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GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS OF THE WORLD AND INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT IN VIṢṆUPURᾹṆA

Presentation By: Arya A Varma

2nd Semester M.A Sanskrit General

Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit,
Kalady (P.O), Ernakulam – 683574

The beginning of Sanskrit literature can be traced to the Vedic textual

corpus is enshrined with wisdom in every branch of learning. This was
followed by the period of Itihāsa, the influence of which can be greatly seen in
yet another later literary corpus in Sanskrit literature, i.e. the Purāṇas. There are
references to the term Purāṇas in the Vedas, in the Upaniṣads, Śatapatha
Brāhmana etc. Stories on Gods, ascetics are also seen in Purāṇas. Upaniṣads
recognize the Itihāsas and Purāṇas as the fifth Veda. Thus, a great antiquity can
be assigned to Purāṇas undoubtedly, from these references. According to
Rangacarya M. A., the term ‘Purāṇa’ has its roots from the word ‘Purānavam’.
That is, the stories which seemed to be newly during ancient times. Even
though majority of the subject matter of Purāṇas seem to be fictions, there are
several universal truths which can be seen here and there. All the Purāṇas are
based on the Hindu – trinity, i.e. each of the Purāṇas praises Brahma, Viṣṇu or
Śiva. Most of the Purāṇas contain appendices which are probably later
additions. The primitive texts of the Purāṇas is said to have flourished before
Christ.
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Authorship of the Purāṇas

It is inferred that Vyāsa was the author of the Purāṇas. Bāṇabhaṭṭa, who
belonged to the 7th Century A.D, mentions Vāyupurāṇa. Kumārila Bhaṭṭa of 8 th
Century A.D and Ᾱdi Śaṅkara of 9 th Century A.D also accept the authority of
Purāṇas. From all these, it can be stipulated that the Purāṇas in its present form
had their origin before 6th and 7th Century A.D.

Definition of Purāṇas

The popular definition which lays out the salient features of Purāṇas
given in the Amarakośa is as follows –

“ सर्गश्च प्रतिसर्गश्च वंशो मन्वन्तराणि च ।

वंशानुचरितं चैव पुराणं प चलक्षणम्‍ ॥”

That is, a Purāṇa is in which descriptions on cosmogony, cosmology (Sarga and

Pratisarga), Genealogies on kings, Gods and Sages, Cosmic Cycles
(Manvantara) and legends of various lineages (Vamśānucaritam). By the terms
Sarga, the creation of the Universe is meant.

Number of Purāṇas

It is believed that there are eighteen major Purāṇas (Mahāpurāṇas) and

eighteen Minor Purāṇas (Upapurāṇas), the authorship of which is attributed to
the son of Satyavatī, the 24th member in the religious seat of Vyāsa
(Vyāsapīṭha). The contents of all the Purāṇas are presented in the form of
verses in Anuṣṭup Metre. The eighteen Major Purāṇas are broadly classified
into three – the Vaiṣṇavapurāṇas (which praise Viṣṇu as the primal deity),
Brāhmapurāṇas (which praise Brahma as the prime deity) and Śaivapurāṇas
(which praise Śiva as the prime deity). Viṣṇpurāṇa, Nāradapurāṇa,
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Pādmapurāṇa, Garuḍapurāṇa, Varāhapurāṇa and Śrīmadbhāgavatapurāṇa are

the six Vaiṣṇavapurāṇa. To the Brāhmapurāṇas belong the Brahmapurāṇa,
Brahmavaivartapurāṇa, Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa, Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa, Bhaviṣyapurāṇa
and Vāmanapurāṇa. The Śaivapuranas are the Śivapurāṇa, Liṅgapurāṇa,
Skandapurāṇa, Agnipurāṇa, Matsyapurāṇa and Kūrmapurāṇa.

