PART 1

Hadadnia has conducted a study about “Effects of Teaching through Online Teacher versus Real
Teacher on Student Learning in the Classroom.” The purpose of the study was to compare the
effect of teaching through online with that of real teaching on university students. Virtual
learning is defined as learning and teaching happen when the teacher and learner is
geographically separated from each other and the process of teaching and learning take place
through electronic means like computer, internet, texts and etc. this especially useful when there
is difficulty in making the teacher present in real life to conduct the lesson in remote areas which
is even impossible in some cases. The online teaching can be divided into two which are extra-
school and intra-school programs. Intra school programs are when the students study from their
universities or other place of studying under the supervision of the officials. Whereas, extra-
school programs are when the students learn from their own places like home and workplace just
by connecting to internet. There are several benefits learning virtually. Firstly, the students are
free many restraints like lack of restrictions from closed place and time constraints, as well as
scheduled classes. Virtual learning method can be easily venture through remote areas where
everyone could get access to education if the teacher couldn’t able to present physically due
various reason. Considering all these advantages and arguments about the virtual learning, the
quality of learning virtually is still questionable which the frame of the study and has become the
main purpose of the study to discuss the effects of teaching through online versus and real
teacher in actual university classroom. Other aims of the studies are:

i. To analyze the probability for formation of real teaching space using online instructors
with optimum quality in learning
ii. To relate the total quality of education via teaching with online teacher and teacher in
person
iii. To analyze the likelihood of using online teachers as an alternative of real teachers
iv. To compare the level of withholding in learning via online learning as opposed to face-to-
face learning

In view of these aims, four hypotheses were formed and tested. They are:

i. One can use online teachers to overcome the lack of skilled teachers in universities
 ii. The quality of learning through an online teacher is the same as that of a real teacher
iii. One can use online teachers instead of real teachers in educational environments
iv. The level of retention in learning is the same for online and face-to-face instruction

Independent variable: teaching method which was used online teaching method versus real
teaching

Dependent variable: Effect of both teachings on student

Theory underpinning the research: Innovation diffusion theory.

Literature review

There are two types of virtual education which are intra-school and extra-school program. Intra-
school program is that the learners learn through the internet at their place of study in groups
supervised by the officials. On the other hand, an extra-school program is when the individuals
learn at their own homes or even at their workplaces individually by connecting to internet.

The emerging world has brought much difference to the learning and teaching world as well.
Increasing development of science and technology of today entails new methods of teaching and
learning. Learners must play a more active role in teaching and learning, and the teacher must
turn into the guide by the side, the facilitator, the mediator and the education designer. It also
evident that the costing can be reduced when online teaching method is used instead of physical
teaching.

Learning is not limited to what you learn in the classroom. Enjoying the technology for the
purpose of development and growth of education will lead into the flooding of huge benefits for
all layers of the society.

Using computers for education has found more representation in educational contents and course
learning and has been stated as an alternative to the classical view, the purpose of which is
providing learning in individual form instead of in group form. Based on this, internet has
provided many basic alternative solutions and means which are capable to replace the classical
education systems.
Online education gives the learner the ability to learn anywhere, anytime and even it pays
attention to the pace of learning for each individual; that is, learning with high flexibility, and
mentions the fact that in this type of education, the learner is himself a decision-maker and can
debate or speak with teachers and students using ICT.

Methodology

The method used for this research is generally an experimental, applied, and prospective study.
The groups were placed in two different classrooms. A pre-test consisting 40 questions with total
score of 20 marks were given. At the same time the control group was taught by traditional
method while the other group was taught online. After studying the nature of similar experiment,
number of subjects in the control group and the experimental group were determined to be 40
students each. the instrument for collection of data in this study consisted of 3 tests, each
covering 40 questions with 4 choices. These tests were developed by the researcher in close
collaboration with prominent university instructors and implemented in three stages. If I were to
conduct this experiment, I would suggest to an added value to the experiment by changing the
group of students who learn online to physical classroom and vice versa to improve the
reliability of the experiment.

Findings

The first hypothesis: One can use online teachers to overcome the lack of skilled instructors in
universities

The second hypothesis: The quality of learning through an online teacher is the same as that of a
real teacher
The third hypothesis: One can use online teachers instead of real teachers in educational
environments

The fourth hypothesis: The level of retention in learning is the same for online and face-to-face
instruction

Based on the result obtained it is proven that the online studies are more efficient as compared to
physical teaching and learning.

Discussion and conclusion

Subjects in the control group were taught through traditional face-to-face instruction, whereas
subjects in the experimental group were taught through online instructor. A multiple choice pre-
test, post-test, and retention test were administered to measure prior knowledge, learning gains,
and retention of students. Based on the findings of the study, one can conclude that it is possible
to use online teachers to overcome the lack of expert instructors in universities. For the second
hypothesis, it can be concluded that the quality of student learning as an outcome of teaching
through online instructors is the same as the outcome of teaching through real teachers. The third
hypothesis of the study had indicated that one can successfully use an online teacher instead of a
real teacher in educational environments. The findings of the study offer support for this idea.
The fourth hypothesis claimed that retention of learning as an outcome of online instruction is
the same as that of the traditional face-to-face instruction. The results of the study showed no
significant difference, thus it offers support for more use of online teaching under certain
conditions. However, one should keep in mind that more doesn’t always mean better so that
online educators should pay attention to principles of effective instruction regardless of the
technology.

