BLOOD

 Study of blood – Haematology Liquid Component - 55%

Study diseases of blood circulation  Plasma
– Angiology Solid Component - 45%
 Blood circulation, character of 1. Red Blood Corpuscles (RBC)
blood, heart function described by 2. White Blood Corpuscles (WBC)
- William Harvey (1628). 3. Blood Platelets
 Blood is a fluid connective tissue
(Living) and composed of blood PLASMA
cells, plasma & lymph.  Transparent straw yellow in colour
 It differs from connective tissue in  Slightly alkaline
following manner  It forms 55% by volume of blood
1. Are not formed by pre existing  It contains 80-92%, water 0.9%,
Blood cell proteins and 0.1% salt and
2. Do not divide like cells of connective respiratory gases
tissue
3. Fibres are absent Plasma proteins
 Albumin - 4.4 % - maintains
Characterise/Properties osmotic pressure
 Blood is salty in taste  Globulin - 2.3 % - transport of
 pH 7.30 - 7.40 hormones, ions formation of
 Heavier than water (2.5 times) antibodies
 Blood volume in an adult 5 - 8 litres  Fibrinogen - 0.3 % - helps in
 Blood volume in males 5 - 6 litres blood clotting
 Blood volume in females 4 - 5 litres
Components : Blood is made up of 2 Water – as a solvent and suspending
main components medium for blood components.

Page 1
 ZOOLOGY

IONS – Na, K, Ca, Mg, Cl2, Fe,  RBC in healthy man 5 - 5.5
PO4, H & HCO3 – Osmosis, acid – millions of RBC mm-3
base balance, buffer, etc.  RBC in healthy in woman -
Nutrients – Glucose, amino acids, 4.5 – 5 millions of RBC mm-3
triglycerides, Cholesterol, vitamins  Infant – 6.5 Million / 1 cubic
– source of energy, building blocks. millimeter
Regulating substances –  Embryo - 8.5 Million
Hormones & enzymes – body / 1 cubic millimeter
functions.  Biconcave discoidal in structure
 7mm in diameter
RED BLOOD CORPUSCLES  Structure described by
 Erythrocytes / Oxygen boats KENDREW & PERUTZ
 In developing stages nucleus is  2.5 micron in thickness
present, while maturity it will  Outer membrane is Donnan’s
looses its nucleus. membrane

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 BLOOD

 Its Red in colour because of Bone After Child Aged

Hameoglobin, pigmented, marrow Birth
protein present inside. Its also volume 70 ml 2000 4000
known as respiratory pigment ml ml
 Haemoglobin combines with colour Pink Red Yellow
oxygen and forms
Haemocytoblast
oxyhaemoglobin
1 mol Hb + 4 mol of O2 →
Erythroblast
HbO5
Haemoglobin transport O2
Normoblast
 Its measured by : Shali’s
Haemometer
Reticulocyte
 In Male - 15.8 mg / 100 ml
Vit B12, Vit C,
 In Female - 13.7 mg / 100 ml
Folic acid are needed for maturation
 In child - 16.5 mg / 100 ml
 Molecular weight of Hb :
RBC
68000 Daltons
 The total process will take 72
 Formula of Hb : C3032 H4816 O872
hours
N780 S8 Fe4
 In one minute time 2 to 10
 4 molecular Haeme + 1
million were produced and
molecular globin =
destroyed
Haemoglobin
 Life span in male – 120 days, in
 One RBC contains about 280
female – 110 days
haemoglobin molecule.
 For estimation of life span of
Formation of RBC
RBC Cr51 radioactive element is
(Erythropoiesis)
used.
 Erythropoietin is a hormone
Destruction of RBC
secretes by kidneys in response to
 Gravegard of RBC is Spleen &
low oxygen & helps.
Liver.
 Production in Bone marrow (ribs &
vertebrae)

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 ZOOLOGY

 While destruction it is converted  Haemolytic anaemia -

into Bilirubin (Yellow),
Biliverdin (Green)
 This will give colour to fecal
matters and urine
 RBC, WBC count measuring
instrument : Haemocytometer
 RBC diluting liquid : Hayem’s,
 WBC diluting liquid : Turk’s
Diseases :-
 Polycythemia - RBC
count increase in blood
 Anaemia - RBC count decreases
in blood
 Hypochromic anaemia -  Mg – No colour
Deficiency of Iron in food
 Pernicious anaemia - White Blood Corpuscles
Deficiency of Vitamin B12 in
food
 Megaloblast anaemia - haemoglobin
Deficiency of folic acid in food
 Sickle cell anaemia - It is genetic
and RBC becomes sickle shaped
 Thalassemia - It is genetic and
body does not make Hb or RBC
 Aplastic anaemia - Failure of
RBC formation by over drug
intake
Destruction of RBC by snake
venum
 Septicemia - Its a sort of blood
presence of microorganisms and
their toxins in blood.
Functions :
1. RBC carry the oxygen
2. RBC transport CO2
3. RBC maintains pH
Colour of Blood :
 Fe – Red colour
 Cu – Blue colour
 Mn – Brown colour
 Leucocytes / Police force of body
 Colourless because they lack
 Amoeboid & nucleated cells.
 Least count when compared with
RBC
 RBC : WBC = 600 :1
 Count 6000-8000 / cubic
millimeter
 Life span 3-4 days
 Having a prominent nucleus
(amoeboid)

