events.
9. Representation Bias
• When decision makers tries to compare every new situation with the past event.
•They have a tendency to a create analogies and see identical situations where they don’t
exist.
10. Randomness Bias
• when decision makers have a tendency to create meaning from random events.
•There are so many events that happens by chance and there is no way you can predict them.
11. Sunk Cost Bias
• This error occurs when decision makers forget that current choice can’t correct their past.
• They keep on investing time on their past expenditure rather than 7ocusing on future
consequences.
12. Self Serving Bias
• This error occurs when decision makers are quick to take credit of their success and blame
the outside factors for the failure.
13. Hindsight Biasness
• When decision makers say that they would have predicted the results of any event after the
event outcome is already known.

Influence on DM
There are several important factors that influence decision making. Significant factors include
past experiences, a variety of cognitive biases, an escalation of commitment and sunk outcomes,
individual differences, including age and socioeconomic status, and a belief in personal
relevance. These things all impact the decision making process and the decisions made.
Past experiences can impact future decision making. It stands to reason that when something
positive results from a decision, people are more likely to decide in a similar way, given a similar
situation. On the other hand, people tend to avoid repeating past mistakes.

In addition to past experiences, there are several cognitive biases that influence decision making.
Cognitive biases are thinking patterns based on observations and generalizations that may lead to
memory errors, inaccurate judgments, and faulty logic Cognitive biases include, but are not
limited to: belief bias, the over dependence on prior knowledge in arriving at decisions; hindsight
bias, people tend to readily explain an event as inevitable, once it has happened; omission bias,
generally, people have a propensity to omit information perceived as risky; and confirmation
bias, in which people observe what they expect in observations.

Over and above past experiences, cognitive biases, and individual differences; another influence
on decision making is the belief in personal relevance.

Decision Making Heuristics

Heuristics are general decision making strategies people use that are based on little information,
yet very often correct; heuristics are mental short cuts that reduce the cognitive burden associated
with decision making.

DM anchoring

the anchoring and adjustment heuristic is the foundational decision making heuristic in situations
where some estimate of value is needed. In this particular heuristic, individuals first use an
anchor, or some ball park estimate that surfaces initially, and adjusts their estimates until a
satisfactory answer is reached.

After the Decision

After a decision is made, people experience a variety of reactions. In addition, present decisions
influence future decision making. Several of the outcomes that may result from a decision are
regret or satisfaction; both of which influence upcoming decisions.

Regret, feelings of disappointment or dissatisfaction with a choice made is one potential outcome
of decision making. Once the decision is made, the impact of the decision, if regret is
experienced, will impact future decisions.

Principle and guidline for DM

1. Identify and define the problem. You must clearly define the problem before you can
solve it. Problems that remain vague resist resolution and create anxiety. Hazy, vague
issues are impossible to deal with, and they often create a periphery of new problems.
Crystallize the issues so you can deal with them one at time.
2. Gather and analyze information. You must have accurate information to solve issues
appropriately. If in your haste to find a solution you short-change this part of the process,
 you can create unnecessary delays and unintended results. The more information you
gather about a particular issue, the more likely you will be able to reach a satisfactory
decision.
3. Development alternative solutions. If a solution to an issue surfaces quickly, it’s
tempting to simply do it. The first solution you come up with, although acceptable, may
not be the best. Take time to develop alternative solutions even when you don’t think you
need them and be creative.
4. Choose the best alternative. Most problems have several acceptable solutions. Picking
the best one becomes a matter of degree. Narrow your choices down to a few of the best
alternatives by evaluating your options. Consider how the solutions aligns with your
goals, how it affects costs, what time is required, what are the risks, what do others you
trust think, etc. After evaluating all alternatives, choose the one that best solves your
problem.
5. Take action. Now that you have weighed all of your alternatives and have chosen the
best course of action, it’s time to act.
6. Evaluate the decision. Finally, you should structure in-progress reviews and a final
evaluation in order to gauge progress and evaluate final results.

Ethics in DM

Ethical decision-making refers to the process of evaluating and choosing among alternatives in a
manner consistent with ethical principles. In making ethical decisions, it is necessary to perceive
and eliminate unethical options and select the best ethical alternative.
The process of making ethical decisions requires:

 Commitment: The desire to do the right thing regardless of the cost

 Consciousness: The awareness to act consistently and apply moral convictions to daily
behavior
 Competency: The ability to collect and evaluate information, develop alternatives, and
foresee potential consequences and risks

Good decisions are both ethical and effective:

 Ethical decisions generate and sustain trust; demonstrate respect, responsibility, fairness
and caring; and are consistent with good citizenship. These behaviors provide a
foundation for making better decisions by setting the ground rules for our behavior.
 Effective decisions are effective if they accomplish what we want accomplished and if
they advance our purposes. A choice that produces unintended and undesirable results is
ineffective. The key to making effective decisions is to think about choices in terms of
their ability to accomplish our most important goals. This means we have to understand
the difference between immediate and short-term goals and longer-range goals.
 Unit II

Stress management

Meaning

Stress management is a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling

a person's level of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of and for the motive
of improving everyday functioning. Stress produces numerous physical and mental symptoms
which vary according to each individual's situational factors. These can include physical health
decline as well as depression. The process of stress management is named as one of the keys to a
happy and successful life in modern society. Although life provides numerous demands that can
prove difficult to handle, stress management provides a number of ways to manage anxiety and
maintain overall well-being.

Despite stress often being thought of as a subjective experience, levels of stress are readily
measurable, using various physiological tests, similar to those used in polygraphs.

Evaluating the effectiveness of various stress management techniques can be difficult, as limited
research currently exists. Consequently, the amount and quality of evidence for the various
techniques varies widely. Some are accepted as effective treatments for use in psychotherapy,
while others with less evidence favoring them are considered alternative therapies. Many
professional organizations exist to promote and provide training in conventional or alternative
therapies.

There are several models of stress management, each with distinctive explanations of
mechanisms for controlling stress. Much more research is necessary to provide a better
understanding of which mechanisms actually operate and are effective in practice.

Work stress

Whatever your work demands, there are steps you can take to protect yourself from the
damaging effects of stress, improve your job satisfaction, and bolster your well-being on and off
the job.

Stress isn’t always bad. A little bit of stress can help you stay focused, energetic, and able to
meet new challenges in the workplace. It’s what keeps you on your toes during a presentation or
alert to prevent accidents or costly mistakes. But in today’s hectic world, the workplace too often
seems like an emotional roller coaster. Long hours, tight deadlines, and ever-increasing demands
can leave you feeling worried, drained, and overwhelmed. And when stress exceeds your ability
to cope, it stops being helpful and starts causing damage to your mind and body—as well as to
your job satisfaction.

You can’t control everything in your work environment, but that doesn’t mean you’re powerless,
even when you’re stuck in a difficult situation. If stress on the job is interfering with your work
performance, health, or personal life, it’s time to take action. No matter what you do for a living,
what your ambitions are, or how stressful your job is, there are plenty of things you can do to
reduce your overall stress levels and regain a sense of control at work.

Common causes of workplace stress include:

 Fear of being laid off

 More overtime due to staff cutbacks

 Pressure to perform to meet rising expectations but with no increase in job satisfaction

 Pressure to work at optimum levels—all the time!

 Lack of control over how you do your work

Stress at work warning signs

When you feel overwhelmed at work, you lose confidence and may become angry, irritable, or
withdrawn. Other signs and symptoms of excessive stress at work include:

 Feeling anxious, irritable, or depressed

 Apathy, loss of interest in work

 Problems sleeping

 Fatigue

 Trouble concentrating

 Muscle tension or headaches

 Stomach problems

 Social withdrawal

 Loss of sex drive

 Using alcohol or drugs to cope

Source of stress
Big stressors include money troubles, job issues, relationship conflicts, and major life
changes, such as the loss of a loved one. Smaller stressors, such as long daily
commutes and rushed mornings, can also add up over time. Learning how to recognize
sources of stress in your life is the first step in managing them.
A.Personal problem

Health:

Aging, diagnosis of a new disease, and symptoms or complications from a current illness can
increase your stress. Even if you don’t have health problems yourself, someone close to you may
be coping with an illness or condition. That can increase your stress levels too. According to
the American Psychological Association (APA), more than half of caregivers report feeling
overwhelmed by the amount of care their family members need.

Relationships:

Arguments with your spouse, parent, or child can increase your stress levels. When you live
together, it can be even more stressful. Problems between other members of your family or
household can also cause you stress, even when you’re not directly involved.

Personal beliefs:

Arguments about personal, religious, or political beliefs can challenge you, especially in
situations where you can’t remove yourself from the conflict. Major life events that cause you to
question your own beliefs can also cause stress. This is especially true if your beliefs are
different from those of the people closest to you.

Emotional problems:

When you feel unable to relate to someone, or you need to express your emotions but can’t, it
can weigh you down with additional stress. Mental health disorders, including depression and
anxiety, only add to the emotional strain. Positive outlets for emotional release and treatment for
mental health disorders are important parts of effective stress management.

Life changes:

The death of a loved one, changing jobs, moving houses, and sending a child off to college are
examples of big life changes that can be stressful. Even positive changes, such as retirement or
getting married, can cause a significant amount of stress.
 Money:

Financial trouble is a common source of stress. Credit card debt, rent, or the inability to provide
for your family or yourself can put a serious amount of stress on you. In this society, where so
much emphasis is put on what you have and what you can afford, financial stress is something
that nearly everyone can relate to. According to the APA, nearly three-quarters of Americans say
that finances are a source of stress in their life.

B.Social issues

Occupation:

Research has shown that pressure and conflict from a job can be a major source of stress.
According to the APA, an estimated 60 percent of Americans experience stress related to their
work.

Discrimination:

Feeling discriminated against can cause long-term stress. For example, you may experience
discrimination on the basis of your race, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation. Some people
face discrimination and the stress it causes nearly every day.

Environment:

Unsafe neighborhoods, crime-ridden cities, and other safety concerns may lead to chronic stress.