Relevance of Viṣṇpurāṇa

It is one of the important Purāṇas. All the characteristics of a Purāṇa can

be observed in Viṣṇpurāṇa. The text of Viṣṇpurāṇa is divided into six Aṁśas.
The ten incarnations of Viṣṇu is the subject matter of this Purāṇa. Viṣṇpurāṇa
is considered to be the oldest among Purāṇas. It is often regarded as
‘Purāṇaratna’. The Viṣṇpurāṇa is in the form of a dialogue between Pāraśara
and his disciple Maitreya. Since there are descriptions of the Mauryan Dynasty,
Viṣṇpurāṇa is said to be authored after the period of Christ in 1 st Century C.E or
2nd Century C.E.

The first Aṁśa in Viṣṇpurāṇa tells about creation – both primary and
secondary. The discourses on creation are described as per the Sāṁkhya
Philosophy. The second Aṁśa begins with description of the kings in the first
Manvantara, amongst whom, Bharata, is said to have given the name
Bhāratavarṣa to the Indian Sub-Continent. In this Aṁśa are described in detail,
the geographical system, planetary motion, arrangement of Vedas and other
scriptures, the duties of the four Varṇas and Aśramas, different obligatory rites
etc. The fourth Aṁśa gives an account on the ancient history of Indian Sub-
Continent. The authenticity may be doubted in scarce as the chronology of
persons is described. The fifth Aṁśa mainly deals with the life of Kṛṣṇa, the
incarnation of Viṣṇu. The sixth Aṁśa contains an account on the dissolution of
the world.
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Geographical Aspects as perceived in Viṣṇpurāṇa

The description on the dynasty of Bharata sets the beginning of the

discussion on the geographical systems. Maitreya asks his preceptor Pāraśara
about the descendants of Priyavrata, the son of Svāyambhuva Manu. It is said
that Priyavrata married Kanyā, the daughter of sage Karddama and gave birth to
two daughters – Samrāt and Kukṣi, and ten sons – Agnīdhra, Agnibāhu,
Vapuṣmat, Dyutimat, Medhātithi, Bhavya, Savana, Putra and Jyotiṣmat.
Among them, Medhātithi, Putra and Agnibāhu did not adopt the life of a prince;
instead they practiced the rites of devotion, without looking for any reward.
King Priyavrata divided the earth into seven continents to his seven children. It
is explained thus –

“ जम्बूद्वीपं महाभागा सो ग्नीध्राय ददौ पिता ।

मेधतिथिस्तथा प्रादात्‍प्लक्षद्वीपमथापरम्‍॥

शाल्मले च वपुष्मन्तं नरेन्द्रमभिषिक्तवान् ।

ज्योतिष्मन्तं कुशद्वीपे राजानं कृतवान्‍प्रभुः ॥

द्युतिमन्तश्च राजानं क्रौ चद्वीपे समादिशत्‍।

शाकद्वीपेश्वरं चापि भव्यं चक्रे च स प्रभुः ॥

सवनं पुष्करद्वीपे राजानं समकारयत्‍।”

Agnīdhra was entrusted with Jambūdvīpa, Plākṣadvīpa entrusted to

Medhatithi, Śālmaladvīpa entrusted to Vapuṣmat, Kuśadvīpa to Jyotiṣmat,
Krauncadvīpa to Dyutimat, Śākadvīpa to Bhavya and Puṣkaradvīpa to Savana.
It is quite obvious that these seven mega – islands referred here may correspond
to the seven continents known today – Eurasia, Africa, South America, North
America, Arctic, Australia and Antarctica. It is probable that the awareness on
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this division must have been procured from explorations by travelers and
adventures, apart from the inferences and speculation arrived by the author.
Further, Pārśara explains through the following verses how each part of
Jambūdvīpa was divided among his nine sons –

“ जम्बूद्वीपविभागांश्च तेषां विप्र निशामय ।

पित्रा दत्तं हिमाह्वन्तु वर्षं नाभेस्तु दक्षिणम्‍॥

हेमकूटं तथा वर्ष ददौ किम्पुरुषाय सः ।

तृतीयं नैषधं वर्ष हरिवर्षाय दत्तवान्‍॥

इलावतृ ाय प्रददौ मेरुर्यत्र तु मध्यगः ।

नीलाचलाश्रितं वर्षं रम्याय प्रददौ पिता ॥

स्वेतं तदुत्तरं वर्षं पित्रा दत्तं हिरण्वते । ”