PART 2

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to
challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounding assumptions. The
theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The
theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains why the research
problem under study exists. A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their
definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your
particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and
concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas
of knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature. You
must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that
are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should
depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways:

1. An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them

critically.
2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a
relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research
methods.
3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address
questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply
 describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that
phenomenon.
4. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical
framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and
highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what
circumstances.

By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely
because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated
with a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we
may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

Importance of theory in educational research

The first, theory as a means of building analogies and universal generalizations, goes back to
how knowledge is built in the more mature sciences like physics and other natural sciences. This
is the classical and standard notion of theory Mjøset argues for in this publication, and it serves
as a reservoir to make predictions on the basis of analogue situations. The second, theory
understood as the reorganizing of experiences, makes theory relevant as it can change our
perspective on what is important and what is superficial. For many cases where theory has been
successful in science we can make a strong argument for the deeper organization of experience
which the theory has thereby provided. The third way posits that theory also nurtures our ability
for recognizing complexity. One benefit of theory is to show that what appears on the surface to
be simple matters of empirical investigation, on a deeper level, turns out to be complex and
subtle. It is a merit of theory to push for a deeper understanding of the acquisition and not to
relax before we have a complete analysis of what a student does and what goes on inside his/her
head as (s)he for example acquires a new skill. The fourth notion, problem solving as theory,
goes back to the Deweyan concept of inquiry as the building block and repository for the
transformation of an indeterminate and indefinite situation that presents a problem regarding
what is determinate and definite. Inquiry - and problem solving- as a theoretical device can thus
be seen as corrective to the overly scholastic and rigid standard conception of scientific theory,
and where the developments of scientific theories are regarded as potential tools for problem
solving. Suppes’ fifth way is where theory serves as a protection against the triviality of
“empiricism”. Those parts of science that have been beset by “empiricism” have been suffering
accordingly. The deficiency of simple empirical facts and anecdotes is well acknowledged.
Empiricism as simply the recordings of individual facts and with no apparatus of generalization
or theoretical framework leads nowhere. (Risan, 2020, p. 101670)

Examples of theory in education

1. Cognitive learning theory

The cognitive learning theory looks at the way people think. Mental processes are an important
part in understanding how we learn. The cognitive theory understands that learners can be
influenced by both internal and external elements. Plato and Descartes are two of the first
philosophers that focused on cognition and how we as human beings think. Many other
researchers looked deeper into the idea of how we think, spurring more research. Jean Piaget is a
highly important figure in the field of cognitive psychology, and his work focuses on
environments and internal structures and how they impact learning. The cognitive theory has
developed over time, breaking off into sub-theories that focus on unique elements of learning
and understanding. At the most basic level, the cognitive theory suggests that internal thoughts
and external forces are both an important part of the cognitive process. And as students
understand how their thinking impacts their learning and behavior, they are able to have more
control over it. The cognitive learning theory impacts students because their understanding of
their thought process can help them learn. Teachers can give students opportunities to ask
questions, to fail, and think out loud. These strategies can help students understand how their
thought process works, and utilize this knowledge to construct better learning opportunities.

2. Behaviorism learning theory

The behaviorism learning theory is the idea that how a student behaves is based on their
interaction with their environment. It suggests that behaviors are influenced and learned from
external forces rather than internal forces. Psychologists have been working on the idea of
behaviorism since the 19th century. Behavioral learning theory is the basis for psychology that
can be observed and quantified. Positive reinforcement is a popular element of behaviorism—
classical conditioning observed in Pavlov’s dog experiments suggests that behaviors are directly
motivated by the reward that can be obtained. Teachers in a classroom can utilize positive
reinforcement to help students better learn a concept. Students who receive positive
reinforcement are more likely to retain information moving forward, a direct result of the
behaviorism theory.

3. Constructivism learning theory

The constructivism learning theory is based on the idea that students actually create their own
learning based on their previous experience. Students take what they are being taught and add it
to their previous knowledge and experiences, creating a unique reality that is just for them. This
learning theory focuses on learning as an active process, personal and unique for each student.
Teachers can utilize constructivism to help understand that each student will bring their own past
to the classroom every day. Teachers in constructivist classrooms act as more of a guide to
helping students create their own learning and understanding. They help them create their own
process and reality based on their own past. This is crucial to helping many kinds of students
take their own experiences and include them in their learning.

4. Humanism learning theory

Humanism is very closely related to constructivism. Humanism directly focuses on the idea of
self-actualization. Everyone functions under a hierarchy of needs. Self-actualization is at the top
of the hierarchy of needs—it is the brief moments where you feel all of your needs are met and
that you’re the best possible version of yourself. Everyone is striving for this, and you’re
learning environment can either move toward meeting your needs or away from meeting your
needs. Teachers can create classroom environments that help students get closer to their self-
actualization. Educators can help fulfill students’ emotional and physical needs, giving them a
safe and comfortable place to learn, plenty of food, and the support they need to succeed. This
kind of environment is the most conducive to helping students learn.