Traumatic events:

People who’ve experienced a traumatic event or life-threatening situation often live with long-
term stress. For example, you may experience long-term stress after surviving a robbery, rape,
natural disaster, or war. In many cases, you may actually have post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD).

Consequences of stress

A. Consequences for the Individual:

Stress shows itself in a number of ways.

1. Physiological Symptoms:
In the initial stages, the major concern of stress was directed at physiological symptoms. The

reason was that this topic was researched by specialists in the health and medical sciences.

According to the researchers high degrees of stress are typically accompanied by severe anxiety,

frustration and depression.

(a) Stress:
Irritability, insomnia, alcohol and food abuse. Physical changes including rapid breathing, and

heart beat, tensed muscles. Prolonged stress can cause muscular twitches, skin problems,

baldness and sexual problems such as impotence.

(b) Anxiety:
Excessive worry, irritability, anger, nervousness as well as un-ability to concentrate or sleep.

Physical changes include palpitations, chest pain and dizziness.

(c) Depression:
Feeling of sadness, hopelessness, guilt and worthlessness, loss of interest in activities, change in

appetite or weight, difficulty in concentrating and suicidal thoughts. The link between stress and

particular physiological symptoms is not clear. According to Academy of Management Journal

there are few, if any, consistent relationships. But the fact which is relatively significant is that

physiological symptoms have the least direct relevance to the students of human behaviour. Our

concern is with behaviour and attitudes. Therefore, the other two categories of symptoms are

more important to us.

2. Psychological Symptoms:
While considerable attention has been given to the relationship between stress and physiological

symptoms, especially within the medical community not as much importance has been given to

the impact of stress on mental health. But psychological problems resulting from stress are very

important in day to day job performance.

The psychological impacts of stress may be:

(i) Stress can cause dissatisfaction. Job related stress can cause job-related dissatisfaction. Job

dissatisfaction “is the simplest and most psychological aspect of stress.”

(ii) High levels of stress may be accompanied by anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness,

irritability, tension and boredom. One study found that stress had the strongest impact on

aggressive actions such as sabotage, interpersonal aggression, hostility and complaints.

(iii) The psychological problems from stress may lead to poor job performance, lowered self

esteem, resentment of supervision, inability to concentrate, make decisions and job

dissatisfaction.
(iv) Research indicates that when people are placed in jobs that make multiple and conflicting

demands or in which there is a lack of clarity as to the individual’s duties, authority and

responsibilities, both stress and dissatisfaction are increased.

(v) The less control people have over the pace of their work, the greater the stress and

dissatisfaction.

(vi) Some evidence suggests that jobs that provide a low level of variety, significance, autonomy,

feedback and identity, create stress and reduce satisfaction and involvement in the job.

3. Behavioural Symptoms:
(i) Undereating or overeating

(ii) Sleeplessness

(iii) Increased smoking and drinking

(iv) Drug abuse

(v) Nodding off during meetings or social gatherings

(vi) Losing your sense of humour

(vii) Moving in a tense and jerky way

(viii) Reacting nervously or irritably to everyday sounds

(ix) Absenteeism and turnover

(x) Reduction in productivity

B. Consequences for the Family:
Distress which is handled by individuals in dysfunctional ways such as resorting to drinking or

withdrawal behaviours, will have an adverse effect on their family life. The effects of this will be

spouse abuse, child abuse, alienation from family members and even divorce.

The stressors which generally affect the family life are:

(i) In the dual career families where both the spouses are pursuing careers, a lot of personal

commitments, varied in nature, are demanded from them (both to their jobs and families). The

stresses experienced by the couples stem from role overload, since both partners have to manage

their careers as well as help the family.

(ii) Additional stresses are experienced while handling the personal, social and cultural dilemmas

of balancing work and family, discharging parenting responsibilities, handling competition at the

work place and within the family and being an involved member of the extended family.

C. Consequences for the Organisations:

The effect of employees stress on organisations is many and varied.

These include:
(i) Low performance and productivity.

(ii) High rate of absenteeism and turnover.

(iii) Loss of customers due to poor attitudes of workers.

(iv) Increased alienation of the worker from the job.

(v) Destructive and aggressive behaviours resulting in strikes and sabotage.

Types of stress

There are several types of stress, including:

 acute stress

 episodic acute stress

 chronic stress

Acute stress

Acute stress happens to everyone. It’s the body’s immediate reaction to a new and challenging
situation. It’s the kind of stress you might feel when you narrowly escape a car accident.

These incidents of acute stress don’t normally do you any harm. They might even be good for
you. Stressful situations give your body and brain practice in developing the best response to
future stressful situations.

Once the danger passes, your body systems should return to normal.

Episodic acute stress

Episodic acute stress is when you have frequent episodes of acute stress.

This might happen if you’re often anxious and worried about things you suspect may happen.
You might feel that your life is chaotic and you seemingly go from one crisis to the next.

As with severe acute stress, episodic acute stress can affect your physical health and mental well-
being.
Chronic stress

When you have high-stress levels for an extended period of time, you have chronic stress. Long-
term stress like this can have a negative impact on your health. It may contribute to:

 anxiety

 cardiovascular disease

 depression

 high blood pressure

 a weakened immune system

Chronic stress can also lead to frequent ailments such as headaches, an upset stomach, and sleep
difficulties. Gaining insights into the different types of stress and how to recognize them may
help.

Stress management
Many businesses today have begun to use stress management programs for employees who are
having trouble adapting to stress at the workplace or at home. Some companies provide special
equipments adapting to stress at the workplace to their employees, like coloring diaries[25] and
stress relieving gadgets.[26] Many people have spill over stress from home into their working
environment. There are a couple of ways businesses today try to reduce the stress levels of their
employees. One way is through individual intervention. This starts off by monitoring the
stressors in the individual. After monitoring what causes the stress, next is attacking that stressor
and trying to figure out ways to alleviate them in any way. Developing social support is vital in
individual intervention, being with others to help you cope has proven to be a very effective way
to avoid stress. Avoiding the stressors altogether is the best possible way to get rid of stress but
that is very difficult to do in the workplace. Changing behavioral patterns, may in turn, help
reduce some of the stress that is put on at work as well.
Employee assistance programs can include in-house counseling programs on managing stress.
Evaluative research has been conducted on EAPs that teach individuals stress control and
inoculation techniques such as relaxation, biofeedback, and cognitive restructuring. Studies show
that these programs can reduce the level of physiological arousal associated with high stress.
Participants who master behavioral and cognitive stress-relief techniques report less tension,
fewer sleep disturbances, and an improved ability to cope with workplace stressors. [27]
Another way of reducing stress at work is by simply changing the workload for an employee.
Some may be too overwhelmed that they have so much work to get done, or some also may have
such little work that they are not sure what to do with themselves at work. Improving
 communications between employees also sounds like a simple approach, but it is very effective
for helping reduce stress. Sometimes making the employee feel like they are a bigger part of the
company, such as giving them a voice in bigger situations shows that you trust them and value
their opinion. Having all the employees mesh well together is a very underlying factor which can
take away much of workplace stress. If employees fit well together and feed off of each other,
the chances of much stress are minimal. Lastly, changing the physical qualities of the workplace
may reduce stress. Changing things such as the lighting, air temperature, odor, and up to date
technology.
Intervention is broken down into three steps: primary, secondary, tertiary. Primary deals with
eliminating the stressors altogether. Secondary deals with detecting stress and figuring out ways
to cope with it and improving stress management skills. Finally, tertiary deals with recovery and
rehabbing the stress altogether. These three steps are usually the most effective way to deal with
stress not just in the workplace, but overall. [28]

Benefit of stress management

 Sleep better.
 Control your weight.
 Get sick less often.
 Feel better faster when you do get sick.
 Less muscle tension.
 Be in a better mood.
 Get along better with family and friends.
 Unit III

Public relation management

Concept

Everything you need to know about public relations. Public relation is an important element in
the promotion mix.
In the era of globalization, the most of the multinational companies make concrete efforts to
manage and maintain its relationships with its customers.
Most of the multinational companies have its public relation department that makes all effort to
monitor the attitude and perceptions of customers.
Public relations (PR) refer to the variety of activities conducted by a company to promote and
protect the image of the company, its products and policies in the eyes of the public. Public
relations consists number of programme to protect company’s image and its particular product
image.
Public relation is an important element in the promotion mix. In the era of globalization, the
most of the multinational companies make concrete efforts to manage and maintain its
relationships with its customers. Most of the multinational companies have its public relation
department that makes all effort to monitor the attitude and perceptions of customers.
It is used to distribute and communicate all the necessary information to build up good reputation
in the mind of the public. An efficient and good public relation department use to adopt positive
programs for this purpose and always emphasize to eliminate negative publicity arises due to
questionable practices.
Few definitions of public relations:
“The art and social science of analysing trends, predicting their consequences, counselling
organisational leaders and implementing planned programme of action which will serve both the
organisation and the public interest.” -Public Association Relations
“A strategic management function that adds value to an organisation by helping it to manage its
reputation.” -The Chartered Institute of Public Relations.
Public relations have now become an important marketing function. The total process of building
goodwill towards a business enterprise and securing a bright public image of the company is
called public relations. It creates a favourable atmosphere for conducting business.
According to Edward Barney, “Public relations are the attempt by information, persuasion,
adjustment, to engineer public support for an activity, a cause, movement or an institution.”
Thus, in this sense, Public Relations are a mode of getting public support for an activity or a
movement.
Mr. John E. Marston has developed Public Relations as a management function. According to
him, “Public Relations are the management function which evaluates public attitudes, identifies
the policies and procedures of an organisation with the public interest and executes a programme
of action and communication to earn public understanding and acceptance.”

Characteristic of PR
Following are the key characteristics of public relations:
1. Meaning:

Public relations activities are typically designed to build and maintain a favourable image for an

organisation and a favourable relationship with the organization’s various “publics.” These

publics may be customers, stockholders, employees, unions, environmentalist, the government,

people in local community or some other groups in society

2. Important Managerial Function:

It is an integral part of managerial functions. Many companies operate a special department for

the purpose known as public relations department to create and maintain constructive relations

with different interested publics. A manager must take concrete steps to manage successful

relations with the key publics.