That is, Nābhi was made the ruler of the Himavarṣa, to the south of the
Himavat (Himalayas). The Hemakūṭa was given to Kimpuruṣa and
Naiṣadhavarṣa to Harivarṣa. The middle portion of the Jambūdvīpa, called
Meru was conferred on Ilavṛta. Thus it is also known as Ilavṛtavarṣa. The
Ramyakavarsṣa entrusted to Ramya, falls in the region bound by the Meru and
Nīla Mountain. Agnīdhra gave the country worth to the Ramyakavarṣa, called
Śvetavarṣa to Hiranṇvat. The further division is thus explained –

“ यदुत्तरं श्रृड़्‍गवतो वर्षं तत्‍कुरवे ददौ ।

मेरोः पूर्वेग्गा यद्वर्षं भद्राश्वाय प्रदत्तवान्‍॥

गन्धमादनवर्षं तु के तुमालाय दत्तवान् ।

इत्येतानि ददौ तेभ्यः पुत्रेभ्यः स नरेश्वरः ॥ ”
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Kuru was entrusted with governance of the region bounded by the

Sṛṅgavān ranges in the north of Śvetavarṣa. The eastern portion of the
Ilavṛtavarṣa called Bhadrāśvavarṣa was given to Bhadrāśva. Similarly, the west
of Meru was entrusted to Ketumāla, which is known as Gandhamādana or
Ketumālavarṣa. Thus after assigning his nine sons the different regions of the
Jambūdvīpa, Agnīdhra retired to Sālagrāma and spent the rest of his life with
penance.

Description of the Earth

The description of the Earth and its seven Dvīpas and seven seas are
discussed in the 2nd chapter of 2nd Aṁśa. A detailed account can be seen in the
4th chapter of the same Aṁśa. The second chapter begins by Maitreya asking
about the earth, its oceans, islands, kingdoms, mountains, forests, rivers etc.
Parāśara thus replies –

“ जम्बूप्लाक्षाह्वयौ द्वीपौ शाल्मलिश्चापरो द्विजः ।

कुशः क्रौन चस्तथा शाकः पुष्करश्चैव सप्तमः ॥

एते द्वीपा समुद्रैस्तु सप्त सप्तभिरावतृ ाः ।

लवणेक्षस
ु रु ासर्पिदधिदुग्धजलैः समम् ॥ ”

The seven mega islands namely Jambūdvīpa, Plākṣadvīpa, Śālmaladvīpa,

Kuśadvīpa, Krauncadvīpa, Śākadvīpa and Puṣkaradvīpa are surrounded by the
seven great seas – Lavaṇābdhi, Ikṣvabdhi, Surābdhi, Sarpyabdhi, Dadhyabdhi,
Dugdhābdhi and Jalābdhi which is composed of salt, sugarcane juice, wine,
clarified butter, curd, milk and fresh water respectively.
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Characteristics of the seven Dvīpas

1. Jambūdvīpa

The Jambūdvīpa which corresponds to the modern day Eurasia is located

in the centre of the seven mega islands and the golden mountain Meru of 84,000
Yojanas high above the surface of the earth and 16,000 Yojanas deep from the
surface of the earth is located at the centre of Jambūdvīpa. The diameter of the
mount Meru is 32,000 Yojanas at the summit and 16,000 Yojanas at its base;
thus the mountain seems to be a seed cup of the lotus to the earth. The
Jambūdvīpa is bound by the mountains – Himavat, Hemakūṭa and Niṣadha
located north of the central mountain Meru and to the south by Nīla, Śveta and
Śṛṅgī ranges. The two central ranges are located one lakh Yojanas from the
Meru, each of them 2000 Yojanas high and wide.