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 BLOOD

COMPARISON BETWEEN PLASMA AND LYMPH

PLASMA LYMPH
 It is cell free part of blood,  It is modified tissue fluid, contains cells
contains, salts considerable like lymphocyte and monocytes, salts and
amount of proteins as well as small amount of proteins. It is colourless.
more or less all constituents of
body.
 It flows with in blood vessels.  It flows within lymphatic vessels.
 It takes part in nutrition  It supplies nutrition to tissue devoid or
excretion respiration etc by blood supply, takes part in fat absorption
transporting various materials and defence Mechanism of the body.
and helps in the defence
mechanism of the body by
producing antibodies.  It can coagulate but very slowly because it
 It can Coagulate because it contains these two in small quantities.
contains fibrinogen and
prothrombin
Granulocytes – Characterised by
presence of granules in cytoplasm and 1. Lymphocytes
differentiated in the bone marrow.  Small WBC
(Neutrophils, Eosinophils &  7  in diameter
Basophils).  Life span 28 days
Agranulocytes – Characterised by  Produce T cells to destroy
absence of granules in cytoplasm and viruses
differentiated in the lymph glands &
spleen, (Lymphocytes, Monocytes). 2. Monocytes (Macro Policeman)
WBC  Largest WBC
Monocucleated Agranulocytes
 22  in diameter
Polymorpho nucleated
 Life span 28 days
granulocytes
 These are phagocytic in nature
Lymphocytes Eosinophills (a)
26% acidophils : 2.8%
3. Eosinophils
Monocytes Neutrophils : 65%
 Nuclear is bilobed
6%
Basophils : 0.2 %  More motility in nature

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 ZOOLOGY

 Life span few hours only  The introduced foreign bodies

 Non – Phacolytic in nature were destroyed and digested by
 It increase during certain types cells.
of parasitic infections & allergic
Diseases:
reactions
 Increase of WBC count in blood
 If secretes heparin, serotonin
- leukemia (Blood cancer)
and histamines
 Decrease of WBC count in blood
 They also involve in
– leukopenia
inflammatory reactions.
BLOOD PLATELETS
4. Neutrophils/Micro Policeman:  Name coined by Bizzozero
 Also called as heterophils  Present only in mammals
Maximum number is total  No nucleus
WBCG  Irregular in shape

 Nucleus is multilobulated, hence  Produced from cells of bone

called as polymorphonuclear marrow

neutrophils (PMN)  Count 2,00,000 – 4,00,000 /

 Life span 2-4 days cubic millimeter

 Life span 5-9 days
 10  in size
 For estimation of life span
 Phagocytic in nature
-DPF32

5. Basophils; :  Important role in blood clotting

(hemostasis)
 Minimum number in total WBC
 Destructed in Spleen and Liver
 Life span 12-15 days
 Count increased leads to –
 Heparin is present which
Thrombocythemia
preventing blood clotting inside
 Count decreased leads to –
the capillaries.
Thrombocytopenia
Functions:
 WBC protects our body from
microorganisms

Page 6
 BLOOD

BLOOD CLOTTING 4. Vitamin K is essential for

 When blood come out from the synthesis of prothrombin
capillaries it will lose its liquid 5. Then the soluble protein
state and it changes into jelly like fibrinogen is converted into
structure is called clotting of insoluble protein fibrin
blood.  Normal time of blood clotting 5-
 First discovered by Schimidst 8 minutes.
1892 and further explained by Haemophilia
Morawitz  It is genetic disorder
 During clotting the fibrin protein  Due to chromosomal aberration
threads are formed . in sex linked genes deficiency in
 It stops the blood particles to blood clotting is happened
come out results in continous flow of blood
 All the clotting factors are leads to death
present in blood plasma in inert  Its first identified to British royal
stage. Once injury happens it will family
turn in to active phase  Discovered by John Kotta
 There are 13 factors present (1803)
1. Thrombokinase enzyme Donar Recipient
production : The injured A A, AB
blood platelets releases a B B, AB
lipoprotein AB AB
2. Thromboplastin. Its added O O, A, B, AB
with some factors in blood
and produces the enzyme Blood Group
Thromokinase  Discovered by Karl Landsteiner,
3. With this the plasma protein 1900
prothrombin is converted  Discovered A, B, O groups
into thrombin with the help  AB group discovered by De-
of CaCl2 ions. Castello and Sturli
 Dominant is O group

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 ZOOLOGY

 Recessive is AB group  Pottassium oxalate salts

 Total number of blood group is  EDATA – Ethylene Di
103 but nearly 14 blood groups Amine Tetra Acetic Acid
are used in practice 5) It should be kept at 4 to - 6 C for
Blood Transfusion methods : long preservation
Before blood transfusion the 6) It’s Ca ions removed by
major consideration is the Antigen of centrifugation immediately down
RBC and antibodies of WBC the donated blood as it will not
A group blood is not acceptable for B clot.
group persons. If its mixed there will 7) In Leechs they having a
be agglutinations leads to death. anticoagulant Hirudin in their
1) Universal donars are ‘O’ group. salaivary glands, it prevents the
No antigens present clotting of blood
2) So it can be transfused in to any 8) In human Heparin an
type of blood. anticoagulant is used to prevent
3) Universal acceptors are AB clotting of blood inside blood
group. No antibodies present capillaries.
4) The anti coagulants used in blood
donation
 Sodium citrate salts
 Aluminium oxalate salts

Recipient
O A B AB
Donar Antibody a, b Antibody b Antibody a Antibody Nil
O - antigen; nil --- --- --- ---
A - antigen a + --- + ---
B - antigen b + + --- ---
AB- antigen a,b + + + ---

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 BLOOD

Functions of blood Rh- Rh+

1. Maintains the body (mother) (father)
temperature
2. It transports O2 throughout
the body Rh(+) baby mother produce antibodies

3. Plasma transports glucose against RH+ blood of baby

hormones, enzymes
Leads to death of fetus
4. WBC – protects from diseases.
Rhesus Factor
 It anti – D – injection is given to
 Another types of blood variety
mother after 1st birth already
Rh+, Rh -
present anti bodies in mother
 Discovered by Karl Landsteiner
blood are destroyed and IInd birth
and Veiner 1940
is safe.
 Rh+ → Rh antigen present
BLOOD ALLELES
 Rh- → Rh antigen absent
GROUP
 In world population 70 - 85 %
O Io IO
are RH-
A IA IA (or) IA Io
 Rh- type is acceptable for all
B IB IB (or) IB IO
 First identified in Rhesus
AB IA IB
monkey
 So, before blood transfusion
Blood group genetics
along with blood group
 ABO groups genetic sign is given as
determination the Rh factor test
I
is also essential
 IA allele produces Antigen A
 IB allele produces Antigen B;
Erythroblastosis Fetalis in
 IO doesn’t produces any alleles
Pregnant Mothers
 So fair types of blood groups
 If blood of Rh+ person is
produces six types of all types.
transfused to Rh- person the first
transfusion is safe and second is
associated with baby.