5. Connectivism learning theory

Connectivism is one of the newest educational learning theories. It focuses on the idea that
people learn and grow when they form connections. This can be connections with each other, or
connections with their roles and obligations in their life. Hobbies, goals, and people can all be
connections that influence learning. Teachers can utilize connectivism in their classroom to help
students make connections to things that excite them, helping them learn. Teachers can use
digital media to make good, positive connections to learning. They can help create connections
and relationships with their students and with their peer groups to help students feel motivated
about learning.

It is clear that theory plays a critical and creative role in educational research and practice. All
the lecturers agreed that there is a strong relationship between theory and practice. Theory in
educational research and practice cannot be overemphasized and yes, theory in educational
research and practice is very important. Reasons provided to substantiate this claim are:

 Theory helps to explain how certain educational phenomena occur, it clarifies why and
how education policies come into being;
 Theory provides a lens through which to understand the research envisaged and provides
a framework to develop a deeper understanding of practice;
 Theory provides education research and practice with a critical framework for dealing
with education problems.

Theory can be used to explain why certain aspects of education practice are problematic or
successful. Theory helps us to question the decisions made about education by those in authority.
The best theory for research and practice should have significance and should be able to make a
difference to how we view the world. The application of theory can reduce the possibility of
making incorrect instructional decisions in teacher education. Theory assists researchers and
teachers to critically reflect on education policy and classroom practice in attempting to ensure
best education practice. Theory assists researchers with a clearer understanding of a research
problem.

It is interesting to note that the respondents all use different theories in their educational research
and practice, for example: some lecturers use Post Modernism, African Philosophy and Critical
Theory; other lecturers use Social Constructivism. All the lecturers, however, agreed that the
educational problem and the research question that they are concerned with determine the theory
they select to assist them to solve that particular problem.
Theory can also assist them to think critically about their own classroom practice. As far as the
curriculum is concerned, at undergraduate level, theory should be introduced at a general level
which exposes students to various theoretical frameworks that can be used in critically reflecting
on education policy and practice. At postgraduate level, students should be encouraged to
identify, master and critically reflect on a theory that they will use in researching an educational
problem in their postgraduate studies.

PART 3

What is ethics in research?

Research ethics is the application of moral rules and professional codes of conduct to the
collection, analysis, reporting, and publication of information about research subjects, in
particular active acceptance of subjects' right to privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent.
Until recently sociologists (and social scientists generally) often displayed arrogance in their
treatment of research subjects, justifying their actions by the search for truth. This trend is now
being redressed, especially in industrial societies, with the adoption of formal codes of conduct,
and greater emphasis on ethical research procedures. Ethical issues are most salient in relation to
case-studies and other research designs which focus on very few cases (with the risk that they
remain identifiable in reports). Public opinion now resists invasions of privacy for genuine
research purposes just as much as for publicity seeking mass media stories, as evidenced by
periodic increases in survey non-response, despite the fact that anonymity is effectively
guaranteed in large-scale data collections. (Langenbach et al., 1994, pp. 1–3)

Importance of ethics in educational research

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms
promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example,
prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth
and minimize error.

Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many
different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that
are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For
example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and
patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to
protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to
receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed
prematurely.

Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the
public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human
subjects’ protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that
researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.

Fourth, ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more
likely to fund a research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.

Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and social
values, such as social responsibility, human rights, and animal welfare, compliance with the law,
and public health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal
subjects, students, and the public. For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial
may harm or even kill patients and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines
relating to radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and
safety of staff and students.

Examples of ethics in educational research

i. The necessity of obtaining informed consent.

A person can participate in a research study only when he or she has agreed to participate after being
given all information that would influence his or her willingness to participate. Providing full disclosure
of the nature or purpose of the research will alter the outcome and invalidate the results of some studies.
Therefore, the researcher usually does not disclose the exact hypothesis and, instead, provides a brief
summary of the general purpose of the study.

ii. Assent and dissent with minors.

Minors cannot provide informed consent, but when they are capable of providing assent, it must be
obtained.
 iii. Passive versus active consent

Although active consent is preferable and ensures that the participant has understood the demands and
risks of the study, passive consent is sometimes used in educational research to increase participation and
minimize bias. However, passive consent makes the assumption that nonresponse represents informed
consent, which might or might not be the case.

iv. Deception

Sometimes it is necessary to mislead or withhold information from research participants. When this is
necessary, the researcher must use a debriefing session at the conclusion of the study; here you must
explain that deception was used, explain the reason for the deception, and make sure that the deception
did not cause any undue stress or other undesirable feelings. If such feelings were incurred, the researcher
must incorporate procedures to eliminate the undesirable stress or feelings.

v. Freedom to withdraw

Research participants must be told that they are free to withdraw from the research study at any time
without penalty. As a general rule, the dissent of a minor should be respected even if the guardian or
parent has provided informed consent. Children below the age of being able to provide consent or infants
should be excused from the research study if they seem to be disturbed by or uncomfortable with the
procedures.