The Bhāratavarṣa (India) lies to the south of the Himavat Mountains. The
Hemakūṭavarṣa or Kimpuruṣavarsṣa is bound by Himavat Mountain in the south
and the region bound by Niṣadha Mountain is Harivarṣa. To the north of the
Meru is the Ramyakavarṣa, bound by the Nīla and Śveta ranges. The
Uttarakuruvarṣa is located beyond Ramyakavarṣa and parallel to Bhāratavarṣa.
Each of these is 9,000 Yojanas in extent. It is thus noted by H. H. Wilson in the
Viṣṇpurāṇa thus – “These being the two outer Varṣas, are said to take the form
of a bow, that is, they are exteriorly convex, being segments of the circle”.

In the middle of the Meru ranges is located the Ilavṛtavarṣa, which is

9,000 Yojanas from each four sides of Meru. These four mountains are each of
1000 Yojanas in elevation. The four mountains within the Ilavṛtavarṣa are thus
–

“ विष्कम्भा रचिता मेरोर्योजनायुतमुच्छ्रिताः ।

पूर्वेण मन्दरो नाम दक्षिणो गन्धमादनः ॥
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विपुलः पश्चिमे पार्श्वे सुपार्श्वस्चोत्तरे स्मृतः ।

कदम्बस्तेषु जम्बूश्च पिप्पलो वट एव च ॥”
It is said that the Kadamba trees grow in the Mandara, Jambū tree in
Gandhamādana, Pippala (Peepal) in Vipula and Vaṭavṛkṣa in Supārśva.

To the east of Meru lie the Bhadraśvavarṣa and Ketumālavarṣa to the west. It is
in the east of Ketumālavarṣa, the Caitraratha forest can be found. The
Gandhamādana forest is on the south of Ketumālavarṣa. The Vaibhraja woods
and Nandanavana are located at the west and the north of Ketumālavarṣa.

Meru, being the central mountain range in the Jambūdvīpa has Nīla and
Naiṣadha mountains to its north and south respectively. The Bhāratavarṣa,
Ketumālavarṣa, Bhadraśvavarṣa and Uttarakuru lie in such a way that it lays
outside the boundary-mountains so that it resembles the leaves of the lotus –
“पत्राणि लोकपद्मस्य मर्यादा शैलबाह्यतः”.

2. Plākṣadvīpa

The Plākṣadvīpa is surrounded by the Kṣārasmudra, the extent of which is

double that of Jambūdvīpa. The sovereign of Plākṣadvīpa, Medhātithi, divided
Jambūdvīpa among his seven sons and each of these regions were earned by
many mountain ranges (Varṣaparvata). They are Gomeda, Candra, Nārada,
Dundubhi, Somaka, Sumanā, Vaibhrāja. This continent has the following rivers
– Anutaptā, Śikhī, Vipāśā, Tridivā, Kramu, Amṛtā and Sukṛtā. There are also
several other rivers which are much smaller. This Dvīpa has a large Plākṣa tree
(fig tree) of the same size as the Jambuvṛkṣa in Jambūdvīpa; thus, the continent
being named after it. Plākṣadvīpa is surrounded by the sea of sugar cane extract
(Ikṣusamudra/Ikṣvadbdhi)
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3. Śālmalidvīpa

Śālmalidvīpa, governed by Vapuṣmat, was divided into seven Varṣas,

each being named after his seven sons – Śvetavarṣa, Haritavarṣa, Jīmūtavarṣa,
Rohitavarṣa, Vaidyutavarṣa, Mānasavarṣa and Suprabhavarṣa. These Varṣas are
bound by the mountains Kumuda, Unnata, Valāhaka, Droṇa, Kaṅka, Mahiṣa
and Kakudmat. The main rivers running in this continent are Yaunī, Toyā
Vitṛṣṇā, Candrā, Śuklā, Vimocanī and Nivṛtti. This continent is characterized
by a Śālmali tree (cotton), after which the nomenclature is done. The continent
is surrounded by the sea of wine or Surābdhi, which has the same expense as
Śālmalidvīpa.