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 ZOOLOGY

Blood groups and Medicolegal  Proteins which leak from

cases capillary in to tissues.
 Inflammation - serial changes in
 According to parents blood group tissues (toxins, virus, bacteria)
their childrens blood group is  Oponius - Blood substance
determined which stimulate WBC to attack
on bacteria
 A particular type blood grouped  Vaccination - To develop
parents can able to produces acquired immunity against
particular types only specific disease
 Hypoglycemia - Decrease Blood
sugar level.
Parents possible Not  Hyperglycemia - Increase Blood
possible sugar level
 Hypovolemia - Increase blood
OxO O A, B, AB
area decrease volume of blood
OxA O, A B, AB in body
OxB O, B A, AB  Hyper Volemia - Increase
volume of blood in bodies
O x AB A, B O, AB
 Heamophilia - absence of blood
AxA A, O B, AB clotting
AxB A, B, AB, O None  Uremia - increase blood urea
BxB B, O A, AB level
 Haemostasis - process of
A x AB A, B, AB O checking bleeding
B x AB A, B, AB O  Thrombus - Blood clot in blood
AB x AB A, B, AB O vessel
 Clot - Semisolid jelly like
appearance of blood
Glossary :  Embolus - piece of intra vascular
 Diapedesis - Squeezing out of clot
WBC through the walls of  Haematuria - Blood in urine
capillaries  Haemoglobinaemia - Due to
 Pus - It contains destroyed destruction of RBC haemoglobin
tissue + dead neutrophils + like is set free in blood plasma.
micro organism
 Edema - Accumulation of
interstitial fluid as water and
some

Page 10
 BLOOD CIRCULATION

Blood circulation means, blood is Pericerdium

transported from one part of a body to
another part of the body. The essentials
are Outer layer Middle Inner layer
1. Blood Fibrious P.C Parietal Cellular P.C
2. Pumping organ - Heart Pericardium
3. Vessels - Arteries, Veins,
Capillaries

HEART
Willam Harvey
- Heart acts as pump
- Valves are present in veins
(Valves were first reported by
Fabricious)
 Heart is a hollow muscle – fibarous
organ
Heart wall is made up of 3 layers
 Conical (or) Pyrimidal in shape
 Epicardium – outer part
 It has the size of a clenched fist
 Myocardium – middle part
 Length 12 cm diameter 8-9 cm
 Weight is about 230 -280 gms  It is made up of muscle

 It has four chambers tissues

 It is situated in the mediastinum  It is important in heart

area functioning

 It is protected by a double walled  Endocardium – inner part

pericardial membrane

Page 1
 ZOOLOGY

Double Circuit Circulation Capillaries :

In Mammals double circuit circulation  Its made up of Elastin and
is found. i.e. the blood flow in heart collagen fibres
twice a time.  Size 5-7 microns
 It connects arteries to veins
1) Pulmonary Circuit  It transports O2, CO2, food ,
 Right atrium Right ventricle water, ions, vitamins, hormones
and Anti oxins
pulmonary artery → lungs
The blood circulation for the wall of
Pulmonary vein left atrium blood vessels is conducted by vasa
vasorum
2) Hepatic portal circuit
 Body part (spleen, pancrease,
reproductive organs, intestine)
veins liver inferior vena cara
Right Atrium

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 BLOOD CIRCULATION

ARTERY VEIN

 Distributing vessel  Collecting Vessel

 Pink in colour  Red in colour

 Deep in location  Superficial in location

 All arteries have pure  All veins carry impure or deoxygenated

(or) oxygenated blood blood except (pulmanory vein)

except pulmonary artery

 Blood flows with  Blood flows with low pressure

pressure
 Wall is elastic  Wall is no elastic

1.Ginduating vessels  Due to this is store more blood. So the

2. Disperging vessels blood flows in low pressure also
3. Blocking vessels
 30-40 mircon in size  30 microns only

 Non Collapsible  Collapsible

 More muscular  Less muscular

 Internal valves are  Internal valves are present (2mm above)

absent
 Smallest arteries divided  Smallest vein arises form venule
and break into arteriole
 Progressively divides  Progressively uniting and increasing in

and decrease in size size

 3 distinct layers  3 distinct layers

 Tunica externa  Tunica externa

 Tunica media (Thick)  Tunica media (Thin)

 Tunica interna  Tunica interna

Page 3

Valves
1. Biauspid valve (or) mitral valve
2. Tricuspid valve
3. Semilunar valve
4. Haversian valve
5. Eustactian valve
6. Thebesian valve
Circulation of blood
1) The impure blood of body is
collected by inferior vena cava,
superior vena cava and it is
poured in to right atrium by
coronary sinus (coronary sinus –
collects impure blood from heart
walls)
2) Its pours in to right ventricle by
tricuspid valves
3) From here its departs through
pulmonary artery to lungs after
purification it starts
pulmonary veins and reach left
atrium
4) By bicuspid valve it reaches left
ventricle from here it starts from
aorta in the supply to all over the
body parts.
HEART INDUCTION
SPREADING OF IMPULSE
 SA node/ Sino – auricular node /
Pacemaker / Keith & Flock Node
ZOOLOGY
Situated at
– left auriculas ventricular opening
– right auriculas ventricular opening
– at the opening of aorta from ventricle
– end of opening of superior vena cava
– end of opening of inferior vena cava
– opening of coronary sinus
 A patch of nodal tissue present in
upper corner of right atrium 1.5
cm x 3 mm
 The another mass of tissue seen in
the lower left corner of right
atrium close to the atrio
ventricular septum called atrio –
ventricular node.
 The impulse passes from AV node
to bundle of His and purkinje
fibres
 The regular heart beat starts.
by
HEART BEAT
 Rhythmic contraction and
relaxation of auricles & ventricles
 A single cardia cycle represented
by a single heart beat
 It includes one systole and one
diastole
AND
 Heart beat in man = 72 per
minute
 In children = 100 per minute
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 BLOOD CIRCULATION