vi. Confidentiality, anonymity, and the concept of privacy

Ideally, we should have control over who gets information about us. The best way to ensure privacy of
information is to make sure that the research participant’s identity is not known to anyone involved,
including the researcher (anonymity). In cases in which it is not possible to maintain anonymity, the
identity of the participant and his or her responses must not be revealed to anyone other than the research
staff (confidentiality).
The ethics of social and educational research has been significantly complicated over the last
several decades as a consequence of the "interpretive turn" and the ever-increasing use of
qualitative research methods that have accompanied it. In this chapter, we identify what came
before and after the interpretive turn with the traditional and contemporary approaches to
research ethics, respectively. The distinction is a heuristic one. We do not mean to suggest that
the interpretive turn occurred at any precise point in time or that it has completely won out. In
this vein, the traditional approach is no doubt still in currency. Embedded in the distinction
between traditional and contemporary approaches is another between the protection of research
participants ("research subjects" in the traditional vocabulary) and research misconduct. This,
too, is a heuristic distinction, because it involves significant overlaps. In particular, research
misconduct largely subsumes the protection of research participants. Nonetheless, it is a
distinction that has the virtue of familiarity, since it parallels the way federal regulations and
universities divide the issues in research ethics.

With recent increases in the use of so-called "qualitative" research methods in addition to
experimental and quasi-experimental "quantitative" methods, some different ethical issues have
arisen for researchers. As such, educational researchers need to stay abreast of the current ethical
imperatives associated with various research methods. That is not to say that only qualitative
studies now deserve stringent ethical scrutiny or that current quantitative studies are all ethically
problem free. Instead, both quantitative and qualitative research warrant strict scrutiny, and
researchers need to be aware that particular research methods bring certain ethical issues to the
fore. Educational research is always advocacy research inasmuch as it unavoidably advances
some moral-political perspective. This is especially important for educational researchers to bear
in mind because educational research so often deals with vulnerable student populations, and
research results often have a direct impact on students' schooling experiences and educational
opportunities. In addition to abiding by federal, institutional, and AERA codes of ethics, to be
truly ethical, educational researchers must be prepared to defend what their research is for.
PART 4

Suggest THREE research questions that will guide data collection.

1. What are the main factors that influence the teenage people to smoke?
2. What do they perceive as advantage and disadvantage
3. Do age and social background level have an influence on their smoking behavior?

Explain how you plan to draw the sample of students using stratified sampling. What
subgroups would you include?

In a stratified sample, researchers divide a population into homogeneous subpopulations called

strata (the plural of stratum) based on specific characteristics (e.g., race, gender, location, etc.).
Every member of the population should be in exactly one stratum. Each stratum is then sampled
using another probability sampling method, such as cluster or simple random sampling, allowing
researchers to estimate statistical measures for each sub-population. Researchers rely on
stratified sampling when a population’s characteristics are diverse and they want to ensure that
every characteristic is properly represented in the sample. To use stratified sampling, you need to
be able to divide your population into mutually exclusive and exhaustive subgroups. That means
every member of the population can be clearly classified into exactly one subgroup.

Step 1: Define your population and subgroups

Like other methods of probability sampling, it should begin by clearly defining the population
from which your sample will be taken.

 Choosing characteristics for stratification

Choose the characteristic that will use to divide groups. This choice is very important: since each
member of the population can only be placed in only one subgroup, the classification of each
subject to each subgroup should be clear and obvious.

 Stratifying by multiple characteristics

 Choose to stratify by multiple different characteristics at once, as long as can clearly match every
subject to exactly one subgroup. In this case, to get the total number of subgroups, multiply the
numbers of strata for each characteristic.

Example:

The population is all teenagers between ages 14-16 years old. Stratify by gender and race.

Step 2: Separate the population into strata

Next, collect a list of every member of the population, and assign each member to a stratum.
Ensure that each stratum is mutually exclusive (there is no overlap between them), but that
together, they contain the entire population.

Example

Characteristic Strata Groups

Gender  Female 1. Male from poor family background,

 Male 2. Female poor family background

3. Male from well to do family background

4. Female from well to do family background

Step 3: Decide on the sample size for each stratum

First, you need to decide whether you want your sample to be proportionate or disproportionate.

 Proportionate versus disproportionate sampling

In proportionate sampling, the sample size of each stratum is equal to the subgroup’s proportion
in the population as a whole. Subgroups that are less represented in the greater population (for
example, rural populations, which make up a lower portion of the population in most countries)
will also be less represented in the sample.
In disproportionate sampling, the sample sizes of each strata are disproportionate to their
representation in the population as a whole.

This method can be chosen if wish to study a particularly underrepresented subgroup whose
sample size would otherwise be too low to allow you to draw any statistical conclusions.

 Sample size

Next, you can decide on the total sample size. This should be large enough to ensure we can
draw statistical conclusions about each subgroup. If we know our desired margin of error and
confidence level as well as estimated size and standard deviation of the population we are
working with, we can use a sample size calculator to estimate the necessary numbers.

Step 4: Randomly sample from each stratum

Finally, we should use another probability sampling method, such as simple random or
systematic sampling, to sample from within each stratum. If properly done, the randomization
inherent in such methods will allow you to obtain a sample that is representative of that
particular subgroup.