4. Kuśadvīpa

Kuśadvīpa, twice the area of Śālmalidvīpa, governed by Jyotismat, was

divided into seven Varṣas, each named after the sons – Udbhidavarṣa,
Veṇumatvarṣa, Vairathavarṣa, Lambanavarṣa, Dhṛtivarṣa, Prabhākaravarṣa and
Kapilavarṣa. Each of these Varṣa is bound by the mountains Vidruma,
Hemaśila, Dyutimat, Puṣpavat, Kuśeśaya, Hari and Mandara. Dhūtapāpā, Śivā,
Pavitrā, Sammati, Vidyudambhā, Mahāvanyā and Sarvapāpaharā are the seven
major rivers in this continent, although there are numerous streams of less
importance. The nomenclature of this continent is done after the Kuśa grass and
its presence. The Ghṛtābdhi surrounds this continent and is same in the expanse
as Kuśadvīpa.

5. Krauncadvīpa

Krauncadvīpa ruled by Dyutimat, was divided among his seven sons and
each Varṣa was named after the sons thus – Kuśalavarṣa, Mallagavarṣa,
Uṣnavarṣa, Pīvaravarṣa, Andhakārakavarṣa, Devavṛtavarṣa, Puṇḍarīkavarṣa,
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Dundubhivarṣa and Mahaśilāvarṣa. Each of these is twice as lofty as the

previous ones. The streams that are said to flow are Gaurī, Kumudvatī,
Sandhyā, Rātrī, Manojavā, Kṣānti and Puṇḍarikā. This continent is surrounded
by the Dadhyabdhi, which is of the same extent as it.

6. Śākadvīpa

Śākadvīpa, ruled by Bhavya, was divided into seven Varṣas named after
his sons as – Jaladavarṣa, Kumāravarṣa, Sukumāravarṣa, Maṇicakavarṣa,
Kusumodavarṣa, Maudākivarṣa and Mahādrumavarṣa. These are again bound
by seven mountain ranges namely Udayagiri, Jaladhāra, Raivataka, Syāma,
Ancikeya, Ramya and Kesari. The seven holy rivers are the Sukumārī, Kumārī,
Nalinī, Dhenukā, Ikṣu, Venukā, Gabhastī and several others which are of lesser
importance. Since this Dvīpa is marked by the presence of Śākavṛkṣa (Teak),
the continent is thus named. The Dugdhābhi surrounds this Dvīpa, having the
similar extent.

7. Puṣkaradvīpa

Puṣkaradvīpa, which is double in extent than the Śākadvīpa, ruled by

Savana was divided into two among his sons and named after them –
Mahavīravarṣa and Dhātakivarṣa. The Mānasottara Mountain which is 50,000
Yojana high and vide divides the Dvīpa in the middle. There are no other
mountain ranges and rivers within each of the Varṣa. A Nyagrodhavṛkṣa (Ficus
Indica) grows on Puṣkaradvīpa, which is said to be Brahma’s abode and
Jalābdhi surrounds it having the same extent that of the continent.

It can be noted that the seven Dvīpas are encompassed successively by the
seven oceans (as mentioned in the order in Viṣṇpurāṇa). Each ocean and it s
continent is respectively of twice the extent of that which precedes it. The tides
in these seas is said to be of 510 inches (Andula) in height.
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Geographical features of Bhāratavarṣa

Bhāratavarṣa, as mentioned earlier is located within the Jambūdvīpa, lies

in the north of the ocean and to the south of the Himavat ranges. It has an
extent of 9,000 Yojanas and is called the land of Karma.

Divisions of Bhāratavarṣa

Bhāratavarṣa is divided into nine portions, namely – Indradvīpa,

Tāmravarṇa, Gabhastimat, Nagadvipīpa, Saumya, Gandharva and Varuṇa.

