Running head: TRANSPARENCY THROUGH SOCIAL MEDIA

Transparency through Social Media: Improving the Credibility of PR Professionals in the

Twenty-First Century

Pete Voss

Gonzaga University, COML 501

March 27, 2011

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 Annotated Bibliography

Bowen, S. A. (2009). What communication professionals tell us regarding dominant coalition access
and gaining

membership. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 37, (4), 418-443.

The researcher examines previous public relations literature and compares it against focus groups
of communications professionals. Members of the focus group said that the organizations CEOs
expected communications managers to “fix” bad news, even if the bad news was true. This will
research will be helpful in explaining how executives must not ask PR professionals to spin bad
news, but instead offer counsel based on public opinion. The article is limited as the focus group
interviewed opinions of PR practitioners, however no CEOs were questioned.

Bollinger, L. (2003). Public Relations, business and the press. Public Relations Quarterly, 48, (2), 20-
23.

The researcher sent a questionnaire to 659 U.S. newspaper editors and found that the data
supported the opinion that editors believe PR professionals are out of touch with the reporters
they are supposed to work with. One example includes the story of the PR professional who
publicly complained about the reporter who reported false facts about a resort in South Carolina;
the reporter refuted his case saying the information was not readily available. The study found
that while PR professional insisted their information was as objective as that of journalists, the
news editors said they did not trust the information from PR professionals, and the majority of
editors believed that PR professionals did not hold the same level of journalism skills. The article
does not look at the overall public’s perception of PR professionals, however this information
will be helpful as I look to reporters’ current perceptions of PR professionals.

Callison, C. (2001). Do PR Practitioners Have a PR Problem?: The Effect of Associating a Source

With Public

Relations and Client-Negative News on Audience Perception of Credibility. Journal of Public

Relations Research. 13, (3), 219-234.

The author used a 2x2 factorial experiment with varying sources and messages to show how 141
teachers responded to the messages based on who delivered them. Research showed that
messages delivered by PR professionals were less trusted than news delivered by a generic
source. This will be helpful to show the current perceptions of the term PR make building
credibility an uphill battle.

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Childers, L. (1989). Credibility of Public Relations at the NRC. Public Relations Research Annual.
1,(1), 97-114.

The author looks at PR practices for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC),
and suggests a power struggle between PR and the organization’s executives. While it
shows that different organizations use PR in very different ways, executives rarely let PR
work in isolation or use sophisticated strategies. The piece is limited as it only speaks to
the NRC organizations, however it will be helpful to showcase that a change in PR must
be understood and supported by the organization’s executives.

Collie, T. (2008). Newsroom Gloom. Journalism Review. 30, (5), 8-9.

The author reports that despite the recent “newsroom gloom” where many reporters are
being laid off as advertising funds shrink, there are still many young journalism interns
who enjoy the work. The format of news may switch from paper to Internet, however
people are just as interested in reading news, and journalists are just as prone to report it.
This piece will help showcase two things for me: First, showing the way how an entire
industry, and one so similar to PR, must change the way it does business; Second,
combined with other research that shows journalists currently hold more credibility,
organizations can offer out-of-work journalists jobs to objectively report on the company,
which may bring my transparency and credibility to the organization.

Geary, D. L. (2005). The Decline of Media Credibility and its Impact on Public Relations. Public
Relations Quarterly.50, (3), 8-12.

The author cites a 2004 survey by the Pew Research Center for People and the Press,
sponsored by the Project for Excellence in Journalism and the Committee of Concerned
Journalists. Survey results showed that six percent of journalists feel it’s necessary to be
moral, and media credibility was at its lowest in 30 years. With the decline in credibility
of press, it proves the increased importance of reliable PR. The “general public” is being
replaced by niche audiences who seek out news that’s important to them, this paves the
way for organizations to communicate news with an angle, but must do it in a credible
journalistic fashion. Additionally, the author points out that two-way communications,
rather than one-way press pitching, allows feedback, reaches more audiences, and can be
measured. The article is critical of the media, and has a heavy PR slant, however it will
be useful in finding new ways to approach PR and gain more credibility

Heath, R. L., Seshadri, S, & Lee, J. (1998). Risk Communication: A Two-Community Analysis of
Proximity,

Dread, Trust, Involvement, Uncertainty, Openness/Accessibility, and Knowledge on

Support/Opposition Toward Chemical Companies. Journal of Public Relations Research. 10, (1),
35-56.

The authors examined people’s level of trust, involvement, uncertainty, knowledge,

perceptions of openness, and overall support toward chemical companies and compared
results of those who lived within 5 miles of a chemical plan, and those who lived at least
20 miles from a chemical plant. Findings showed that those who lived closer and had

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 more knowledge, had more trust and a favorable overall perception of the company.
These findings will be invaluable when attempting to show that transparency can lead to
trust and favorable perceptions.

Isaksson, M., Jorgensen, P. E. F. (2010). Communicating Corporate Ethos on the Web. Journal of
Business Communication. 47, (2), 119-140.