What further information do you need to draw a representative sample

A representative sample is a subset of a population that seeks to accurately reflect the

characteristics of the larger group. For example, a classroom of 30 students with 15 males and 15
females could generate a representative sample that might include six students: three males and
three females. Samples are useful in statistical analysis when population sizes are large because
they contain smaller, manageable versions of the larger group. Representative samples are
usually an ideal choice for sampling analysis because they are expected to yield insights and
observations that closely align with the entire population group.

A representative sample is generally expected to yield the best collection of results.

Representative samples are known for collecting results, insights, and observations that can be
confidently relied on as a representation of the larger population being studied. As such,
representative sampling is typically the best method for marketing or psychology studies. While
representative samples are often the sampling method of choice, they do have some barriers.
Oftentimes, it is impractical in terms of time, budget, and effort to collect the data needed to
build a representative sample. Using stratified random sampling, researchers must identify
characteristics, divide the population into strata, and proportionally choose individuals for the
representative sample.

In general, the larger the population target to be studied the more difficult representative
sampling can be. This method can be especially difficult for an extremely large population such
as an entire country or race. When dealing with large populations it can also be difficult to obtain
the desired members for participation. For example, individuals who are too busy to participate
will be under-represented in the representative sample. Understanding the pros and cons of both
representative sampling and random sampling can help researchers select the best approach for
their specific study. (Johnson & Christensen, 2013, pp. 1–3)
PART 5

A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or other types of

prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent. A research questionnaire is typically
a mix of close-ended questions and open-ended questions. Open-ended, long-form questions
offer the respondent the ability to elaborate on their thoughts. Research questionnaires were
developed in 1838 by the Statistical Society of London. The data collected from a data collection
questionnaire can be both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature. A questionnaire may or
may not be delivered in the form of a survey, but a survey always consists of a questionnaire.

There are several advantages of a well-designed questionnaire. They are:

 With a survey questionnaire, we can gather a lot of data in less time.

 There is less chance of any bias creeping if we have a standard set of questions to be used
to your target audience. We can apply logic to questions based on the respondents’
answers, but the questionnaire will remain standard for a group of respondents that fall in
the same segment.
 Surveying online survey software is quick and cost-effective. It offers you a rich set of
features to design, distribute, and analyze the response data.
 It can be customized to reflect your brand voice. Thus, it can be used to reinforce our
brand image.
 The responses can be compared with the historical data and understand the shift in
respondents’ choices and experiences.
 Respondents can answer the questionnaire without revealing their identity. Also, much
survey software complies with significant data security and privacy regulations.
The steps preceding questionnaire design

Perhaps the most important part of the survey process is the creation of questions that accurately
measure the opinions, experiences and behaviors of the public. Accurate random sampling and
high response rates will be wasted if the information gathered is built on a shaky foundation of
ambiguous or biased questions. Creating good measures involves both writing good questions
and organizing them to form the questionnaire. Questionnaire design is a multistage process that
requires attention to many details at once. Designing the questionnaire is complicated because
surveys can ask about topics in varying degrees of detail, questions can be asked in different
ways, and questions asked earlier in a survey may influence how people respond to later
questions. Researchers also are often interested in measuring change over time and therefore
must be attentive to how opinions or behaviors have been measured in prior surveys. Surveyors
may conduct pilot tests or focus groups in the early stages of questionnaire development in order
to better understand how people think about an issue or comprehend a question. Pre-testing a
survey is an essential step in the questionnaire design process to evaluate how people respond to
the overall questionnaire and specific questions.

1. Deciding on the information required

It should be noted that one does not start by writing questions. The first step is to decide 'what
are the things one needs to know from the respondent in order to meet the survey's objectives?'
One may already have an idea about the kind of information to be collected, but additional help
can be obtained from secondary data, previous rapid rural appraisals and exploratory research. In
respect of secondary data, the researcher should be aware of what work has been done on the
same or similar problems in the past, what factors have not yet been examined, and how the
present survey questionnaire can build on what has already been discovered. Further, a small
number of preliminary informal interviews with target respondents will give a glimpse of reality
that may help clarify ideas about what information is required.

2. Define the target respondents

At the outset, the researcher must define the population about which he/she wishes to generalize
from the sample data to be collected. For example, in marketing research, researchers often have
to decide whether they should cover only existing users of the generic product type or whether to
also include non-users. Secondly, researchers have to draw up a sampling frame. Thirdly, in
designing the questionnaire we must take into account factors such as the age, education, etc. of
the target respondents.

3. Choose the method(s) of reaching target respondents

It may seem strange to be suggesting that the method of reaching the intended respondents
should constitute part of the questionnaire design process. However, a moment's reflection is
sufficient to conclude that the method of contact will influence not only the questions the
researcher is able to ask but the phrasing of those questions. The main methods available in
survey research are:

 personal interviews
 group or focus interviews
 mailed questionnaires
 telephone interviews

Within this region the first two mentioned are used much more extensively than the second
pair. However, each has its advantages and disadvantages. A general rule is that the more
 sensitive or personal the information, the more personal the form of data collection should
be.