Mountain Ranges in the Bharatvarṣa

The seven main chairs of mountain in Bhāratavarṣa are Mahendra,

Malaya, Sahya, Śuktimat, Ṛkṣa, Vindhya and Paripatra. These are called the
seven Kulaparvatas. There are no details on their configurations.

Mahendra is the range of mountains that extended from present day Orissa and
to the northern Circars and again to Gondwana. According to H. H. Wilson, the
Mahendra ranges are known by the name ‘Mahindramalai’ in that region.

Malaya is the southern portion of the Western Ghats. Śuktimat is

doubtful as it cannot be identified with any certainty to today’s topography.
Sahya ranges lies in the northern portion of the Western Ghats which are the
mountains of the present day, Konkan. Ṛkṣa is the ranges in the Gondwana.
The chain of ranges that extends across the central part of India is known by the
name Vindhya. Paripatra constitutes the northern and western portion of the
Vindhya and corresponds to the ranges of mountain in present day, Gujrat. All
these mountains, according to H. H. Wilson belong to one system and are
connected together. It is also inferred that Ptolemy was aware of this
classification although the names given by him do not correspond with the ones
in Viṣṇpurāṇa.
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Rivers of Bhāratavarṣa

The rivers of Bhāratavarṣa are enlisted in the Viṣṇpurāṇa as follows:-

1. Satadrū

2. Candrabhāgā

3. Vedasmṛti

4. Narmadā

5. Surasā

6. Tāpī

7. Payoṣnī

8. Nirvindhyā

9. Godavarī

10.Bhīmarathī

11.Kṛṣṇavenī

12.Kṛtamālā

13.Tāmraparnī

14.Triśamā

15. Ṛṣikulyā

16.Ṛṣikulyākumārī

The Satadrū and Candrabhāgā flow from the foot of the Himalayas. The
terms can be translated as ‘the hundred channelled’ which is Zaradrus of
Ptolemy. It is none other than the river Sutlej. The Candrabhāgā coincides
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with the river Chenab. The Vedasmṛti which rise from Paripatra Mountains
is classed with the Vetravati or Betwa. The Camranvati or Chambal and
Sipra and Para, the rivers of Malwa, may be the same with Beas of the maps.
The Narmadā and Surasā rivers arise from the Vidhya Mountain. The Tāpī,
Payoṣnī and Nirvindhyā have its origin from the Nirvindhyā ranges. The
Tāpī River is the present day Tapti River rising from Gondwana. The latter
two aren’t identified yet. The Godavari, Bhīmarathī and Kṛṣṇavenī originate
from the Sahya ranges. It can be noted that the river Godavari preserves its
name even today and other two have the names Bhima and Krishna. The
Kṛtamālā, Tāmraparnī and several other minor streams originate from the
Malaya hills. The existence of Kṛtamālā is not verified yet. The Tāmraparnī
has its origin in the southern extreme of the Western Ghats. The Ṛṣikulyā
and Ṛṣikulyākumārī have its course beginning from the Śuktimat Mountains.
It is known by the Rasakokilā which rises in the Mahendra Mountain and
flows into the sea near Ganjam. The Triśamā River and Surasā River are not
yet determined. The Kumārī River is suggestive of some connection with
the Cape Comorin (Kanayakumari).

Conclusions

It can be noted from the readings of the Second Aṁśa in the Viṣṇpurāṇa
that the land of the people of the Jambūdvīpa encompassed much larger
territory than the present Indian Sub-Continent. It included the present day
India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Srilanka, Afghanistan,
Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and Sinkiang. The
Viṣṇpurāṇa also contain a description of a large number of mountains but are
silent about the plains. There are also no precise details given about their
configuration. It is also observed that the sources of rivers in the
Bhāratavarṣa are enlisted, including their sources. But, there is no mention of
their floodplains and of their deltas. The names of the mountains and rivers
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persist even today without any change and some names have also suffered a
little corruption. Comparing the modern atlases and maps, it can be affirmed
that the drainage pattern of the rivers were known then.

Bibliography
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