3. Publicity and Public Relations:

It is an extension of publicity. Publicity concerns with getting favourable response from mass

media about a company, its products, and its activities while public relations concerns with

creating and maintaining constructive relations with various publics over a time.

4. Wide Range of Activity:

Public relations includes a lot of activities to build and maintain long-term and positive relations

with a large set of interested publics. It involves a number of interactions, such as contacting,

inviting, informing, clarifying, responding, interpreting, dealing, transacting, and so forth.

5. Various Parties:

Public relations covers a number of publics – formal and informal groups. These publics may be

customers, stockholders, employees, unions, environmentalists, the government, people in local

community, or some other groups in society. The purpose of public relations is to make these

parties build positive attitudes about a company.

6. Continuous Process:

Public relations is a continuous process. It starts with inception of business unit and lasts as long

as it exists. The firm has to perform public relations activities on a continuous basis. Once the

company has established a good image and reputation, such image and positive attitudes may

extinguish if they are not monitored or maintained. Similarly, along with expansion of business,

it has to build new relations with varied parties at different places.

7. Management Philosophy:

It is fundamentally the management attitudes and managerial philosophy to build and maintain

good relations with publics. A company formulates policy to establish public relations. This

philosophy is based on building healthy relations with various groups for company’s interest.

Management must know the attitudes of publics toward the company’s policy and practice. It

considers general interest while taking decisions.

8. All Level Activity:

All the officials from the top level to the supervisory level perform public relations activities. It

obvious that officials working at various levels of management can contribute in developing

positive relations with different publics like shareholders, customers, traders, service providers,

government, and so on. It is the joint duty of all the employees from top to bottom.
9. Routine Activity:

Note that public relations is a part of routine activities. It is not incidental or occasional. Further,

it is not taken as distinct activity, but a part of day-to-day activities. It is treated as part of daily

activities like purchase, administration, production, marketing, finance, and likewise.

10. Essence of Public Relations:

It is an essential function of marketing department. A company can build, improve, and maintain

its image through public relations. Due to the healthy public relations with several publics, the

company can smoothly carry out its operations. It is treated as important as production and

marketing.

11. Public Relations as a Profession:

In relation to modern management practices, the public relations has become profession. It

enjoys professional status. All the characteristics of profession such as specialized knowledge,

need of formal education, ethical codes, service motive, continuous development, etc., are also

prevalent in public relations.

The professional is called PRO (Public Relations Officer). There are special courses intended to

prepare and train successful professional public relations officers. There are professional public

relations consultancies to guide businessmen how to build, improve and/or maintain public

relations.

12. Public Relations as an Art:

It is, no doubt, an art. To make publics think positively about the company, one must know how
to deal with them. The officer – designated as public relations officer (PRO) – must have skills,
special qualities, and knowledge to interact successfully with different groups of society to build
the long-term constructive relations. He needs special qualities to be the successful PRO.
Feature of PR

Following are the main features of Public Relations:

(1) Securing Cooperation of Public:

Public relation is an activity to get support from public. Every organisation wants to run

successfully. For this public (i.e., all related protagonists like consumers, employees,

shareholders and society) support is essential or needed. And the support of public can be earned

through Public Relations.

(2) Successful relation with Public:

Sometimes Public develops negative attitude towards any company. This attitude could be

changed by establishing public relations which helps in developing better relations with public.

(3) Satisfying different Groups:

Public relation is an effort to satisfy different groups (like-consumers, employees, shareholders

and society). For example, with the help of Public relation, the expectation of any particular

group is acknowledged. The group is tried to satisfy by most possibly meeting their expectations.

(4) Engaging in Dialogue:

Every organisation wishes to enjoy goodwill among all related protagonists. For establishing

good reputation it is essential to engage in dialogue (i.e., exchange of ideas). During dialogue

organisation provides information and this is possible only through Public Relations.

(5) Ongoing Activity:

This is an effort which has to be repeated again and again. For example, to keep the employees

satisfied, meetings must be arranged with them from time to time.

(6) Specialized Activity:

Public Relation is recognised in the form of a specialized activity. For example, like-the other

activities (purchase, production, sale, finance, marketing etc.) in a business organisation, Public

Relation activity is also performed under the same series of activities. This is the reason why all

big organisations establish Public Relation Department separately.

PR Functions

Public Relations specialized functions are categorized by the publics with which relationships are
established, and to whom appeals are made to understand and/or accept certain policies,
procedures, individuals, causes, products or services. Practitioners who perform specialized
functions may play a management role, operate as a communications technician, or function in a
dual role.
Community Relations
A public relations function consisting of an organization’s planned, active and continuing
participation with and within a community to maintain and enhance its environment to the
benefit of both the organization and the community. This can involve partnerships, volunteer
activities, philanthropic contributions and public participation.
Employee Relations
Dealing and communicating with the employees of an organization. This can include team
building and employee empowerment.
Government Relations
Dealing and communicating with legislatures and government agencies on behalf of an
organization.
Financial Relations
Dealing and communicating with firms and interest groups within the organization’s industry.
Media Relations
Dealing and communicating with the news media when seeking publicity or responding to
reporters’ questions. It also involves setting up and maintaining a professional and mutually
beneficial working relationship with news gatherers and gatekeepers, in part by becoming known
as a credible source and as a provider of factual, expert information whether or not that
information results in media coverage.
Public Affairs
Dealing and communicating with government and groups with regard to societal (public)
policies, action and legislation. Unlike government relations, where the practitioner works
strictly on behalf of an organization, public affairs also is concerned with the effect of public
policies, actions and legislation on its publics.
PR process
The PR process can be as simple or complex as you’d like. Yet if you want to have a strong and
mutually beneficial relationship with your publics, it’s going to be a somewhat involved practice.
What is symmetrical communication? This model as described in Grunig's Excellence Theory, is
the process of ensuring that decisions made by organizations are mutually beneficial between the
organization itself and it's audiences. This means using strategic communication to negotiate
with your audience, resolve conflicts, and promote mutual understandings all backed with
thorough research. This type of system is put in motion when generating a strategic PR Plan.

While there are multiple variations of this PR process, the two most common are R.P.I.E. and
R.A.C.E. Though both are found to be equally effective, we believe the R.A.C.E. process to be a
more in-depth and evaluative process. For that very reason we will be going over the basics of
R.A.C.E.

What Is RACE In PR?

RACE is an effective process to follow when developing a strategic PR plan if you want to have
a strong and mutually beneficial relationship with your publics. The R.A.C.E process
encompasses the following 4 phases: Research, Action and planning, Communication and
relationship building and Evaluation.

Now, let's take a look at each step.

Research

Both formal and informal research with internal and external stakeholders is required to define
the problem or opportunity.

You should be able to answer the “Who?” “What?” and “Why?” for your organization’s
situation. A good starting point in gathering research is noting what other organizations have
done in the past given similar circumstances. How can you ensure your findings are reliable?
Make sure you are gathering your information methodically. It is important to mention that in
this phase you should search for any possible assumptions and consequences the public might
make.
Action And Planning

This step is essentially strategizing and creating the plan. Dr. Hongmei Shen, PR author and
researcher, recommends using S.M.A.R.T. objectives to set goals for a program based on
research and analysis. Shen recommends having a:

 Specific (purpose)
 Measurable (outcomes)
 Attainable (objective)
 Realistic (goal)
 Time (available and necessary)

Following this model allows for structure and a clear estimation of a goal's attainability. Your
action and planning are necessary to gage measurable results! Follow these S.M.A.R.T.
objectives and you'll avoid falling off track.

Communication And Relationship Building

Relying on that two-way symmetrical communication, build mutually beneficial relationships

with your publics. Full disclosure, honesty, and transparency are vital to building consumer trust.
It’s not enough to just send messages anymore, there should be an ongoing conversation.
Maintaining focus on social responsibility should be a high priority in creating positive
relationships.

Communication is the foundation of PR and where you go to relay your information determines
how people will receive your news. Knowing your target audience plays a huge role in the
success of your PR plan. Zero in on demographic information, find where you target audience
goes to for their source of information, and what they like to see. Understanding who you're
talking to is just as important as how you're talking to them. Depending on your audience your
channel of communication can vary (ex. television, magazines, social media, etc.)
Evaluation

The evaluation phase should focus on your campaign results, be aligned with your primary
objectives, and guide you in preparing any additional steps for the future. It should be an ongoing
process that is measured against your previously set goals to analyze overall effectiveness. Need
a good way to prove growth? Determine your ROI. Monitor any press generated from your
campaign, give a rough estimate for the value of that press, and compare it to any expenses
affiliated with producing that PR. Here are additional ways to monitor and measure the success
of your campaign:

 Secondary Data – (PRSA, IPR, etc.)

 Case Studies – Best practices, methods of crisis communication
 Press Clippings – How much coverage was generated
 Advertising Value Equivalent – Editorial coverage value (Column length/air time x Ad
rate)
 Media Content Analysis – Tracking past and future success and failure
 Readability Test – Years of education required to understand campaign
 Audience and reader surveys
 Focus groups and interviews

Public Relations Roles

i) Press relations – The public relations department works with the media to present true facts
about the company to ensure that information about the company is presented in a positive
manner.
(ii) Product publicity – The public relations department sponsors events and programmes to
publicise new or existing products. For example, many companies adopt a park, a school, an
orphanage or sponsor sports and cultural events likes seminars, exhibitions, news conferences
etc.
(iii) Corporate communication – The company issues newsletters, annual reports, brochures,
audio-visual materials to influence the public and the employees. For example, company’s top
leaders may give a speech or message or give an interview to media.
(iv) Lobbying – The company has to maintain healthy relations with government officials,
ministry in charge of corporate affairs, industry, finance association of commerce and industry
etc. The company also has to take the opinion of shareholders while formulating industrial,
taxation policies etc. to keep them satisfied.
(v) Counseling – The public relations department also advises the management on issues that
affect the image of the company and guide them to involve in various social welfare activities to
increase presence in the public domain and gain confidence of society at large.