4. Decide on question content

Researchers must always be prepared to ask, "Is this question really needed?" The temptation to
include questions without critically evaluating their contribution towards the achievement of the
research objectives, as they are specified in the research proposal, is surprisingly strong. No
question should be included unless the data it gives rise to is directly of use in testing one or
more of the hypotheses established during the research design. There are only two occasions
when seemingly "redundant" questions might be included:

 Opening questions that are easy to answer and which are not perceived as being
"threatening", and/or are perceived as being interesting, can greatly assist in gaining the
respondent's involvement in the survey and help to establish a rapport. This, however,
should not be an approach that should be overly used. It is almost always the case that
questions which are of use in testing hypotheses can also serve the same functions.
 "Dummy" questions can disguise the purpose of the survey and/or the sponsorship of a
study. For example, if a manufacturer wanted to find out whether its distributors were
giving the consumers or end-users of its products a reasonable level of service, the
researcher would want to disguise the fact that the distributors' service level was being
investigated. If he/she did not, then rumors would abound that there was something
wrong with the distributor.
5. Develop the question wording

Survey questions can be classified into three forms, i.e. closed, open-ended and open response-
option questions. So far only the first of these, i.e. closed questions has been discussed. This type
of questioning has a number of important advantages;

 It provides the respondent with an easy method of indicating his answer - he does not
have to think about how to articulate his answer.
 It 'prompts' the respondent so that the respondent has to rely less on memory in answering
a question.
 Responses can be easily classified, making analysis very straightforward.
  It permits the respondent to specify the answer categories most suitable for their
purposes.
6. Closing questions

It is natural for a respondent to become increasingly indifferent to the questionnaire as it nears

the end. Because of impatience or fatigue, he may give careless answers to the later questions.
Those questions, therefore, that are of special importance should, if possible, be included in the
earlier part of the questionnaire. Potentially sensitive questions should be left to the end, to avoid
respondents cutting off the interview before important information is collected. In developing the
questionnaire the researcher should pay particular attention to the presentation and layout of the
interview form itself. The interviewer's task needs to be made as straight-forward as possible.

 Questions should be clearly worded and response options clearly identified.

 Prescribed definitions and explanations should be provided. This ensures that the
questions are handled consistently by all interviewers and that during the interview
process the interviewer can answer/clarify respondents' queries.

Ample writing space should be allowed to record open-ended answers, and to cater for
differences in handwriting between interviewers.

7. Physical appearance of the questionnaire

The physical appearance of a questionnaire can have a significant effect upon both the quantity
and quality of marketing data obtained. The quantity of data is a function of the response rate.
Ill-designed questionnaires can give an impression of complexity, medium and too big a time
commitment. Data quality can also be affected by the physical appearance of the questionnaire
with unnecessarily confusing layouts making it more difficult for interviewers, or respondents in
the case of self-completion questionnaires, to complete this task accurately. In general it is best
for a questionnaire to be as short as possible. A long questionnaire leads to a long interview and
this is open to the dangers of boredom on the part of the respondent (and poorly considered,
hurried answers), interruptions by third parties and greater costs in terms of interviewing time
and resources. In a rural situation an interview should not last longer than 30-45 minutes.

8. Piloting the questionnaires

Even after the researcher has proceeded along the lines suggested, the draft questionnaire is a
product evolved by one or two minds only. Until it has actually been used in interviews and with
respondents, it is impossible to say whether it is going to achieve the desired results. For this
reason it is necessary to pre-test the questionnaire before it is used in a full-scale survey, to
identify any mistakes that need correcting. The purpose of pretesting the questionnaire is to
determine:

 whether the questions as they are worded will achieve the desired results
 whether the questions have been placed in the best order
 whether the questions are understood by all classes of respondent
 whether additional or specifying questions are needed or whether some questions should
be eliminated
 Whether the instructions to interviewers are adequate.

Usually a small number of respondents are selected for the pre-test. The respondents selected for
the pilot survey should be broadly representative of the type of respondent to be interviewed in
the main survey. If the questionnaire has been subjected to a thorough pilot test, the final form of
the questions and questionnaire will have evolved into its final form. All that remains to be done
is the mechanical process of laying out and setting up the questionnaire in its final form. This
will involve grouping and sequencing questions into an appropriate order, numbering questions,
and inserting interviewer instructions.
 PART 6

The researcher chose a quasi-experimental design because the two methods were administered to
kindergarten students who were already divided into different classes. The researcher could not
use random selection here random selection requires the use of some form of random sampling
(such as stratified random sampling, in which the population is sorted into groups from which
sample members are chosen randomly). Random sampling is a probability sampling method,
meaning that it relies on the laws of probability to select a sample that can be used to make
inference to the population; this is the basis of statistical tests of significance. Like a true
experiment, a quasi-experimental design aims to establish a cause-and-effect relationship
between an independent and dependent variable. However, unlike a true experiment, a quasi-
experiment does not rely on random assignment. Instead, subjects are assigned to groups based
on non-random criteria. Quasi-experimental design is a useful tool in situations where true
experiments cannot be used for ethical or practical reasons. (Cook, 2015, p. 1)

Differences between quasi-experiments and true experiments

There are several common differences between true and quasi-experimental designs.

True experimental design Quasi-experimental design

Assignment to The researcher randomly assigns subjects to Some other, non-random method is used to

treatment control and treatment groups. assign subjects to groups.