Rate of heart beat decreases:

1) Heart failure - When SA
node does not initiate any
impulse
2) Heart block - When Av
node damage
3) Circulator arrest - blood flow
completely stops
4) Arteriosclerosis - Excessive
deposition of cholesterol with
calcium salts.
 In newborn baby = 120-140 per
minute
Heart Sounds
 Sounds were produced in a
Single cardiac cycle
regular series
Auricular systole - 0.1 min
 Heared by stethoscope inventer -
Auricular diastole - 0.7 min 0.8 min
by Rene Laennec
Ventricular systole - 0.3 min
Ventricular diastole -0.5 min 0.8 min
I sound : Its known as L.U.B.B
prolonged time 0.16 - 0.9 se dull
 Less number of heart beat than
sound
normal – Bradycardia
 Created by closer of atrio
 More rate of heart beat than
ventricular valve at the time of
normal – Tachycardia
ventricular systole

Rate of heart beat increases

II sound : Its known as D-U-B-B
1) Due to increased respiration
Short time 0. 10 sec
2) By hot drinks
3) Shock and tension  High pitch sound
4) Fall in PH value of blood  Created by closer of semilunar
5) High blood pressure valves at the time of ventricular
6) Excess quantity of food intake diastole

Page 5
 ZOOLOGY

Blood Pressure  Electrocardiogram E.C.G

Developed by flow of blood on the wall  Invented by Einthoven 1906
of blood vessel factors :  It is first recorded by waller 1907
1) Amount of blood  Its recorded activities of heart on
2) Viscosity of blood paper
3) Flow of blood  P wave - due to activation of SA
4) Elasticity of blood vessel node
 Measuring instrument :  PQ wave - Its interval
Sphygmomanometer (Karot representation when article
koff 1905) contracts
 It is measured at the point of  RS wave - Speed of impulse from
branchial artery of fore arm AV node to bundle of His purkinje
 Higher limit – systolic blood  ST wave - interval period of
pressure / atrical contraction ventricular ejection.
 Lower limit – diastolic blood
pressure/ ventricular contraction  P wave - 0.20 sec
 Normal B.P. of man = 120  P-R interval - 0.25 sec
(systolic) / 80 (diastolic) mm Hg  QRS interval - 0.35 sec
 T wave - 0.20 sec
Factors influence the B.P
1. Thickening of arteries  First heart transplant operation :
2. During exercise Dr. Christian Bernad
3. During Tension  First artificial heart operation :
4. During fear Dr. Alexis Koral
5. By adrenal secretion
6. Increase of age
7. during nephritidis
8. hereditary condition
9. due to obesity

Page 6
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS

 Endocrinology – study of endocrine

glands and their secretion
 Father of Endocrine Glands - T.
Addision
 They secrets hormones / chemical
messangers
 Name Hormones was given by
E.H.Starling 1906
 Earliest known hormone is Insulin
 Insulin were extracted by Banting &
Macbet in 1923
 Thyroxine identified by - E.C.
Kondall 1914
 Molecular structure of Insulin given
by Sanger in 1954 He was awarded
Nobel prize
 Fernando Housie 1947 – described
1. Pineal gland
functions of pituitary
2. Pituitary gland
Endocrine glands are glands of the 3. Thyroid gland
endocrine system that secrete their 4. Thymes
products, hormones directly into the 5. Adrenal gland
blood rather than through a duct. 6. Pancreas
7. Ovary (Female)
8. Testis (Male)

Page 1
 ZOOLOGY

Characters :  Steroid – adrenal cortex

 Produced by many endocrine glands hormones
 Pituitary, thyroid, kidney, pancreas,  Proteins, polypeptides – oxytoxin,
thymus, gonads. Pineal, placenta, vasopressin, relaxin, insulin
intestine  Glycoprotein – FSH, CH & TSH
 Hormones were secreted in to blood  Fats – Prostaglandin
prior to use
PITIUITARY
 Hormones do not take in metabolic
 Hypophysis / master gland /
reaction
Ring Master of the Orchestra
 Hormones are produced in low
 Name was given by Vesalius
amount
 It is found in hypophysis area of
 After finishing the particular work
brain
hormone secretion will stop by
 Made up of two lobes (Front &
feedback mechanism
back)
 Hormones are easily diffusible
 Both were joint by small funnel
through cell membrane
like infundibulum
 Soluble in water, have low
 length 1 cm / breath - 1.5 cm/
molecular weight
weight 0.5 gm
 It balance the internal physiological
functions. 1. Anterior lobe – Adenohypophysis
 Hormones are destroyed after use
 Hormones are not stored in body
 Hormones are non antigenic so no
antibody formation against them Pars distalis Pars tuberalis Pars
intermedia
Chemical nature of Hormones 2. Posterior lobe - Neurohypophysis
 Amino acid – Thyroxine, pars nervosa
adrenaline, noradrenaline  pars intermedia is also known as
 Amine (or) catecholamine – intermediate lobe
epinephrine, norepinephrine  Removal of pituitary : Hypo
physectomy