Limitations of PR

Though PR has above plus points, one cannot expect too much from it. It has power, but not a

magic wand to get everything you want. The limits of PR are:

1. PR cannot totally Whitewash Tarnished Image:

PR changes the produced minds; misunderstandings wrong impressions, misinterpretation but

certainly not change the tarnished image into a solid gold block. The best example can be that of

Spectrum Magazines Group publishing well known Magazines like “Advertising and Marketing”

and “Design”. When the company started tempting the people for advanced subscriptions over a

period of five years and several further five years, people trusted and lost at least Rs. 7,000 to
12,000 as duped by the company.

With this gamble, company was declared insolvent and all advances being un-served lost the

money and faith in such companies. This tarnished picture can be hardly changed. It is a stigma

on company and society.

We see the same way Mutual Fund Companies, Money multipliers and after amassing the

money, they down the shutters. Many well known real estate companies indulged in selling the

same flat to so many NRIs who never checked the truth behind dealings.
Youngsters both highly qualified and not have been fooled by foreign employment agents. The

lust for quick bucks makes these to lose whatever they have.

2. It can’t hide anything in the Best Interest of the Company:

One cannot take PRO as a strong buffer between management and the reporters of media. That

is, good deal of inside information is leaked out. The in-flight of directors especially business

units run by families as Board of Directors.

Today, Reliance India only private sector company known as “Fortune 5000, the internal

division between, brothers Anil and Mukesh has spoiled the name of founder namely Dhirubhai

Ambani.

There are countless examples of this kind. The point, many times, the company as a family

should not leak out weaknesses because competitors are always wanting to en-cash on these

matters. Leave aside business, in case of Cricket, with the outgoing of Mr. John Wright, Greg

Chappell was officially accepted who is to take over the reigns of coach from 15th June, 2005.

With press, the expressed that further skipper is going to be Sehbvag. This was misinterpreted.

Here, PRO cannot stop press people from smelling and digging the things as is done by “AJ

TAK”-Channel”.

3. Public Relations cannot create Reputation out of nothing:

The PRO cannot create a reputation or goodwill unless there is little of it. Year after year he

cannot churn the water and get the butter. A totally hopeless company is a hopeless company.

A person can be called as shamefully person if he has least possible shame. As he is totally

shameless he is shameless. That is a poison cannot be converted into nectar. You cannot expect

that from PR, attempts.

However, this poison has to be totally removed and slowly the seeds of goodwill be sown which

is a Himalayan task. It would be a vain feel effort of flogging the dead horse or pounding the

bran without oil.

4. PR fails to have Valued Public Opinion:

Public relations do not value public opinion in the same way some people draw money on a bank

where they have no money. Technically a person can draw the money from the bank from his

account even if there is no balance which is called as overdraft.

Intelligence lies in withdrawing your own money that is to your credit in the account. Otherwise

in the public eyes, it is a fuse as the person is overdrawing which is not a good sign, though it

serves purpose. It becomes shown ship.

5. Public Relations demands Public Speaking:

Public relations reaches good conclusions to create ‘mutual understanding’ by not talking any

more private thinking. That is, PR is a great art of moving with the current but not against. To

influence public mood, public view, line of thinking, the PR has to go along and then it can be

bent as and when it is very opportunistic and viable.

Advantages of Public Relations

In recent years, we have seen a significant shift from traditional marketing to an integrated
marketing approach. As an important aspect of integrated marketing communication, Public
Relations or widely known as PR enables businesses to reinforce their advertising message
effectively and in an authentic manner. Public relations is a powerful management tool for
companies to reach their business objectives and build their image and presence. However,
public relations and publicity is often underutilised and neglected as companies are unsure about
what PR is and what it can do.

Here are 5 advantages of PR for you to consider-

1. Increase your brand’s credibility
Publicity through public relations gives credibility to your business as the content is more
authentic and informative. Studies indicate that PR gives more visibility and credibility among
the consumer market than advertising which is perceived as more promotional.

2. Attract your target market

PR allows a much easier approach to retaining and attracting a target market. A well-written
article on your product/service offerings in the magazine can be much more attractive and impact
compared to an advertisement in that same magazine. Further, by utilising multiple media
sources from a PR agency, you can effectively communicate your key messages and help you get
a step closer to achieving your company goals.

3. Provide added value

PR can provide a unique touch point and add value to your product offering that can help
differentiate you among your competitors and put you at the forefront of your particular industry.
Further, PR can add value through increasing visibility of your products and services, personalise
your brand, raise your profile, build strong relationships, manage your reputation, assist with
your sales process and add value to your own clients through case studies. Overall, it is a win-
win scenario.

4. Short and long-term lead generation

Media placements through PR are a form of long-term placement as initially you are likely to be
exposed to large amount of leads. But as time goes on you will notice that there is a still a lead
from just one media mention. Generating leads will come across frequently as businesses and
customers stagger on PR.

5. Build your brand image

People often assume that PR is all about promoting an item or a special offer. This is a
misconception as PR drives your entire business towards growth and greater yield of success.
When done right, PR can create a more positive brand image in the mind of your consumers that
provides an alley way to better engagement for your company. A great brand image is a business
investment that can’t be bought and will provide value to your brand and your customer as it
helps shape all aspects of your business as a whole.
Type of PR

1. Strategic communications

Every action that is undertaken by a PR professional should fall under strategic communication.
This essentially means that all PR efforts are coordinated to help a company achieve its business
objectives. Understanding an organisation’s priorities from the outset is a must, with
communications objectives and subsequent activities established to support these priorities.

2. Media relations

A good working relationship with the media is needed in order to spread key messages to the
target audience. PR professionals can put clients into the spotlight by sending press releases and
pitching interviews into the media outlets that enable these companies to reach their desired,
most important audiences. Journalists need a consistent stream of news to fill their pages and
airways, so creating compelling news stories for media involving the organisations looking for
media exposure is a win-win for both parties.

3. Community relations

While the media is an important outlet for PR professionals, sometimes a more effective means
of communication is direct engagement with the community or audience through owned
channels - e.g. drafting a company blog. Engagement with the community in which an
organisation operates should work two ways. For example, when a business opens a new facility,
getting feedback from the local community is just as important as highlighting the benefits for
the local economy. Good listening skills and the ability to coordinate events are essential for this.

4. Internal communications

Internal communications is quickly becoming a major area of focus in PR. Employees can be a
company’s biggest advocates or harshest critics so keeping them satisfied, motivated and loyal is
crucial to the overall success of a company. Developing ongoing programmes to keep staff
engaged and informed, whilst understanding their needs and concerns, is a challenge for
companies and one which internal communications professionals are now playing a crucial role
in assisting with.

5. Crisis communications

Contrary to popular opinion, the communications team shouldn’t just be brought in when a crisis
occurs; that is too late. Organisations should take a planned and consistent approach to crisis
management, with a clear crisis communications plan in place and strong relationships with both
stakeholders and media built up over time which they can rely on at such times. This makes
crisis communications as rewarding and valuable as it is challenging.
6. Public Affairs

Those who work in public affairs - or lobbying - are involved in building and developing
relations between an organisation and politicians, governments and other decision-makers. It is a
relatively distinct subset within PR and those working in the field have a keen interest in the
political system and the process for enacting legislative change. They can also add incredible
value by providing assistance to organisations in areas such as regulatory compliance, corporate
communication and trade associations.

7. Online and social media communications

In today’s instant world of communications, it is essential that businesses possess a strong online
presence to stand out from their competitors. Customers are increasingly turning to the web to do
their own research before making a purchase decision, so online PR has become hugely
important in generating leads, building brand relationships with blogs and social media, and
attracting new talent. Both organisations and PR pros today must be adept in choosing the best
social media platforms and other digital channels to achieve their communication objectives.
Scope of PR

Public Relations is the science and art of maintaining the relations between the public and an
organization. The organization can be a business organization, a non for profit organization, an
institution or an individual, who requires the exposure and management of their image in the
eyes of the public.
Unlike advertising and marketing, here the Public Relations Officer (PRO) focuses on using
the resources to create an impact, rather than making the public pay. Advertising and marketing,
persuades and convinces the masses to buy the goods and services, but public relations deals
with the intangible value of the organization or individual that the public holds.
The scope of public relation is wide and also include political filed. Entrepreneurs, teachers,
political leaders, social workers, religions, leaders are all involved in public relations day in and
day out. In business public relation is tool of management like marketing, production and
finance. It is investing and creating asset for an organization which is finally reflected in
improved performance profitability, and growth of the organization.

Advantages and disadvantages of PR programs

1. MPR is More Consumer-Oriented than PR.
Marketing Public Relations (MPR) is different from Public relations (PR).

 Public Relations (PR) follows the Management function.

 In MPR, Public Relations follows the marketing function. This concept is consumer-
orientated.

2. MPR Creates Better Brand Awareness.

Marketing Public Relations is an important activity to create a strong presence in the mind of
consumers and to sell products or services effectively with less advertising.

It helps in:
 Image Creation

 Brand Awareness

 Positive brand image

 Brand Equity

 Ultimately overall branding

3. MPR has Better Reach and Awareness.
MPR has high ability of the consumer’s reach and awareness.

 Mass reach

 Easy way to reach the audience

 Easy to communicate the message directly to masses

4. MPR is Highly Targeted.

MPR is a highly targeted way for public relations. It can Offer More Detail as compared to other
promotion tools.

Right MPR can help the marketer to:

 Get the target market

 Retain the target market

 Grow the target market.

5. MPR is Cost-effective.
Marketing Public Relations is a cost-effective way to reach the market and to create a brand
name.

 With the help of PR, a marketer can achieve better efficiency and effectiveness in business
activities.

 This may lead to a reduction in the overall cost.

6. MPR is Highly Credible.
Marketing Public Relations achieves credibility. It makes advertising and its message more
credible.