Control over The researcher usually designs the The researcher often does not have control
treatment treatment and decides which subjects over the treatment, but instead studies pre-
receive it. existing groups that received different
treatments after the fact.

Use of control groups Requires the use of control and treatment Control groups are not required (although
groups. they are commonly used).

What is meant by random assignment?

Random assignment is the process by which researchers select individuals from their total
sample to participate in a specific condition or group, such that each participant has a specifiable
probability of being assigned to each of the groups or conditions. These different conditions or
groups represent different levels of the independent variable. Random assignment is generally
considered the most important criterion to qualify a research design as an experimental design.

State TWO (2) null hypotheses for the study

1. Whole word method are better than phonics method

2. Both phonics and whole word method is not effective in teaching and learning method.

Discuss FOUR (4) threats to the internal validity of the experiment.

1. History
 An unrelated event influences the outcomes.
 The children involved were not observed all the time where some students ability
to attend extra tuition classes for example can influence the outcome of the
studies
2. Maturation
 The outcomes of the study vary as a natural result of time.
 As the children are growing the nature of the children involved itself could affect
the data
3. Instrumentation
 Different measures are used in pre-test and post-test phases.
 The test methods used to test the children’s ability to learn is not sated and thus
maybe vary from what was done early of the experiment as compared towards the
end of experiment.
4. Testing
 The pre-test influences the outcomes of the post-test

Explain any TWO (2) techniques that the researcher could use to ensure the two groups
are equivalent in ability
 1. By having a pretest to ensure they’re equally capable at the time the study was started.
2. The treatment effect is tested only through posttest after the completion of both
techniques

In order to reject the null hypothesis, it is necessary to analyze the data statistically.
Explain

If our statistical analysis shows that the significance level is below the cut-off value we have set
(e.g., either 0.05 or 0.01), we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
Alternatively, if the significance level is above the cut-off value, we fail to reject the null
hypothesis and cannot accept the alternative hypothesis. You should note that you cannot accept
the null hypothesis, but only find evidence against it.

PART 7
 1. The automobile is universally held as being more satisfactory than public transit
2. The major determinants of modal choice include reliability, time, cost, mode of payment,
and physical and psychological comfort.
3. A mode shift from automobile to transit would result from better transit accessibility,
more frequent scheduling, routing that was responsive to demand, and low cost.
4. Present transit users think that the attractiveness of transit would improve by maintaining
schedules, decreasing origin to route and route to destination distances, and reducing trip-
time expenditure.
5. Speed and punctuality are less important for nonworking trips than for work trips. Other
costs and conveniences are, however, equally important for both purposes.
6. The relative importance of transit attributes varies according to the survey instrument
used, the geographic location of the sample, and the existing use made of public
transportation.

Objective

The broad objectives of this research were to identify and assess the relative importance of the
attributes of the transit system as conceived by the consumer and to determine the extent to
which consumers think existing modes of transportation satisfy their needs.

Purpose of the attitude scale and what is being measured

Attitude scales provide a quantitative measurement of attitudes, opinions or values by

summarizing numerical scores given by researchers to people's responses to sets of statements
exploring dimensions of an underlying theme.

Various kinds of rating scales have been developed to measure attitudes directly (i.e. the person
knows their attitude is being studied). The most widely used is the Likert scale. In its final form,
the Likert scale is a five (or seven) point scale which is used to allow the individual to express
how much they agree or disagree with a particular statement. A Likert scale assumes that the
strength/intensity of an attitude is linear, i.e. on a continuum from strongly agree to strongly
disagree, and makes the assumption that attitudes can be measured. The response categories in
Likert scales have a rank order, but the intervals between values cannot be presumed equal.
(Schwarz, 2001, p. 906)

Things to consider when selecting scales:

First consider the objectives of the research and whether the selected scales will help achieve the
research objectives. Typically researchers conduct qualitative research before designing the
scales. Qualitative research is used to help the researcher gain a deeper understanding of the
constructs under investigation.

Using qualitative research helps the researcher select the scales and craft how the scales will be
written. Once the scales are written, the researcher will pre-test the survey to make certain it
works as expected.

An important question to consider in developing of scales is how the survey will be

administered: By an interviewer, self-administered by the respondent on the Internet, self-
administered by the respondent using a survey delivered through the mail.

Creating a scale typically involves eight steps. They are:

Step 1: Clarify what is to be measured.

Step 2: Select scale formats (Likert, Stapel, Semantic Differential, etc.). Researchers typically
restrict themselves to a limited number of scale formats.

Step 3: Generate a pool of items that will be used to measure the concept or construct.

Step 4: Have others critique the pool of items.

Step 5: Consider adding items that will provide a check on internal consistency. For example, in
non-adjacent places ask the respondent's age and birth date.
Step 6: Pre-test the instrument. This is a critical step because it helps researchers learn if
respondents are misinterpreting questions.

Step 7: Drop redundant items.

Step 8: Optimize the scale, which involves consideration of reliability and the length of the
instrument.

Another consideration: How long does the researcher have to develop the scales? Rank-order
scales can be developed quickly while developing a semantic differential scale can take a long
time.