Page 2
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS

ADENOHYPOPHYSIS: 3. ACTH / Adreno Cartico Tropic

1. STH / SOMATO TROPHIC Hormone
HORMONE / GROWTH  Stimulate function of cortex of
HORMONE adrenal glands
 STH  Stimulate melancocytes and
 Growth hormone change skin pigments
 It controls over all growth of  It transports fats from adipose
body tissues
 Its important for bone growth
4. FSH / Follile Stimulating
 It retains the salts N, K, P, Na
Hormone
salts in body
 It is secreted both in male, female
and stimulate the development of
Hyposecretion of STH
reproductive cells.
(less secretion)
1. In childrens - dwarfism Males:
2. In adults – Simmond’s disease  It acts on testis and stimulates
spermatogenesis
Hypersecretion of STH (more  For this it acts on epithelial cells
secretion) of sperm tubules
1. In children - Gigantism
2. In adults – Acromegaly

2. TSH / Thyroid stimulating

hormone / Thyrotropin
 It act on thyroid glands
 Stimulate the functioning of
Thyroid glands
 Also stimulate uptake of Iodine

Page 3
 ZOOLOGY

Females makes the parturition (quick

 It acts on ovaries birth of young one)
 Total weight of ovary increases  It stimulates the flow of milk by
 It stimulates the grafian follicte contraction of myoepithelial cells
cells for production of ovum cells. of mammary glands.

2. Vasopressin / ADH – Anti

5. LTH / Leuto trophic hormone /
Diuretic hormone / Pitressin
prolactin
 It influence water balance by
 It influences growth of mammary
reducing output of urine by this
glands and secretion of milk
the essential minerals are
during pregnancy
retained
 It acts on corpus lutum to secrete
 It controls blood pressure
progesterone
 It store the Urea
 It joins with oestrogen for milk
 Less secretion leads to Diabetes
secretion
insipidus
6. LT / Luteinizing hormone
 Its function is the relase of ovum Symoptoms :
from ovaries  polyurea - more urination
 When the ovum is transferred to  polydipsia - more water
uterus. The empty gradtian drinking
follicle become corpus luteum  polyphagia - more food intake

7. ICSH / Interstitial cells

stimulating hormone THYROID:

 In males it stimulates the  It is the largest endocrine gland

interstitical cells in testis for the and situated in neck region

secretion of testosterone.  It has 2 lobes

NEURO HYPOPHYOSIS  Present of ventral side of trachea

1. Oxytocin / pitocin  Both the lobes of thyroid are

 It stimulactes the contraction of connected by a sheath of

smooth muscle of uterus and connective tissue known as

isthmus
Page 4
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS

HYPOTHYROIDISM:
1) Simple Goitre / Endemic
goitre
 Thyroid gland increases in size.

2) Cretinism
 Hyposecretion in children results
Cretinism.
 Sex organ retard / low IQ /
deformed bones.
 Thyroxine first isolated by :
Kocher 3) Myxoedema / Gull’s Disease
 Crystal of thyroxine were 1st  Body weight increase , low pulse
prepared by : Kendall rate
 Molecular structure given by :  Skin becomes puffy, become
Harrington dry, patient feel cold

Function of Thyroid Hyperthyroidism

 It is important for development of  In childhood early sexual
nervous system in foetus and maturity takes place.
after birth upto one year in  In adult may result Graves
childrens. disease
 It control BMR (Basal Metabolic  Treatment is only surgey of gland
Rate)
 It reduces cholesterol level in Parathyroid Gland
blood.  Two pairs embedded in thyroid
 It stimulates metamorphosis lobes.
 It indirectly controls the body  Colour : purple/ elongated in
growth, so it is also known as shape
manly hormone.  This hormone studied and
discovered by - Collip

Page 5
 ZOOLOGY

 Structure given by  Cortex : 80% / Medulla -

- Sandstrom 20%
 Molecular strucutre by  Cortex is divided in to 3 parts
- Pot 1. Zona glomerulosa - Outer
 Crystals by - Craig - mineralo corticoid Hormone
 It secretes two hormones. 2. Zona fasciculata - Middle -
Gluco corticoid Hormone
1) Parathormone 3. Zona Reticulata - Inner - Sex
 It works for small duration only. Hormones
 Its half life period is 20-30
minutes only  Medulla has two hormones
 It works on three parts. 1. Adrenaline (or) Epinephrine -
 Bones It gives new structure 80%

 Kidneys It regulartes PH 2. Nor adrenaline (or) Nor

 Intestine It helps in Vitamin D Epinephrine - 20%

synthesis
Adrenaline / Emergency
Hormones:
2) Calcitonin
 Lower the level of calcium in
blood. 3F 4S

 It secretes HCL in stomach Hormone Hormone

 It is antagonistic to Parathormone. F- Fear S- Sugar Metabolism

F- Fight S - Salt Retaining
ADRENAL GLAND F- Flight S- Sex Hormone
 It is also known as emergency S- Source of Energy
gland  It increases flow of blood.
 Also know as suprarenal gland  It contracts arrector pili muscle.
 It is situated at the top of the  It increases respiration and
kidney increase the sharpness of brain.
 It was discovered by : Eustachian  It increases heart beat rate.
 It divided 2 distinct region  It increase blood glucose level

Page 6
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS

Noradrenaline:
 It raises blood pressure 1) Estrogens / Oestrogens
 It is antagonistic to adrenaline  It is secreted by graffian follicle,
induced by FSH
GONADS  Estrogen is responsible for
Testis development of secondary
 It has epithelial cells called sexual characters in female.
leydig cells which produce  Thin voice, complete
reproductive cells. development of ovary, oviduct,
 Leydig cells act as endocrine mammary gland, uterus and
glands. vagina.
 It secretes Androgens and
important is testosterone 2) Progestrone
 It is a hormone produced by
TESTTOSTERONE
corpus luteum
Functions :
 It also decrases level of FSH so
 It is responsible for proper
maturation of new ovum and
development of secondary
follicle is checked.
sexual characters in male. e.g :
 It prepare the endometrium for
deep voice
implantation of the embryo or
 Enlargement of genital organs.
foetus.
 Appearance of beard
 It helps in implantation with the
 Growth and function of
wall of uterus.
epididymis and vas deferens,
 It maintain pregnancy so known
prostate gland, seminal vesicle
as pregnancy hormone
and penis
 It stimulate the growth of breast
Ovary : and mammary gland during
 A pair of round structures pregnancy
present in lower abdomen  It suppress the contraction of
 It has three secretions uterine muscle during pregnancy