7. More Influence
Public may likely to trust messages and information coming from natural and organic sources
rather than advertising and other paid forms. MPR has this important characteristic which may
influence audience more effectively than other methods.

8. MPR Provides More Clarity.

Marketing Public Relations breaks through the clutter. It circumvents consumer resistance to
sales efforts.

9. It’s Supportive.
MPR can effectively and efficiently create credibility by supporting other marketing
communication tools.

10. MPR Adds More Value.

Marketing Public Relations adds a great valu to the companies internal as well as external
marketing environment.

11. MPR Gives More Competitive Advantage.

The organization can adopt Marketing Public Relations and can take a competitive advantage.

12. Quickness
MPR has ability to spread messages and/or information more quickly, speedily as compared to
other methods & mediums.

Disadvantages of Marketing Public Relations

1. Uncertainty
There is no or less guarantee of time and space in media for our company, products and services.

2. Lack of Control
There is a lack of control over media, message content and message release.

3. Standardization Issue
There is no standard measurement system to judge the effectiveness.

4. Lack of Skills Required

Marketing public relations may need different and special skills and may require to appoint
separate officer to handle it.
For example: Skills to handle social media messages, Skills to handle digital media etc.

5. Other Difficulties
It’s difficult to tie in slogans and other advertising devices.

Problems in planning PR programs

Financial Constraint

There is no doubt that organizations are cutting budgets, thereby leading to poor financing of the
public relations department. Financial belt-tightening has stemmed the flow of public relations’
budgets. Companies are reluctant to spend the little revenue they have on improving their media
profile. Ironically, now is the time for them to raise their profile and gain new custom.

Increase in Communication Platform

Communication platforms offer a swift, easy way of disseminating messages across to target
audience; but the huddles to choose the right communication channels for clients could be
painstaking. Though many social media are free to use, even if it need paying subscription for
some services, it is still convenient to use. However, a lot of time-investment need to be made in
order to reach out to the right audience, passing your messages across to them and getting
desired results.

Client’s Expectation Management

It is a problem that clients expect you to perform magic in-order to produce their imagined
expectations. They expect you to work within any giving budget. They have unrealistic
expectations of media coverage and how far their budget will stretch. Saddled with these
challenges, a practitioner would need to reduce the scope of his campaign to at least achieve an
optimum result.

Poor Man-Power Situation

It is a known fact that most practitioners of public relations have background disciplines in other
field of studies. Some are practicing journalists, marketers, advertisers, graphic artists,
psychologists and so on; the truth is, they lack comprehensive understanding of what it takes to
be a full practitioners in Public relations. Those disciplines are relevant to gaining an expertise in
public relations, but they need to be merged with core public relations courses to achieve the
birthing of a fully fledged public relations expertise. Some quacks position themselves as
practitioners, thereby putting the profession at disrepute; they make claims they cannot defend,
and organize campaigns that are substandard and guarded with professional misconduct.

Poor Appreciation of the Profession Among Public and Private Organizations’ Leaders
Most organization’s leaders have no regard for the profession. They believe anyone could do the
job of public relations if put through. They have myopic perception of the profession so they do
not see need for engaging both an In-house public relations and consultant to manage their
reputation. If they eventually do, they could just employ them as errand officers (Protocols), this
is a bastardization of the profession.

Low Awareness of Public Relations and What it Stands For

Public relations is still an evolving phenomenon in most developing countries of the world. This
has caused a set back to the proliferation of the discipline in the world. Public relations is just a
topic in mass communication or marketing in higher institutions lieu of a discipline. Until
practitioners rise to the wake-up call, the discipline may die a natural death in these countries.

Poor Usage of Social Media

Social media has formed the basis for public relations per-excellence in this digital age. Any
practitioner that is deficient in the usage of this may fade-out of the profession soon. Social
media such as Face book, Linked-in, Tweeter, Net log, etc. are pre-eminent in this present age of
our practice. However, most users of social networks abuse them a lot; while some are not
diplomatic in the way they use them to convey messages to the public. Other practitioners
promote themselves and products without prior interactions with their targets. This attitude could
make them (public) perceive you as self centered person who care only about oneself, thereby
confirming the saying “No one cares how much you know, until they know how much you
cares.”

PR jobs

Public relations staffers get the job done by writing press releases, connecting key players at their
client organization with the press for interviews, arranging press conferences and other events,
composing web copy, and creating newsletters.

PR pros must have strong writing, verbal, and presentation skills; be well organized and detail
oriented, and also be assertive and comfortable reaching out to others. Having a solid aptitude for
marketing can also be very helpful.

Public Relations Job Titles

You can travel a full career path in PR, so you will see titles for apprentice and entry-level
employees as well as for frontline staff, supervisors, managers, and specialty areas.

Below is a list of some of the most common job titles from the public relations industry,
organized by category. For more information about each job title, check out the Bureau of Labor
Statistics' Occupational Outlook Handbook.

General Job Titles

Since public relations isn’t a licensed field, and draws professionals with many different
backgrounds, there are job titles that you may not think of as relating strictly to PR. These can
provide valuable experience as you pursue a successful PR career path, and will be attractive to
hiring managers seeking public relations professionals.

 Brand Ambassador
 Chapter Relations Administrator
 Content Manager
 Content Strategist
 Copy Writer
 Director of Public Affairs
 Director of Public Relations
 Editor
 Executive Assistant
 Event Coordinator
 Event Manager
 Lobbyist
 Manager
 Manager, Digital and Social Media
 Managing Editor
 Media Director
 New Media Coordinator
 Program Coordinator
 Public Affairs Manager
 Public Affairs Specialist
 Public Information Assistant
 Public Information Officer
 Public Information Specialist
 Public Relations Coordinator
 Public Relations Director
 Public Relations Manager
 Public Relations Specialist
 Publicist
 Relationship Manager
 Social Media Analyst
 Social Media Manager
 Social Media Specialist
 Technical Writer

Account Job Titles

PR account jobs involve managing business-to-business or business-to-client campaigns,

attracting clients, and designing and implementing campaigns.

 Account Director
 Account Executive
  Account Manager
 Account Supervisor
 Assistant Account Executive
 Senior Account Executive

Communications Job Titles

PR communications jobs involve developing and maintaining the public image of a client or
company through appearances, press releases, and social media.

 Communications Coordinator
 Communications Director
 Communications Editor
 Communications Representative
 Communications Specialist
 Corporate Communications Specialist
 Director of Communications
 Director of Strategic Communication
 External Communications Manager
 Internal Communications Specialist
 Marketing Communications Director
 Marketing Communications Manager
 Media and Communications Manager

Development and Fundraising Job Titles

Public relations development focuses on designing and organizing events to raise money or
awareness for an organization.

 Development Director
 Development Officer
 Director of Development
 Financial Public Relations Associate
 Fundraising Manager
 Major Gifts Officer

Marketing Job Titles

PR marketing involves maintaining a positive public image while developing promotions for
products, and services for a company or organization.

 Marketing Associate
 Marketing Communications Director
 Marketing Communications Manager
 Marketing Coordinator
 Marketing Director
  Marketing Officer
 Social Media Marketing Coordinator

Media Job Titles

PR media specialists develop and maintain positive relationships with media outlets, write press
releases, and plan and oversee press events.

 Manager, Digital and Social Media

 Media and Communications Manager
 Media Coordinator
 Media Director
 Media Relations Manager
 New Media Coordinator
 Social Media Specialist
 UNIT IV

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Meaning

Project management is the discipline of planning, organizing and managing resources to bring
about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives.

The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals and objectives
while honoring the project constraints. Typical constraints are scope, time and budget. The
secondary- and more ambitions- challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs
necessary to meet pre-defined objectives. A project is a carefully defined set of activities that use
resources (money, people, materials, energy, space, provisions, communication, motivation, etc.)
to achieve the project goals and objectives.

According to Project management institute, “Project management is the application of

knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities in order to meet or exceed
stakeholder needs and expectations.”

The PMBOK (A Guide to the Project Management body of Knowledge) definition of Project
Management is “application of knowledge, skills, tools and techniques to project activities to
achieve project requirements. Project management is accomplished through the application and
integration of the project management processes of initiating, planning, executing, monitoring
and controlling and closing.”

Project management is a carefully planned and organized effort to accomplish a specific (and
usually) one-time effort, e.g., constructing a residential complex or implementing a new
computerized banking system. Project management includes developing a project plan that
includes defining project goals, specifying how the goals will be accomplished, what resources
are needed and relating budgets and time for completion. It also includes implementing the
project plan, along with careful controls to ensure that the project is being managed according to
the plan.
Forms of project organization

There are four types of organizational structures, each of which has their own unique set of
influences on the management of the organization’s projects:

1. Functional
2. Project
3. Matrix
4. Composite
Functional

Most organizations are divided along functional lines, that is, each “division” is organized by
work type, such as engineering, production, or sales.

In the functional organizational structure, projects are initiated and executed by the divisional
managers, who assume the project manager duties in addition to their regular, functional, roles.
They are often given secondary titles such as “Coordinator of Project X.”

In this structure, project managers usually don’t have alot of authority to obtain resources or to
manage schedules and budgets. They must obtain approvals to utilize resources from other
departments, which can be a complex undertaking. This is because the functional organization is
designed to focus on the provision of the divisional services rather than project deliverables.

Project-Oriented

On the other end of the scale is the project-oriented organization. These companies do most of
their work on a project basis and are therefore structured around projects. This includes
construction contractors, architectural firms, and consultants.
Project managers are usually full time in the role, and for small projects they might manage
several projects at once.

In this structure project managers usually have a great deal of independence and authority. They
are able to draw on resources with little required approval.

In fact, most of these types of organizations have some form of functional divisions which are
placeholders for resources that can be utilized by all projects. They are usually called
“departments.”

For example, at an engineering firm the geotechnical department is available as an expert

resource to all projects within the firm.

Matrix

Although the project-oriented and functional structures are at opposite ends of the spectrum, it is
possible to be located somewhere in between (a hybrid). In fact, most organizations are along
some level of the spectrum, utilizing a structure that gives project managers a bit more authority
without losing focus on the provision of functional services.