Researchers must decide whether to employ balanced or unbalanced scales. Balanced scales have
an equal number of positive and negative categories while unbalanced scales do not. Unbalanced
scales are often used when pilot studies suggest that more opinions are positive than negative, or
more negative than positive. In these cases, unbalanced scales will give the researcher a more
nuanced view of respondents' attitudes.

The emergence of context effects in attitude measurement raises important theoretical issues.
Traditionally, attitudes have been conceptualized as enduring dispositions, implying that context
effects represent undesirable noise. In fact, some researchers suggested that context effects may
only emerge when respondents have not yet formed an opinion about the object, but not when
respondents have formed strong, or crystallized, attitudes. Empirically, however, this attitude
strength hypothesis has received little support. Alternatively, we may conceptualize attitudes as
evaluative judgments that are formed on the spot, when needed, based on whatever information
is accessible at the time. These diverging perspectives have differential implications for the
conditions under which we can expect attitude stability over time, or close attitude behavior
relationships, and suggest different research and measurement strategies.

In principle, an individual’s attitude towards some object may be inferred from his or her
behavior towards it. Unfortunately, however, individuals’ behavior is influenced by many
variables other than their attitudes and the attitude-behavior relationship is typically weak.
Hence, direct behavioral observation is rarely used in attitude measurement. As an alternative
observational approach, researchers may assess individuals’ physiological responses to the
attitude object.

Because the Likert element data is discrete, ordinal, and limited in scope, there has been a long
dispute over the most logical way to analyze Likert data. The first option is between parametric
and non-parametric tests. The advantages and disadvantages of each type of analysis are
generally described as the following:

 Parametric tests assume a regular and uninterrupted division.

 Non-parametric tests do not assume a regular or uninterrupted division. However, there
are concerns about a lesser ability to detect a difference when one exists.

Likert scales fall within the ordinal level of measurement: the categories of response have
directionality, but the intervals between them cannot be presumed equal. Thus, for a scale where
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = neutral, 4 = disagree, and 5 = strongly disagree, a mark of 4
would be more negative than 3, 2, or 1 (directionality). However, it cannot infer that a response
of 4 is twice as negative as a response of 2.

Deciding which descriptive and inferential statistics may legitimately be used to describe and
analyze the data obtained from a Likert scale is a controversial issue. Treating Likert-derived
data as ordinal, the median or mode generally is used as the measure of central tendency. In
addition, for responses in each category, one may state the frequency or percentage frequency.
The appropriate inferential statistics for ordinal data are those employing nonparametric tests,
such as the chi-square test or the Mann-Whitney U test.

However, many researchers treat Likert-derived data as if it were at the interval level (where
numbers on the scale not only have directionality but also are an equal distance apart). They
analyze their data using parametric tests, such as analysis of variance (ANOVA) or Pearson’s
product-moment correlation, arguing that such analysis is legitimate, provided that one states the
assumption that the data are interval level. Calculating the mean, standard deviation, and
parametric statistics requires arithmetic manipulation of data (e.g., addition and multiplication).
Since numerical values in Likert scales represent verbal statements, one might question whether
it makes sense to perform such manipulations. Moreover, Likert-derived data may fail to meet
other assumptions for parametric tests (e.g., a normal distribution). Thus, careful consideration
must also be given to the appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics, and the researcher
must be explicit about any assumptions made.
 ATTITUDE TOWARDS USING PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Question 1: The automobile is universally held as being more satisfactory than public transit

5 4 3 2 1
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Or N/A Disagree Strongly Disagree

Question 2: The major determinants of modal choice include reliability, time, cost, mode of payment, and
physical and psychological comfort.

5 4 3 2 1
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Or N/A Disagree Strongly Disagree

Question 3: A mode shift from automobile to transit would result from better transit accessibility, more
frequent scheduling, routing that was responsive to demand, and low cost.

5 4 3 2 1
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Or N/A Disagree Strongly Disagree

Question 4: Present transit users think that the attractiveness of transit would improve by maintaining
schedules, decreasing origin to route and route to destination distances, and reducing trip-time
expenditure.

5 4 3 2 1
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Or N/A Disagree Strongly Disagree

Question 5: Speed and punctuality are less important for nonworking trips than for work trips. Other costs
and conveniences are, however, equally important for both purposes.

5 4 3 2 1
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Or N/A Disagree Strongly Disagree

Question 6: The relative importance of transit attributes varies according to the survey instrument used,
the geographic location of the sample, and the existing use made of public transportation.

5 4 3 2 1
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Or N/A Disagree Strongly Disagree
BIBILIOGRAPHY

Langenbach, M., Vaughn, C., & Aagaard, L. (1994). An Introduction to Educational Research.

Allyn and Bacon.

Risan, M. (2020). Creating theory-practice linkages in teacher education: Tracing the use of

practice-based artefacts. International Journal of Educational Research, 104, 101670.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101670

Johnson, R. B., & Christensen, L. B. (2013). Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative,

and Mixed Approaches (Fifth ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.

Schwarz, N. (2001). Attitude Measurement. International Encyclopedia of the Social &

Behavioral Sciences, 905–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/01673-9

Cook, T. D. (2015). Quasi-Experimental Design. Wiley Encyclopedia of Management, 1–2.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118785317.weom110227