Page 7
 ZOOLOGY

 It is also called anti abortion  It play important role in

hormone. formation of Antibodies in
3) Relaxin embryo and infants.
 It secreted by corpus luteum of  T – cells or T- Lymphocyte cells
pregnant woman are produced in Thymus.
 Which relax the pubis
symphyisis and pelvic girdle to
make the child birth easy.
Digestive System
 The human digestive system
consists of the gastrointestinal
tract plus the accessory organs of
digestion (the tongue, salivary
glands, pancreas, liver and gall
blader).
 In this system, the proless of
digestion has many stages the
first of which starts in the mouth
(oral cavity)

Thymus
 It is endocrine gland nearest to
the heart
 It is partly endocrine and partly
lymphoid
Digestive Glands
 It play important role in
immunity  Salivary glands
 It produces thymine  Gastric glands
 Hassell’s corpuscles are found in  Liver
thymus and also know as Thymic  Pancreas
cells.  Intestinal glands

Page 8
 ENDOCRINE GLANDS

1. Starch into sugar.  Pineal secretes a Hormone called

2. Gastric acts on the gastric glands Melatonin
and stimulates the secretion of HCL  Pineal body found in brain
and Pepsinogen.  Pineal body represent vestige of
3. It secrets bile juice that is stored in 3rd eye in man.
a sac called the gallbladder.  It regulates sleep and
4. Pancreas: Exocrine portion secretes wakefulness.
an alkaline Pancreatic juice  Melatonin also influences
containing enzymes. Endocrine Metabolism, Pigmentation, the
portion secretes Hormones, Insulin, menstrual cycle as well as our
Glucogon. defence capability.

Pineal body Pancreas

 It atrophies in man at the age of  Pancreas is a mixed type of gland
7 years. in which pancreatic acini are

Page 9
 ZOOLOGY

exocrine and islets of Insulin Deficiency

Langerhans is endocrine  The glucose level in blood
 Pancera are three endocrine increased and it is excreted
  cells - larger - peripheral cell through urine.
produce glucagon  This conditions is known as
  cells - central and smaller cell - Diabetes mellitus
produce insulin
  or  cells - Middle - produce Glucose level
somatostatin  Fasting - 70- 110 mg / decilitre
 Normal - 80 - 120 mg /
Insulin decilitre
 Glucose - Glycogen  Excess - 140 - 150 mg / decilitre
 It stimulates glycogenolysis  Abnormal - 300 - 400 mg /
 It oxidises glucose more in decilitre
tissues
 It converts glucose in to fatty Diabetes
acids and stores in tissues
Type I Type II
Glucagon Genetic cause - body produces
 It is antagonistic to insulin Unable to - insulin but unable
increase blood sugar level in produce insulin to use it effectively
blood stream. Less found - more common
 It stimulates glycogenolysis
 Glycogen - glucose
 It makes glucose from the non
carbohydrate materials of the
body.
 In kidneys it increases the
filtration of glucose

Page 10
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Reproduction is means one organism produces its phylogeny that is its off
springs. It takes place in two modes.
Reproduction

A sexual Reproduction sexual Reproduction

Takes place in body cells Takes place in Reproductive cells
It is done by a mitosis or mitosis meiosis tooks places first and after
methods fertilization mitosis will occur.
1. Binary fission – Bacteria 1.Conjugation - hereditary exchange
2. Multiple fission –amoeba 2.Cytogamy - cytoplasimic fussion of two
cells
3.Budding - coelenterates 3.Karyogamy - Nucleus fusion of two cells.
4.Gemmules – sea sponges 4. Automixis - Fusion of germ cells
5.regeneration – echinodermates 5. Syngamy - Fusion of maleacne female
cells.
Mode of Asexual Organism  Autogamy
reproduction  Excogamy
Fission Amoeba, bacteria,  Hologamy
flatworm  Pedogamy
Budding Hydra, Yeast and  Mesogamy
Sponge  Isogamy
Syngamy Cockroach, Frog  Anisogamy
and human being  Macrogamy
 Microgamy

Page 1
 ZOOLOGY

Sexual Reproduction:  Ronald Edward - first test tube

 It is a important process of baby
nature.  Robert Burrchutti - invented
 Due to this healthier new viagra / awarded nobel prize
generations will be produced.
 For this process the organisms Viviparous - Most mammals:
maintain several provisions  The embryo is developed inside
 By this structural, physiological female body and it is comes out
and anatomical changes have as a new one.
been evolved
 In humans internal and external
Gestation Periods of Some
genital organs were neatly
Animals
coordinated. And also simple in
Animal Gestation
functioning
Period
 The functions are depending
Buffalo 310 days
upon mental stress and
Elephant 610 days
hormonal factors
Lion 120 days
 The study of the fundamentals of
Whale 365 days
sex education is very essential to
Horse 340 days
eliminate misbehaviours in
Leopard 105 days
society
Tiger 103 days
 Gynaecology - study of
Squirrel 40 days
reproductive organs
 A.V. Leeuwen hoek - Discovered
male sperm cells Oviparous – Reptiles, Birds
 Carl Von Bohar - Discovered  The fertilized egg is covered with
female ovary cells calcium layer and it is kept in a
 Bouveri - coined the term oocyte secure place outside of the body.
 Bateson - coined the term zygote  It is hatched till the new one
 Danielli - developed cell in test come out from the egg.
tube

Page 2
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Types of Eggs : Thus the spermatic cord consists

1. Depending on egg yolk: of
 A lecithal - yolk less egg - human  Vas deferens
 Micro lecithal - less amount of  testicular artery and venus plexus
yolk - acidian  lymph vessels
 Meso lecithal - exact amount of  nerves
yolk - frog  fibrous processes and muscles.