In the typical matrix structure, a project manager is assigned from within one of the functional
departments in either a part time or full time capacity. They are assigned project team members
from various departments, who are released from their departmental duties (at least partially).
Thus, a high priority can be placed on the project while maintaining the functional division
services.

However, the project manager and team members are still paid by their respective functional
departments, thus the final accountability for the project still lies at the functional level. For
example, if one of the department managers thinks that they have contributed more than their fair
share, the project will stall quickly.

From a theoretical point of view, there are two more adjustments that can be made. A weak
matrix retains the management of the project in the hands of the functional managers instead of
the project team, like this:

On the other side, a strong matrix is still a functional organizational structure, but has a
completely separate project management arm. All of the project roles are still fulfilled within the
functional departments, but the project manager is on the same level as the functional managers.

This project management arm often takes the

form of a Project Management Office, or PMO.

In spite of its name, the terms strong and weak matrix are not meant to imply a level of
desirability to the organization. The names have been coined by the project management
industry which has studied the role of projects within organizations, and hence they correspond
to strength or weakness in achieving project success. But if that comes at the expense of poorer
delivery of functional services, the organizational’s goals are not necessarily being achieved.
Hence, the correct project organizational structure is one which achieves the organization’s
goals, and this can fall anywhere along the project/functional spectrum according to the specific
needs of the organization and/or project.

Composite

Functional organizations and project-oriented organizations are at opposite ends of the spectrum
and matrix organizations fall somewhere in between. But it is possible to utilize both structures
at the same time. Therefore, there is a fourth option that requires mention, the composite
structure.

This occurs when a project structure and a functional structure both report to a central executive.

For example, a state government department of transportation has a maintenance division which
seeks to maintain the level of service of the state’s roads and bridges, and a capital projects
division which builds new roads and bridges. The maintenance division and the capital projects
division are located side by side, reporting to the executive. This is a composite organizational
structure (A matrix structure would require new construction to occur within one of the
maintenance departments – the project manager would report to a functional manager rather than
the executive).

Most organizations lean one way or the other rather than using both structures, because of the
drastically different management styles necessary to perform each of the roles well.
 Project planning

After the project has been defined and the project team has been appointed, you are ready to
enter the second phase in the project management life cycle: the detailed project planning phase.

Project planning is at the heart of the project life cycle, and tells everyone involved where you’re
going and how you’re going to get there. The planning phase is when the project plans are
documented, the project deliverables and requirements are defined, and the project schedule is
created. It involves creating a set of plans to help guide your team through the implementation
and closure phases of the project. The plans created during this phase will help you manage time,
cost, quality, changes, risk, and related issues. They will also help you control staff and external
suppliers to ensure that you deliver the project on time, within budget, and within schedule.

The project planning phase is often the most challenging phase for a project manager, as you
need to make an educated guess about the staff, resources, and equipment needed to complete
your project. You may also need to plan your communications and procurement activities, as
well as contract any third-party suppliers.

The purpose of the project planning phase is to:

 Establish business requirements

 Establish cost, schedule, list of deliverables, and delivery dates
 Establish resources plans
 Obtain management approval and proceed to the next phase

The basic processes of project planning are:

 Scope planning – specifying the in-scope requirements for the project to facilitate creating the
work breakdown structure
 Preparation of the work breakdown structure – spelling out the breakdown of the project into
tasks and sub-tasks
 Project schedule development – listing the entire schedule of the activities and detailing their
sequence of implementation
 Resource planning – indicating who will do what work, at which time, and if any special skills
are needed to accomplish the project tasks
 Budget planning – specifying the budgeted cost to be incurred at the completion of the project
 Procurement planning – focusing on vendors outside your company and subcontracting
 Risk management – planning for possible risks and considering optional contingency plans and
mitigation strategies
 Quality planning – assessing quality criteria to be used for the project
 Communication planning – designing the communication strategy with all project stakeholders
The planning phase refines the project’s objectives, which were gathered during the initiation
phase. It includes planning the steps necessary to meet those objectives by further identifying the
specific activities and resources required to complete the project. Now that these objectives have
been recognized, they must be clearly articulated, detailing an in-depth scrutiny of each
recognized objective. With such scrutiny, our understanding of the objective may change. Often
the very act of trying to describe something precisely gives us a better understanding of what we
are looking at. This articulation serves as the basis for the development of requirements. What
this means is that after an objective has been clearly articulated, we can describe it in concrete
(measurable) terms and identify what we have to do to achieve it. Obviously, if we do a poor job
of articulating the objective, our requirements will be misdirected and the resulting project will
not represent the true need.

Project control

Setting smart, effective project controls begins well before the execution stage of your project.
Monitoring and control go hand in hand with each other for every stage of your project. Controls
and monitoring should be solidified by using each of the following steps:

1. Determining the scope of the project; explaining and communicating every aspect of the
project to all members of the team.
2. Team structure and assigning tasks; determining who is best suited for each required task, how
many members are assigned to each team, and planning on how to monitor progress.
3. Predetermined risk factors; knowing which risks are worth taking, and which are guaranteed to
sabotage project success. Setting a risk management plan to mitigate risks before they can
become real project threats will save you a boundless amount of pain when risks are managed,
4. Adaptability contingencies; both internal and external factors can demand that a project must
change its course. Plan for the unexpected, but possible factors that would demand change to
your project process, and set contingencies to adapt to change.
5. Monitoring of project status; set a schedule and determine a method (i.e. whether in person
regular meetings, or the submission of written reports) for monitoring how well or poorly your
project is progressing. Also, if the project is moving along ahead of schedule, investigate and
find what is facilitating the rapid progress. Apply the factors to future projects. The same rings
true in the opposite scenario, when your status is behind schedule. You will then know what to
monitor for and avoid in future projects, saving valued time and money.
6. Plans for effective communication; obviously your lines of communication should be efficient
and transparent, but pay equal care to your plans for communicating with both customers and
project stakeholders alike.
7. Deadlines and budgeting; set in place a plan for establishing the initial project costs, keeping
track of changes to the budget by regular communication with the accounting department, and
ensuring that deadlines are met. Also, develop a contingency plan for if and when a deadline is
not met, how to avoid future deadline failures.
8. Analysis/evaluation; set a system for evaluating and analyzing how well each element of the
project planning and execution is contributing to the overall project success within the scope of
the project. Is anything missing? Do you need to allocate more resources or reassign personnel?
A system should be in place to solve questions (and all others) like these during both execution
and planning.
9. Corrective contingencies; following step 8, if there are indicators that corrections should be
made to the project or, that you discovered that some of your bases are not covered, plan not only
for a system to implement changes, but also for contingencies in case the corrections also include
their own set of complications. You cannot predict the future, but you can imagine it and set
plans to do your best to control the future.
10. Planning for project presentation; determine the people that will be responsible for presenting
the final product, the required supplies if any, and whom to present to. Also, plan for how to
address handling status.

Human aspect of project management

Project management is built around structured methodology – usually – and best practices. There
are processes to follow, procedures to implement and documentation to create and deliver. It’s
actually pretty structured when you think about it. Or at least it can be.

But if we just follow a rigid process, will we really be successful? How does the human element
apply to project management? Here are my thoughts…. I’m thinking it centers around a few
concepts or activities such as communication, organization, ambition and control. While we
don’t all have those traits, I think most individuals who would be categorized as somewhat
normal have something within their being that, under the right circumstances, strives to achieve
those traits. Let me elaborate…

Communication

As humans, we all feel the need to communicate with each other from time to time. It’s my
experience that your average project manager is – or should be – on the high end of that need.
Communication is key, but it still must be good, timely and effective communication. If you’re
on the quiet side, you’re probably in the wrong profession.
Organization

Ok, as for me, I’m not the most organized person at home…just ask my wife. But as a project
manager, I’m usually pretty organized. I wake up late at night if I’ve failed to send out an email
or feel the need to update my team or the customer on something and I have to get out of bed and
do it then or I’ll never get back to sleep. I must have a routine schedule for each of my projects –
a regular weekly formal status call with the team and customer, a specific day of the week when
the revised project schedule and status report goes out, and a specific day of the week when I
have a ‘scheduled’ call with my team – I say scheduled because there’s always a lot of
unscheduled communication with them also.

Ambition

The project manager must have ambition…ambition to reach the final goal for the project.
Ambition to take on more responsibility. Ambition to progress in their field. If you lack that
ambition, then you’re less likely to stay on top of processes and the current technology to do
your job well. And it will show in your work. Project success is hard enough to achieve given all
of the potential obstacles and factors. It’s critical that the PM have the ambition and drive to
succeed and lead their team and customer to similar successes.

Control

Finally, control. Control kind of goes hand-in-hand with organization. The project manager must
remain in control – they must be the person that the organization, the team and the customer sees
as always ‘in charge.’ Otherwise, chaos will take over. It takes a certain personality….a certain
confidence. If you don’t have it, you’ll likely find out soon enough. At least your team and
customer will.

Summary

The human element is a necessary – an absolute necessary – aspect of project management and
it’s what makes us great project managers. And it can also be our biggest flaws in failed projects.
What are your thoughts about the human element of project management? I think the true human
element is what can separate good project managers from great project managers. Please share
your thoughts…
 UNIT V

OFFICE MANAGEMENT
Meaning

Office management is the process of planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling the
administrative functions of an office in order to achieve the objectives of the organization. It is
the process o utilizing the office resources efficiently o obtain the best result with less effort and
cost. It helps in receiving, recording and processing, supplying and retaining information. It is
the branch of management which deals with performance of these functions

Elements of office management

1. Personnel
An office provides wages, salaries to their employees. They also keep records of workers
attendance, leave due, provident fund, and calculation of overtime. They also help to maintain
the relationship between management and workers. It is the main element of office management.
Success of office depends upon the employee.

2. Means
They are the tools which help to perform different activities efficiently. The means are material,
methods, money and machines. They are vital for office works. Office must use right types of
means. If office doesn’t provide right means then it will be difficult to manage all the activities.