The researchers studied the work of PR agencies across three countries, within the same
region, to see how they presented themselves online: The study showed that the 60
British, Danish and Norwegian PR agencies attempted to showcase expertise at the cost
of showing empathy to clients. While there were no studies to see how clients reacted to
the ethos of each of the agencies, the authors’ noted that “the message (could) seem
hollow and worn-out if the sophistication of trustworthy and empathy is omitted.” This
will be helpful in showing that a human element is needed in gaining credibility.

Jin, H. S. (2003). Compounding Consumer Interest. Journal of Advertising.32, (4), 29-41.

The researchers investigated the results of using PR to help advertising in an effort to use
Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) as a cross-promotional tool. The research
showed that success from using PR around the Super Bowl television commercials and
demonstrated a way that PR must be more creative and integrate with other
communication efforts. IMC will be important to discuss as PR professionals target new
audiences in new ways.

Jo, S. (2005). The Effect of Online Media Credibility on Trust Relationships. Journal of Website
Promotion.

1, (2), 57-78.

The researcher conducted a 2x2 experiment with 184 participants showing that
newspapers are still more credible than online news. The study showed that organizations
who seek credibility should be encouraged to seed objective information with key
traditional media first and then use the website to incorporate material from other trusted
sources. The research supports the claim that organizations cannot work in a vacuum
because they have a blog, but must continue to work with media to gain trust.

Kazoleas, D. & Teven, J. J. (2009). Public Relations and Organizational Credibility: Refining the
Definition,

Measurement and Assessment of Organizational Trust. Human Communication. 12, (1), 19-32.

The authors seek to redefine trust among the PR industry. Research shows that there are
many different ways that trust can be defined, and because some PR professionals may
try to spin the definition of the term, different interpretations lead to different results. For
the purposes of this research assignment, I plan to use the author’s multi-dimensional
approach to trust and credibility, which includes reliability, benevolence and integrity.

Kelleher, T. (2009). Conversational Voice, Communicated Commitment, and Public Relations

Outcomes

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 in Interactive Online Communication. Journal of Communication. 59, (1), 172-188.

The author explains the importance of using the Internet to connect with target audiences,
and through a 2006 survey of 128 blog commenters, results showcased how customers
trusted the organization representatives who chose to use conversational voice online,
rather than those who did not. Findings may have changed since 2006 when the study
was done, however conversational voice will be important to show as more favorable as
PR professionals look to converse with their audiences online.

Lamme, M. O. & Russell, K. M. (2010). Removing the Spin: Toward a New Theory of Public
Relations

History. Journalism & Communication Monographs. 11, (4), 281-362.

The author examines PR history and its evolution over the past 100 years. As the author
points out that PR started around 1900 and is considered a 20th Century industry, it will
be important to examine the last hundred years before looking to see where PR is headed
in the next century. In examining the history of PR it shows ways that PR has been used
for good, as well as evil; showing opportunities and threats will be important in
discussing potential for PR professionals in the future.

Len-Rios, M. E. (2002). Consumer Rules and Orientation Toward Corporate Websites: A Pilot
Study.

Journal of Promotion Management. 9, (1/2), 125 – 143.

The author had 147 undergraduates fill out questionnaires focused on corporate websites.
Results revealed that the organizations that encouraged two-way dialogue built better
trust with the user. Two way dialogue could be defined as blog comments, responses to
comments, chat rooms, or even as simple as contact info. This will be helpful in
determining ways for PR practitioners to build trust.

Lewis, M. C. (1977). The Problem of Credibility: A Report from the Weather Man. Public Relations
Quarterly.22, (2), 21-25.

The author points out the distrust of the PR professional, both by the public and by the
company executives, and compares the distrust to that of the public against the weather
man. He claims that the role can be thankless, however should be thought as, “to make
management credible to the public—and the public credible to management.” This role
definition will help as the paper looks new tactics and strategies, but this definition of the
role stated in 1977 should hold true in the 21st Century.

Lordan, E. J. (2003). Mixed Messages: The Bush Administration Public Relations Campaign in the
Iraqi

War. Public Relations Quarterly. 48, (3), 9-14.

The author examines the PR campaign during the Iraq War and shows that embedding
reporters revealed an unprecedented level of transparency, which in turn resulted in the

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 credibility needed to lead a country to war, however it also showed the amount of risk
that goes with this transparency. The perception that the Bush administration lied to the
public about WMDs overshadowed the success of the war, and the lasting memory of
many about the war was not the regime change of Iraq, but the change of White House
from republican to democrat. The ultimate takeaway is that transparency will lead to
credibility, but however that credibility can be quickly removed if not completely honest
with the public.

Lordan, E. J. (2005). Defining Public Relations and Press Roles in the Twenty-First Century. Public
Relations

Quarterly.50, (2), 41-43.