 Mega lecithal - more amount of  This cord enters into the pelvic

yolk- reptiles, birds. region. The end of the vas deferns

enlarges to form the ampulla.

Distribution of Egg Yolk :  At this region the vas deferens is

 Homo lecithal - equally surrounded by smooth muscles

distributed - ascaris capable of peristaltic contraction.

They help to propel the sperm
 Telo lecithal - present in one
cells through the ductus deferens.
sided - frog
 Meso lecithal - present in corner
Ejaculatory Duct :
(denser ) - reptiles, birds
 Nearer to the ampulla of each
 Centro lecithal - present at
vas deferens there is a sac like
centre - insects
seminal vesicles. It joins the
ductus deferens to form the
MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
ejaculatory duct.
Vas deferens or ductus deferens
 These ducts are about 2.5 cm
 It emerges from the tail end of the
long. They project into the
epididymis and ascends along the
prostate gland and end by
posterior side of the testis.
opening into the urethra.
 It becomes associated with the
blood vessels and nerves that
Urethra :
supply the testis.
 The male urethra extends from
 Collectively these structures
the urinary bladder to the distal
constitute the spermatic cord.
end of the penis.

Page 3
 ZOOLOGY

 It is about 20 cm long. It is a
passage way for both urine and
reproductive fluids.
 The urethra is divided into three
parts.
 They are

1. The Prostatic Urethra :

 It is closest to the bladder and
passes through the prostate
gland

2. The membranous urethra

3. The spongy urethra or penile
 It is the shortest part of the
urethra –
urethra and it extends from the
 It is the longest part of the
prostatic urethra.
urethra. It extends from the
membranous urethra, through
the length of the penis. There are
several minute mucus secreting
urethral glands opening into the
urethral passage.

Penis :
 It is the male copulatory organ.
 It consists of two parts namely
the radix or root and the
corpus or body.
 The radix attaches the penis to
the lower abdomen.

Page 4
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Its swollen base is the corona

glandis.
 The skin over the penis is thin. It
is loosely connected to the
tunica albuginea.
 At the tip of the penis it is folded
to form the prepuce or the
foreskin.
 It overlaps the glans penis. The
corona glandis and penile neck
have numerous preputial
glands.

 The corpus is normally

Seminal vesicles :
pendulous. It is covered by a
 These are two sac-like structures
loose skin.
located between the bladder and
 The corpus of the penis consists
rectum.
of three masses of erectile tissue.
 Each vesicle is about 5 cm long.
 Flooding these tissues with blood
Their secretions contribute
causes the penis to enlarge and
about 70% of the seminal fluid.
become firm.
 These tissues are the right and
Prostate :
left corpora cavernosa and
 It is a firm structure. It is partly
the median corpus
glandular and partly
spongiosum penis.
fibromuscular.
 Most of the corpus is formed of
 It is found around the beginning of
the corpora cavernosa.
the male urethra. It is about 3 cm
 The corpus spongiosum penis
in diameter. It weighs about 8g.
surrounds the urethra and near
 The muscular part of the prostate
the end of the penis it expands
may help in dilating the urethra to
into a conical, glans penis.
hold the seminal fluid (3-5ml)

Page 5
 ZOOLOGY

during the period of sexual FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

excitement prior to ejaculation. ORGANS
 After the middle age the prostate  In human female the internal
often enlarges. It may project into reproductive organs are the
the bladder and interrupt ovaries, uterus, uterine
urination. tubes and vagina. Externally
the organs are the mons pubis,
Bulbo-urethral gland : labia majora and labia
 These are two glands. They are minora, clitoris and
small round masses about 1 cm vestibular glands.
in diameter.
 They lie lateral to the Ovaries :
membranous urethra.  These are paired structures.
 Its secretion may control genito-  The two ovaries are placed on
urinary diseases. each side of the uterus in the
pelvic region.
Scrotum :  They are greyish pink in colour.
 It is a fibromuscular sac. It  Each ovary is almond shaped.
contains the testes and their They are about 3cm long,1.5cm
associated ducts. wide and 1cm thick.
 It is divided into right and left by  The ovary is attached to the
cutaneous raphe. Its left side is posterior surface of the inner
usually lower. body wall by a membranous fold
 The external appearence varies called the mesovarium.
according to age and body  The ovary is further supported
temperature. by suspensory and ovarian
 The scrotal skin is thin and ligaments.
pigmented. It has numerous
Ovarian structure :
sweat glands and nerve endings.
 In young female the surface of
the ovary is covered by a layer of
ovarian surface epithelium.

Page 6
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 Their size depends on the stage

of menstrual cycle or age. The
cortex is filled with stroma
composed of collagen.
 The follicles are embedded in the
stroma.

Ovarian follicles
 The formation of the female
gamete has many different
phases and it is complex.
 At birth, the primordial follicles
 It consists of a single layer of
are found in the superficial zone
cuboidal cells. Beneath the
of the cortex. They contain
epithelium the ovary is
primary oocytes (about 25mm in
surrounded by a tough coat
diameter).
named tunica albuginea.
 Each one of them is surrounded
 It is made of collagenous tissue.
by a single layer of flat follicular
 The ovary proper is divisible into
cells.
two regions, namely the cortex
 The follicles undergo changes as
and the medulla.
the female attains puberty.
 The cortex region contains the
 The various follicular stages are:
ovarian follicles.
 The medulla is interior. It
1. Primary follicle :
receives blood vessels and nerves
 The follicle cells are converted
at the hilum.
from squamous to cuboidal cells.
 After puberty the cortex forms
 The follicular membrane or
the major part of the ovary.
membrana granulosa
 It contains ovarian follicles
becomes multilayered.
and corpora lutea of various
sizes.

