POWER ELECTRONICS DESIGN AND TESTING

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CONVERTER TYPES
+ D1 L1 D3 +
+ + + + +
Switching Transformer Output D1 L1 D1 L1
Q1 L Q1 L1 L D1 Q1 D1 L1 C D1 L1 C1 L2 Q1 C1 L1 D1 + + + + + +
+ + + + – + – + D4 Q2 D1 + bridge LLC tank and rectifier capacitor D4 Q2
D1 Np2 Ns2 Co Vout C2 Q2 D1 L1 Q3 Q2 D1 L1 Q3 Q2 D1 L1 C1 D1 L1
+ + + + + + + + +
Co Vout
+
+ N2 Lsh Nd Np Ns D2 Np Ns D2 Co Vout
Vin Np Ns Co Vout Np2 Ns2 Co Vout S1 S3
Ns1 Co Vout Ns1 Co Vout Ns1 Co Vout Cr Lr Q2
Vin D1 Co Vout Vin Ci Q2 Co Vout Vin Q1 Co Vout Vin Ci L1 Co Vout Vin Q1 L2 Co Vout Vin Ci Q1 D1 Co Vout Vin Ci L1 D1 Co Vout Lp Vin Ci Np Ns Co Vout
+ Np Ns D1 D3 Vin Ci Vin Ci Vin Ci Np Ns D2 Co Vout
Np Vin Np Vin Ci Np Vin Ci Np Co Ro +
Np1 Ns1 +
Ns2 Ns2 Ns2 Vin VSW Lm Vo D3 Q1
Q1 Np1 Ns1
Vin Ci D2 — — Q1
Vin Ci S2 S4
C1 Q1 D2 Q4 Q1 D2 Q4 Q1 D2 D2 D4
D3 Q1 Q2 Q1 D2 D3 Q1
Q2 Q1

Non-isolated converters Flyback converters High power converters Forward converters

Topology Buck Synchronous buck Boost Buck-boost (inverting) SEPIC Ćuk (inverting) Zeta Flyback Two switch flyback Push-pull Weinberg Half bridge Full bridge Phase shifted full bridge Resonant LLC Forward Active clamp forward Two switch forward
1 −D D −D D 1 D 1 D D D D D D frequency dependent, D D D
Transfer function (Vout/Vin) D D ⋅ ⋅ based on resonant tank
1− D 1− D 1− D 1− D 1− D N 1− D N 1− D N N N N N transfer function N N N
Typical maximum 90° phase shift = 0.5
0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.7 0.45
duty cycle 180° phase shift = 1.0

Conversion direction step-down step-down step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up step-down/step-up

Multiple outputs – – – – – – – ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

Typically achievable
up to 95 % up to 97 % up to 97 % up to 95 % up to 93 % up to 93 % up to 90 % up to 85 % up to 90 % up to 90 % up to 92 % up to 92 % up to 95 % up to 97 % up to 97 % up to 85 % up to 90 % up to 92 %
efficiency

Cost •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••   •• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••••• •••   •• •••   ••

Typical power level up to 250 W up to 500 W up to 500 W up to 100 W up to 100 W up to 100 W up to 50 W up to 250 W up to 250 W up to 500 W up to 5 kW up to 1 kW up to several kW up to several kW up to several kW up to 150 W up to 500 W up to 500 W

Advantages/applications ► versatile, simplest ► higher efficiency than ► often used for power ► for applications ► wide input voltage ► wide input voltage ► wide input voltage ► versatile and simple ► wide input voltage ► low-side switches only ► low-side switches only ► better transformer ► better transformer ► soft switching provides ► soft switching provides ► wide input voltage ► wide input voltage ► wide input voltage
possible design buck converter factor correction requiring negative range compared to range compared to range compared to ► wide input voltage range due to ► fault tolerant topology, utilization utilization very high efficiency very high efficiency range due to range due to range due to
output voltages, buck/boost converter buck/boost converter buck/boost converter range due to transformer no risk of shoot-through ► no flux walking ► no flux walking levels levels transformer transformer transformer
e.g. audio amplifiers, ► positive output voltage ► capacitive (non DC) ► positive output voltage transformer ► no snubber needed ► often considered problems problems ► advantageous for step- ► advantageous for step- ► no snubber required ► less voltage stress on
instrumentation unlike buck-boost coupling between input unlike Ćuk converter ► few components ► less voltage stress for high-reliability ► twice the output power down applications with down applications with ► less voltage stress switches because of
amplifiers, line drivers converter and output ► capacitive (non DC) needed on switches because applications such as compared to half bridge high DC bus voltages high DC bus voltages on switches because diode clamping
and receivers ► capacitive (non DC) ► for applications coupling between input ► low cost design if of diode clamping in aerospace such as in data center such as in data center of high-side switch ► leakage energy is
coupling between input requiring negative and output several output voltages ► leakage energy is applications applications clamping returned to input
and output output voltages, are required returned to input ► suitable for low and ► best efficiency at ► leakage energy is
e.g. audio amplifiers, ► power factor correction ► low cost design if high output voltages constant load condition returned to input
instrumentation for low power several output voltages ► best suited for high
amplifiers, line drivers applications are required output voltages
and receivers
Disadvantages ► high-side switch ► high-side switch ► large output capacitor ► high-side switch ► large output capacitor ► limited loop gain/cross- ► high-side switch ► large output capacitor ► high-side switch ► large output capacitor ► large output capacitor ► complex design ► more complex design ► switching elements ► high-side switch ► high-side switch
► less efficient under necessary ► large output capacitor necessary over frequency due to necessary ► large output capacitor necessary necessary than phase shifted full must be rated for higher
small load conditions ► limited loop gain/cross- necessary ► limited loop gain/cross- right half plane zero ► limited loop gain/cross- necessary ► flux walking can occur ► switching elements bridge voltages
over frequency due to ► limited loop gain/cross- over frequency due to ► two control loops over frequency due to ► limited loop gain/cross- must be rated for higher
right half plane zero over frequency due to right half plane zero required right half plane zero over frequency due to voltages
right half plane zero ► two control loops ► larger transformer right half plane zero
required required for energy ► larger transformer
storage required for energy
► switching elements storage
must be rated for higher
voltages

MOST IMPORTANT MEASUREMENTS REQUIREMENTS

Applications Applications Applications Most important EMI standards Input ripple for power supplies connected in parallel
140
Normalized input capacitor (CIN) RMS current versus operational duty cycle with one, two, three and four phases 2).