The author explains that one reason why many people don’t inherently trust PR
professionals and journalists because the lines between the two roles are becoming
increasingly blurred. To build trust for PR professionals in the 21st Century the author
suggests that PR professionals not attempt to blur the lines, but in fact set the lines and be
extremely clear in the value that a PR professional brings. Combined with a good
definition of a PR professional, this will be helpful in setting guidelines for the PR
professional in the 21st Century.

Palser, B. (2008). Investing in the Future. American Journalism Review. 30, (6), 44.

The author writes that while many newsrooms are cutting jobs, many newsrooms are
investing in online news. This shift is important for PR professionals who are looking to
target the “mainstream” newspapers. As reporters are looking for new ways to report the
news, PR professionals must look for new ways to communicate with its key audiences.

Pauly, J. J. (2007). We Have All Been Here Before. Journal of Mass Media Ethics. 22, (2/3), 225-228.

The author dissected the 2006 Wal-Mart PR campaign, executed by Edelman, where
employees disguised themselves as an American family on a U.S. road trip saying
positive things about Wal-Mart. The disguise was immediately discovered and Edelman
drew significant criticism for trying to deceive blog readers that they were not PR
professionals. While President Richard Edelman said the campaign was not fully
transparent, he did not apologize. This article will be useful when showing the
importance of full disclosure.

Rawlins, B. (2009). Give the Emperor a Mirror: Toward Developing a Stakeholder Measurement of
Organizational

Transparency. Journal of Public Relations Research. 21, (1), 71-99.

The author examines what it means to be “transparent,” and translates it to be “the

opposite of secrecy.” Defining this word as it relates to businesses is important as we will
use transparency as a strategy to build credibility. Transparency, the author writes, is
important not only for the public to know what is going on, but also to hold organizations
accountable.

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Reynolds, B. (2006). Response to Best Practices. Journal of Applied Communication Research. 34,
(3), 249-252.

The author explains how a crisis can be detrimental to an organization’s brand. One way
to mitigate criticism during crisis is to use open and empathetic communication. As
researchers have claimed that PR has a PR problem, it’s time that the industry follow its
own advice and use open communication with the public. This will be helpful in
explaining why PR must change the way it hides behind a new name, or pays no mind to
the image it’s created itself, PR professionals must tackle the image and start explaining
its role in communication.

Smuddle, P. M. (2005). Blogging, Ethics and Public Relations: A Proactive and Dialogic Approach.
Public

Relations Quarterly. 50, (3), 34-38.

The author defines blogging, and speaks to how PR professionals can use blogs as a PR
tactic. He focuses on the ethics of blogging as a PR tactic, and explains that “a blog
fosters dialog about the good, the bad and anything in between.” This will help me
discuss blogging as a tactic that accrues to building relationships and creating dialog as a
means to showcase transparency and build credibility.

St. John, B. (2009). Claiming Journalistic Truth: US press guardedness toward Edward L. Bernays’
conception

of the minority voice and the “corroding acid” of propaganda. Journalism Studies. 10, (3), 353-
367.

The author shows how PR derived from propaganda in the 1920s in that both practices
attempt to communicate messages that may not necessarily be covered by mainstream
media. The large difference however being that propaganda attempts to discredit
journalism, where PR inherently works with the media. This history will be helpful in
offering reasons why PR professionals should respect the role journalists play and why it
is imperative to be extremely open about the role that PR plays in disseminating
information.

Thomas, G. F.; Zolin, R.; & Hartman, J. L. (2009). The Central Role of Communication in
Developing

Trust and its Effect on Employee Involvement. Journal of Business Communication. 46, (3), 287-
310.

The study audited 218 employees from the oil industry to test the relationships between
quality and quantity of information with openness, trust and employee involvement. The
results supported the hypothesis that the higher quality and more quantity of information
was associated with higher trust. This is useful information as we correlate transparency
to trust.

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Walther, J. B.; Van Der Heide, B.; Kim, S.; Westerman, D.; & Tong, S. (2008). The Role of
Friends’

Appearance and Behavior on Evaluations of Individuals on Facebook: Are We Known by the

Company We Keep? Human Communication Research. 34, (1), 28-49.

The researchers explored how a social media profile such as Facebook can be perceived
by the public. More than what the person or organization communicates on the profile,
the online audience can learn a lot from the organization by the friends it keeps, and what
they post on its wall. This can be helpful information to PR professionals who look to
advocacy as a way to build credibility, the more opportunity the organization can offer
people to connect with engage, the more trust that organization can build.

Yang, S. & Lim, J. S. (2009). The Effects of Blog-Mediated Public Relations (BMPR) on Relational
Trust.

Journal of Public Relations Research. 21, (3), 341-359.

The authors explore how blogs have become a popular two-way communications tool for
PR professionals. The researchers studied 314 volunteers who showed that blogger
credibility was determined by whether or not the blog had interactivity and fostered
dialog. This will be useful to show that social media, and its two-way communication by
nature, can lead to improved credibility.