3. Environment
Office should perform efficient and effective work for the good and effective management
interior design, lighting, ventilation and cleanliness should be maintained. The location,
government policy, customer should be managed. There must be proper working environment.

4. Purpose
In this element, office has to set up definite purpose. It has definite objective, personnel, means
and other elements. It helps to provide guideline and direction to office activities. It helps in
planning, organizing, staffing, directing, controlling, staffing and other office work etc.

Function of OM

There is no universally accepted classification of management functions. This is because

different authors, who were considering different organizations, gave separate classification of

management functions. Office management is similar to the general or administrative

management; it performs the same functions as are performed by the management. The functions

of office management in brief, are given below:

I. Planning
Planning is a fundamental function of office management. All types of organizations prepare

plans. Planning our studies, our careers, new products etc. are examples of planning. It is the

determination of a course of action to achieve a desired result. Planning concentrates on setting

and achieving objectives of an organization. It is an intellectual process. It is characterized as the

process of thinking before doing.

Planning function of management precedes all other managerial functions. “Planning is deciding

in advance what is to be done. When a manager plans, he projects a course of action for the

future, attempting to achieve a consistent, co-ordinate structure of operations aimed at the

desired results.”

Planning involves projecting the future course of action for the business as a whole and also for

different sections within it. Planning is thus the preparatory step for actions and helps in bridging

the gap between the present and the future. Since planning is essentially choosing, it is dependent

upon the availability of alternatives.

It is through this process of choosing that office manager can obviously be seen as an important

aspect of planning. Planning process comprises determination and lying down of objectives,

policies, procedures, rules, programmes, budget and strategies etc.

The operations of the office will not run smoothly if they are not planned adequately. Planning

makes it possible to occur which would not otherwise happen.

Benefits of Planning
1. The business objectives can easily be secured through plans.

2. Planning gives direction to activities in the office.

3. It focuses attention on objectives.

4. It provides co-ordinate efforts and reduces risk and uncertainties.

5. It facilitates the process of decision-making.

6. It encourages innovation and creativity.

7. It serves as a basis of control.

8. It encourages the sense of involvement and team spirit.

9. It eliminates unproductive office work and thus helps to minimize cost.

10. It helps in economical operations.

II. Organizing

It is an important managerial activity by which management brings together the human and

material resources for the achievement of certain objectives. Organization is the foundation upon

which the whole structure of management is built. It may be conceived of as the structuring of

functions and duties to be performed by a group of people for the purpose of attaining enterprise

objectives.

Organizing is the determining, grouping and arranging of the various activities deemed necessary

for the attainment of the objectives, the assigning of people to these activities, the providing of

suitable physical factors of environment and the indicating of the relative authority delegated to

each individual charged with the execution of each respective activity.

According to Louis A Allen, “Organization is the process of identifying and grouping the work

to be performed, defining and delegating responsibility and authority, and establishing

relationships for the purpose of enabling people to work most effectively together in

accomplishing objectives.”

According to Oliver Sheldon, “Organization is the process of combining the work which

individuals and groups have to perform with the faculties necessary for its execution that the

duties so formed provide the best channels for efficient, systematic, positive and coordinated

application of the available effort.”

Steps of Organization

The important steps involved in the process of an organization are:

1. Identification of Activities
Organization structure is developed to achieve objectives. Organization as a process of

management is concerned with identifying and grouping of activities to be performed.

2. Grouping of Activities
Closely related and similar activities are grouped together to form departments, divisions or

sections. Grouping may be done on several bases depending on the requirements of the situation.

Such grouping of activities is called departmentation.

3. Assignment of Duties
Each group of related activities is assigned a position most suited for it. Every position is

occupied by an individual. While assigning duties, the requirements of the job and the

competence of the individual should be properly matched together. The process of assigning

duties goes on till the last level of the organization.

4. Delegation of Authority
Authority without responsibility is a dangerous thing and similarly responsibility without

authority is an empty vessel. Hence corresponding to the responsibility authority is delegated to

the sub-ordinates for enabling them to show work performance.

5. Fitting Individuals
Having determined the various parts and portions of the job to be done, the next step will be to

fix suitable and well-qualified persons into these activities. Each person in the group will be

given a specific part of the job to do and will be made responsible for it.

III. Staffing
‘Staffing’ is concerned with the recruitment, selection, placement, training, growth and

development of all those members of the organization whose function is to get things done

through the efforts of other individuals.

After determining the number and type of personnel to be appointed to fill different jobs

management starts recruiting, selecting the training the people to fulfill the requirements of the

enterprise. According to Franklin Moore, “Staffing is a forward looking activity because

tomorrow keeps becoming today.

Attrition constantly reduces executive ranks through retirement, death, resignations and

occasional dismissal; so young men keep moving up. Besides this, most enterprise grows,

providing new openings for managers.”

The function of staffing was considered to be a part of organizing but recently it has developed

into a distinct function of management, and is, therefore treated separately in the chapter relating

to Personnel Management.

IV. Directing
Once plans are drawn up to pre-determined objectives competent persons are appointed, the

organization is ready to go into action. Directing is the managerial function of guiding, inspiring,

instructing and harnessing people towards the accomplishment of desired results.

It is that part of the management process which actuates the members of an organization to work

effectively and efficiently for the achievement of the goals. Direction in the words of Koentz and

Q ‘donnel, “the interpersonal aspect of managing by which subordinates are led to understand

and contribute effectively and efficiently to the attainment of enterprise objectives.”

According to Haimann, “Directing consists of the process and techniques utilized in issuing

instructions and making certain that operations are carried on as originally planned.

Directing is the process around which all performance revolves. It is the essence of operations,

and co-ordination is a necessary by-product of good managerial directing.” Directing consists of

the following steps:

1. Issuing orders and instructions to sub-ordinates;

2. Guiding and teaching the sub-ordinates the proper method of doing work;

3. Supervising the work of sub-ordinates to ensure that it conforms to plan;

4. Motivation of sub-ordinates by providing incentives.

V. Motivating
The term motivation has been derived from the word motive. Motive is anything that initiates or

sustains activity. It is an inner state that energizes, activates or moves and that directs or channels

behavior towards goals. Motive is a psychological force within an individual that sets him in

motion. Behind every human action there is a motive.

According to Breech, “Motivation is a general inspirational process which gets the members of

the team to pull their weight effectively, to give their loyalty to the group, to carry out properly

the tasks that they have accepted and generally to play an effective part in the job that the group

has undertaken.”

The important task of office management is to motivate employees so that they may direct their

efforts towards the accomplishment of organizational goals.

Motivating may be achieved by:

1. Providing inducements and incentives to employees;

2. Keeping morals high;

3. Satisfying the needs of the employees.

VI. Co-ordinating
Along with specialization there must be conscious efforts on the part of the management to see

that all activities, carried on by experts and different departments, should contribute to the

achievement of the objective of the business. Smooth working of an enterprise and the definite

achievement of its objectives depend on sound co-ordination.

According to Lundy, “Co-ordination involves the development of unity of purpose and the

harmonious implementation of plans for the achievement of desired ends.” According to Mooney

and Riley, “Orderly arrangement of group efforts to provide unit of action in pursuit of a

common purpose.” Thus co-ordination may be achieved by:-

1. Simplified Organization.

2. Harmonized programmes and policies.

3. Well designed method of communication.

4. Voluntary co-operation.

5. Co-ordination through supervision.

6. Clear cut objectives.

7. Clear definition of authority and responsibility.

8. Effective leadership.

VII. Controlling
“To control is to determine what is being accomplished; that is to evaluate performance and, if

necessary, to apply corrective measures so that performance takes place according to plan. After

the plans are put into action, there can be several hurdles in the achievement of goals. Results

may fall short of targets. Direction may be faulty.

Therefore, management must find out what is going wrong, what changes in plans and directions

are required and what must be done to set things right. This is the function of control. In words

of Anthony, “Management control is the process by which managers assure that resources are
obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of an organization’s

objectives.”

Basic elements of the control process:

1. Establishment of standards or objectives.

2. Measurement of actual performance.

3. Comparing actual performance against the standard set.

4. Determining the reason for deviation.

5. Taking corrective action.

6. Feedback.

Control is thus closely related to the planning job of the manager. But it should not be viewed

merely as a postmortem of past achievements and performance. In practice, a good control

system should suggest corrective measures so that negative deviations may not recur in future.

VIII. Communication
Communication is a means by which different persons are linked together in a group or

organization to attain a common goal. No group activity is possible without communication. It

enables the members to co-ordinate, to exchange and to make progress. A good communication

should aim at making everyone concerned aware of the goal which the organization wants to

achieve.

The two main objectives of communication are to inform and to persuade. Communication is the

means by which behavior is modified, change is effected, and goals are achieved.

Communication is essential for effective control and motivation.

IMPORTANCE OF OFFICE MANAGEMENT:

Here we are providing you with a list of objectives that are the key to your success. The
importance of office management is undeniable. Let’s know about the importance of office
management here:

ACCOMPLISHMENT OF OBJECTIVES
Office management expands office effectiveness, smooth stream of work, keeping up
advertising, minimization of cost, overseeing change and accepting the new difficulties which
help in the accomplishment of objectives of the office.

PUBLIC RELATIONS
You have to maintain a good public relations to the office. Because the principal purpose of this
public relation is to make it look more trustworthy to all the people who deal with it in all ways
and in every action of it. Public relation helps in growing the friendliness of the organization.
INCREASES OFFICE PRODUCTIVITY
Office management mainly focuses on office activities to help you progress economically.

MANAGEMENT CHANGE
Office management help in executing the plans in the right way and within time. But there might
be a change in assets, resources, preferences, technology, innovation, need, inclinations etc.
which makes it important to achieve the adjustment in plans. Office management makes the
office adaptable which deals with the change.

SMOOTH THE FLOW OF THE WORK

Office management helps in the execution of effective and efficient office work. Office
management helps ineffective control and proper planning of the office.