Level in dBμV
Imaginary axis
Component characterization Control loop stability Capacitive EMI debugging and precompliance testing
Gain

coupling, e.g.
Emissions from
Above 45°: inductive (L) Passive components are the building blocks for Verifying control loop stability is essential and via heat sink or
inductors EMI is a key issue in power electronics design.
L parallel plates 130 The average limit is shown
­every power electronics circuit. Verifying compo- should ideally be performed under different load Fast switching with high currents in particular 0.5

Normalized CIN RMS current

0 dB dotted below the QP limit
Pha

nent parameters under different conditions is an Crossover frequency Gain margin conditions. Oscilloscopes capable of generating can result in emissions that increase with increas- 1 phase
se a

Inductive coupling of 120 CISPR 11 Group 1: 2 phase

essential first step to making sure that the design Bode plots are efficient tools for this task. ing switching speeds. Addressing EMI early in
ngle

R large current loop

Real axis > 75 kVA 1) 0.4 3 phase
will not fail in real life. LCR meters and vector net- the d­ evelopment cycle is essential to avoid costly 110
4 phase
Conducted
work analyzers are the instruments of choice for ­redesigns. Oscilloscopes with powerful FFT func-
Phase

emissions

C this task; accurate power supplies are also vital. tions offer the necessary capabilities for R&D; 100 0.3
Below –45°: capacitive (C)
Phase margin
Ground plane spectrum analyzers and EMI test receivers provide
exacting precompliance testing for prototypes. 90
–180° 0.2
CISPR 11 Group 1:
> 20 kVA and ≤ 75 kVA 1)
80
100
VDC High side High side Low side Low side
Switching analysis Input/output ripple and ­power integrity Efficiency analysis CISPR 11 Group 1: 0.1
Efficiency in %

turn on turn off turn on turn off

< 20 kVA and
T1
Miller
plateau
Analyzing power transistor switching behavior is Input and output ripple measurements are per- 90 High overall efficiency is an important design goal 70
CISPR 32, class A
High side VGS
important to minimizing switching losses, optimiz- formed on every power supply design; high-speed 80 in power electronics. Power analyzers are the
Vout PARD 0
Gate-source ing dead time and verifying design robustness. circuits with CPUs, ASICs or FPGAs have very 70 ­instruments of choice for this task. Two-quadrant 60 CISPR 32, class B
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Low side VGS
voltage:
–5 V to 15 V
Higher switching speeds also have a major im- strict requirements regarding ripple. Oscilloscopes 60
power supplies can serve as simple yet effective
DC output Duty cycle
T2 pact on EMI; finding the right trade-off is a design with high acquisition rates and advanced FFT tools to verify DC/DC converter efficiency. 50
DC link voltage, 50
Switch node Dead can be 1500 V ­decision. An oscilloscope with EMI analysis capa- ­capabilities, plus dedicated power rail probes,
40
time and larger bilities and suitable differential probes is ideal for Time help verify compliance with requirements. 40
switching analysis. 30
0.1 1 10 30
0 20 40 60 80 100
Frequency in MHz
Load current in %

► CISPR 11: Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) equipment and equipment

using license-free ISM bands such as 2.4 GHz. Group 1: General purpose
consumption

Load transient testing Compliance testing ≈ ms ≈s Power consumption analysis applications (e.g. standalone power supplies), class A (industrial) and class B
Current

ESR effects Load transient testing is required to verify that a Verifying compliance with standards such as IEC/ Battery life is key to real-world performance of
Amplitude

RX/TX (residential)
design fulfills output voltage tolerance require- EN 61000-3-2 is essential to obtain type approval ≈ 100 mA
e.g. mobile phones and many internet of things

3608840582
ESL effects Capacitance effects
ments, including for fast changing load conditions. for any device with a power converter. Inrush cur- DC/DC
(IoT) devices. High-accuracy programmable power ► CISPR 32: Multimedia equipment including IT (with integrated power
converter
Slope, V/T = ∆I/C Point at which regulator In particular, when power supplies for high-speed rent and harmonic currents are typically included wake-up ­supplies and oscilloscopes with dedicated probing supplies), class A (industrial) and class B (residential)
takes control
designs have very tight voltage tolerance win- in product specifications and need to be verified. solutions and history functions are used to verify,

PD 3608.8405.82V01.00
Time
dows, load transient tests can be critical. Harmonics
Oscilloscopes and power analyzers offer dedicated MCU analyze and troubleshoot power consumption.
Load response ≈ 100 μA
compliance test capabilities. processing

MCU
Sleep mode wake-up Sleep mode 2)
Image source: Hegarty, Tim (17 November 2007). “Benefits of multiphasing buck ­converters – Part 1”.
≈ 1 μA 1)
These limits apply to equipment with a rated power > 20 kVA and intended for connection to a dedicated EE Times. Retrieved 17 November 2020 from
Time ­power transformer or generator not connected to low voltage (LV) overhead power lines. https://www.eetimes.com/benefits-of-multiphasing-buck-converters-part-1.

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