MINIMIZE THE OF COST

Office management helps to guide the use of your capital, human, financial, and so many other
resources efficiently without wastages and leakage. Thus office management helps in minimizing
the cost in the office.

MAINTAIN CO-ORDINATION
The office management functions as a coordinate of various units of business and individuals. It
consistently supplies refreshed data to required individuals and offices. The normal
correspondence keeps away from strife, the misconception. Accordingly, office management
advances co-appointment.

PROVIDE INNOVATION
The office management is continually receiving new changes. It has fitting offices for research. It
supports and rouses the representative to work in new conditions embrace change. It helps for
extension and broadening.

Office management refers to the process of managing the activities, finances, workforce and
everything within an organisation to enhance its efficiency as well as productivity. It works on
some defined principles as listed below:

Principles of OM

1. Objective and Purpose

In an organisation, management must operate with the purpose of effective coordination and
avoid work duplicity or unnecessary time consumption. Effective coordination allows
organisation to achieve its aimed objectives.
2. Division of Work or Specialisation

In different departments, the entire work must be divided into smaller tasks. It should then be
assigned to the person who best fits in that position. This leads to enhanced efficiency.

3. Efficiency

Assigning tasks according to a subordinate’s efficiency and skill is important for enhanced
efficiency.

4. Unity of Command

For the smooth functioning of an organisation, a subordinate must report to only one superior.
Division of loyalty and dual command leads to duplication as well as delay in the work.

5. Scalar Chain

Proper flow of communication is possible in an organisation only if there is a chain of authority

ranging from the top to the bottom level of management.

6. Personal Ability

An organisation must be able to achieve its objectives in a definite time period. In this process, it
should also enhance its employees’ skills.

7. Flexible

The business environment is dynamic. So, an organisation must be flexible enough to adapt itself
with the changing environment for its sustained growth and success.

8. Coordination

In addition to planning, organising, controlling and directing, coordination also plays a key role
in office management. At times, many big organisations fail to achieve their objectives due to the
lack of coordination among its departments and employees.
9. Delegation of Authority

It includes assigning the superior’s authority as well as the responsibility to the subordinates. It
leads to motivation as well as the possibility of quick decision-making by the subordinates.

10. Principle of Span of Management

Every supervisor should have a limited number of subordinates assigned under him. This
principle is concerned with the productivity of supervisors. If there are limited subordinates, the
supervisor can easily assess their performance and communicate with them.

11. Responsibility

A superior can never delegate his responsibility along with authority. He will always be
responsible for his subordinate’s conducts.

12. Parity of Responsibility and Authority

Authority and responsibility always go hand-in-hand. A superior who has the authority to
delegate his work is also responsible to get the work done from his subordinates.

13. Continuity

A business organisation must be able to continue its existence in the long-run if it wants to
expand further.

14. Leadership Facilitation

This principle states that every department at every level of management is able to achieve its
objectives because of the leadership qualities of superiors.

15. Balance

Every department is expected to achieve one goal at-a-time. Therefore, there must be a balance
while assigning the activities.
16. Simplicity

If the structure of an organisation is simple in nature, then the activities will automatically be
more effective.

17. Authority

Every superior must get the best work done by his employees.

18. Definiteness

Every position in an organisation along with its purpose must be clearly defined to all the levels
of management.

19. Authority Level for Decision-Making

The authority level is concerned with decision-making for an organisation. The decision-making
property flows from the lower to the top level. If top-level fails to make a decision, then the
bottom level loses its power of decision-making. So, these were the principles of office
management.

Types of Office Management

There are a variety of office management jobs, however, the basic duties of these managers are
quite similar. Besides supervising the smooth running of a company's administration, making
sure that needed supplies are provided and that office equipment is in working order, office
managers can sometimes hire, fire, train, and promote employees.

Corporate Office Management

Corporate office management jobs include the manager at each branch of a given company. The
district manager (typically located at the head office) oversees all other branch managers,
therefore traveling between company branch locations is often a main aspect of the job.
Additionally, corporate office managers plan new organizational approaches for human
resources and marketing campaigns.

Medical Office Management

Medical office management requires detailed knowledge of anatomy and lab procedures, as well
as health care laws. Medical office managers typically work in doctor's offices, where they
supervise all medical assistants. Additional crucial responsibilities include patient confidentiality
and the proper disposal of medical waste.

Legal Office Management

Legal office management jobs require practical law experience and an extensive understanding
of law procedures. Law office managers oversee a practice's legal administrative assistants,
payroll management, and the firm's human resources department.

Virtual Office Management

Rather than work for one business at a time as a full-time employee, virtual office managers
often work for several smaller companies part-time. This is due to the tendency of small
businesses to contract out virtual office management jobs. It's no surprise that remote jobs of all
caliber are on the rise, therefore virtual office managers are an attractive option for steadily
growing small businesses that don't yet require an on-site office manager.

Skills require for OM

1. Planning skills

As an office manager, you should be pretty good at planning, ranging from office meetings,
handling the delegations, and other business operations within the organization to execute
everything efficiently on its proper time.
2. Administrative skills
As a part of your job, you will be responsible to do the other administrative tasks in the
organization. You will be responsible to hire new employees, fire the underperforming ones,
evaluate performance appraisal, training and supervising new employees. You will have to
make plans, schedule and attend meetings and perform other business operations as well.
3. Analytical skills
As an office manager, you should have some sort of analytical skills to do your job in the best
possible way. You should be well aware of the process, practices, and procedures to do your
job efficiently. You should be sharp in identifying any inefficiency and suggest the best
possible solutions which will contribute to the company growth.
4. Computer skills
As an office manager, you should have strong hands-on practice on computer skills ranging
from the word processor to excel and powerpoint because you could be asked to do a range of
tasks depending upon your job specifics such as data entry, making sheets in excel and
creating and presenting in powerpoint.
You should be at best in doing your day to day office management computer operations
accurately, efficiently and in a professional way. So your arsenal should be equipped with the
desired computer skills because a tremendous amount of responsibility falls on the office
managers.
5. Communication skills
As an office manager, you should have strong communication skills as you would be the first
person to see the visitors coming in case the respective professionals are out from the office.
You will have to delegate the work as well within the organization and also give attention
simultaneously to the other tasks.
You will have to communicate effectively within the organization both verbally and written in
a friendly, efficient and professional way to make sure everything goes just fine. You will
play the role of a bridge between the employees working in the organization.
6. Time management skills
As part of your job, you should have excellent skills in time management in order to utilize
every minute of your duty to its fullest potential and squeeze out the maximum outcome. You
should be able to properly allocate and handle every task on time without any wastage of
time.
7. Out of the box thinking
As an office manager, you should think out of the box to cater to every business task
effectively that can contribute towards the organization growth both in the short term and the
long.
8. Leadership skills
As an office manager, you will always lead from the front to make ensure everything is going
just fine within the organization. You will have to motivate the employees to get them to
produce the best work results possible. Developing leadership skills will help you in better
office management.
You will have to make teamwork happen and helping others to communicate well with one
another in the organization to create a healthy and productive company culture. You have to
set the standards for everyone in the organization to put the things up on the right track.
9. Interpersonal Skills
As part of your job, you should have social skills towards your employees involved in the
company or outside visitors. You should use a positive approach and attitude which will result
in great teamwork.
Office automation
Office automation is the process of watching data flow around on its own without any human
intervention, inaccuracies, and errors. It is the process of using an automation tool to create, collect,
store, analyze, and share confidential office data that is required to accomplish basis day-to-day
routine tasks and processes effectively.

Technology has made a serious impact on the daily work of office administration. Emails have
replaced memos, shared drives have done away with filing cabinets, and biometrics have taken over
employee timesheet stamping. Many businesses think that they have attained office automation
nirvana simply by going paperless.

But office automation is a different ballgame altogether.

Using online forms and sending Google Calendar invites might mean that you’ve ditched a lot of
paper, but it doesn’t mean you are automated. It just means that instead of pushing around the paper,
you are pushing around data.

Useful technology for office automation

1. Easy workflow designer

Creating workflows used to be the domain of hard-core system coders. So, as workflow
software evolved, it assumed the people using it would be programmers as well.

However, a modern office automation system should start with the business user in mind, not the
coder.

When you sit down to trial an office automation tool, start off by making your own workflows. How
easy is it? Can you intuitively create the sequence of tasks needed to finish a process? If you can’t
figure it out within the first five minutes, you need to move on to the next option.

A piece of software shouldn’t determine how your business should set its operations. It should
instead aid your teams to strengthen the existing processes.

2. Mobile compatibility
Your office is mobile, and all your tools should be too. Whether you have remote workers or you
just want to check in while waiting for a flight, the office automation tool you choose should work
just as smoothly on someone’s phone while on a trip to China as it does on a PC at the main office.

Your marketing campaign can’t be delayed a day just because you need to wait for Greg to get back
from his vacation in Machu Picchu.

You should be able to run your core processes from a secure cloud and never have to worry about
where your data is or who is protecting it. If you use an office automation tool like Kissflow, then
Greg can go over the marketing plan on his mobile from his hotel lobby in Peru and give his nod
before he goes on to take selfies with the llamas.
3. Integration with other software
Office automation software isn’t the only thing you are running. You’ve got your internal database,
a CRM, a marketing automation tool, and your financial software, and that’s just for starters. When
you’re reliant on so many systems, you need a tool that doesn’t just keep to itself.

4. Reports and analytics

How do you know if your office automation is yielding results? You can’t just evaluate process
performance based on how happy your team is. Data is the ultimate decision-maker, and it’s
important for your business to compare a process’ history, its speed, the outcome quality, etc.

Adopting another software to measure your workflow data is time-consuming and unnecessary.
Why not have a single piece of software that comes embedded with reporting and analytics
features? The best office automation products now come equipped with this feature as part of their
fundamental offering.

5. Access control options

Just like limiting entry to your office premises, you should also have access privileges set to all of
your business workflows.

A good workflow automation system understands this sensitive requirement and will have access
control as part of its integral features. Don’t overlook this capability when considering office
automation software for your business.