Page 7

 The oocyte increases in size. It
has an outer thick layer called
the zona pellucida.
 The follicular cells divide and
form granulosa cells.
2. Secondary follicle :
 It is about 20μm thick. The
granulosa cells surround the
oocyte and form a mound of
cells called the cumulus
ovaricus.
 The inner and outer theca
become prominent. The theca
interna is well established.
3. Tertiary follicle :
 Only one follicle reaches the
tertiary stage.
 It increases in size (2mm
diameter).
 Now it is called the graffian
follicle.
 The oocyte and ring of cells
surrounding the oocyte (corona
radiata) break away and float
freely in the follicular fluid.
 Finally the wall of the follicle
ruptures and the contents are
released into the peritoneum.
ZOOLOGY
 The ovary of the foetus at 5
months gestation has 7 million
oocytes.
 At birth the ovary of the child
contains about 1 million oocytes.
 Due to further degeneration at
the time of puberty only about
40,000 oocytes remain.
 Of the 40,000 oocytes only
about 400 undergo ovulation
during the reproductive years.
Corpus luteum :
 It is formed after ovulation.
 The walls of the empty follicle
collapses and fold extensively.
 The granulosa cells of the theca
externa get enlarged.
 They are now termed as luteal
cells. They secrete hormones.
 I pregnancy the corpus luteum
persists.
 Otherwise, it degenerates after
10-12 days.
 The connective tissue cells get
enlarged.
 It becomes white in colour and is
now called as the corpus
albicans.
 In course of time it shrinks and
disappears.
Page 8
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Uterine tubes (Fallopian tubes) :  The narrower part is called as the

 There are two uterine tubes or cervix. The cervix is directed
oviducts, one on each side of the inferiorly.
uterus.  The middle part is the body.
 Each one is associated with a ovary.  The uterus continues as the
 Each tube is about 10 cm length. cervical canal and opens into the
 The terminal part of the tube is vagina through a opening called the
enlarged to form the infundibulum. ostium.
 It opens into the peritoneal cavity.  The wall of the uterus is three
 The opening is called the ostium. layered.
 The uterine tube consists of three  The outermost layer is the
parts. The part nearer to the perimetrium or serous layer.
infundibulum is called the  The major part of the wall is made
ampulla. up of the next layer called the
 It is the longest part. That part of myometrium or muscular coat.
the tube nearer to the uterus is  The innermost layer is the
called the isthmus. endometrium or mucus
 It is narrow. The tubular part membrane.
entering into the uterus is called the  The endometrium is a functional
uterine or intramural part. layer.
 It undergoes menstrual changes and
Uterus sloughing during female sex cycle.
 It is a hollow thick walled muscular
Vagina :
organ.
 It is the female copulatory organ.
 It is pear shaped. It is about 7.5cm
 It is a fibromuscular tube. It is
long and 5 cm wide. It weighs about
about 10 cm long.
50g.
 It extends from the uterus to the
 During pregnancy its weight may go
outside.
upto 1kg.
 The vaginal passage is used during
 Its larger rounded part is called as
intercourse and it allows
the fundus.
menstrual flow and child birth.
Page 9
 ZOOLOGY

External Genitalia  The vestibular region is

Vestibule :
 The external female genitalia is
known as the vulva
pudendum.
 It consists of the vestibule and its
surrounding structures.
 The vestibular region remains in
between the two labia majora.
 It contains the vaginal opening
and the urethral opening.
surrounded by the mons pubis
anteriorly and labia majora and
or labia minora on the lateral sides.
Mons pubis :
 It is a rounded eminence situated
anteriorly.
 It is made up of subcutaneous
adipose connective tissue.
 It is covered by coarse hair at the
time of puberty.
Page 10
 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 It corresponds to similar structure  In young women the hymen may

in the male. normally get torn during physical
exercise.
Labia majora :
 In some women it may be absent.
 These are two longitudinal folds
It has no established function.
of skin.
 They form the outer boundary for External urethral opening :
the vestibule.  This opening is about 2.5 cm below
the clitoris.
Labia minora :  It is anterior to the vaginal
 These two small skinfolds lie opening. It remains as a small
between the labia majora. cleft.
 They remain nearer to the vaginal
opening.

Clitoris :
 It is homologus with male penis. It
is an erectile structure.
 It is found in the anterior margin
of the vestibule.
 It is a sensitive region having
sensory receptors.

Hymen vaginae :
 It is a thin mucus membrane.
 It is found within the vaginal
orifice or opening.
 If the membrane completely closes
the vaginal opening, it should be
removed to allow menstrual flow.

Page 11
 GENETICS

 Branch of science deals with Reason for using Pisum Sativum :

heredity  Self pollinating flowers of
 Heredity means transmission of peculiar structure
characters from parents to  Short growth and short life style
offsprings  Easy for artificial cross
 Father of genetics G.J. Mendel pollination
 Birth 1822 Chekoslovakia –  Had contrasting heritable
Heidendendraft – sisilian characters
 Work as a Teacher in Imperial  Various available varieties
royal school  In 34 characters he made
 He did his research in brunne for research in 7 characters
9 years (1856 -1865
Character Dominant Recessive
 Book experiments on plant
Length Long Short
hybridization
Flower Axial Terminal
 He used Pisum Sativum plant for
position
his research
Pod Inflated Constricted
 Pisum Sativum is called as
Shape
garden peas
Pod Green Yellow
Mendel work was rediscovered by colour
three biologists Seed Round Wrinkled
1. Huge de vries shape
2. Carl correns Seed coat Grey White
3. Erich Von Tschermak colour
Colour of Yellow Green
cotyledon

Page 1
 ZOOLOGY

F1 First filial Generation : F2 Second filial Generation :

 The Resultant hybrids of parent  F1 progeny is allowed to self
generation by cross fertilization fertilize among themselves, they
produce F2

Result
Monohybrid cross phenotyphic ratio - 3:1
Geno typhic ratio - 1 :2:1
Test cross ratio - 1 :1
Dihybrid cross phenotyphic ratio; - 9:3:3:1
Test cross ratio - 1 :1: 1:1

Monohybrid cross phenotyphic ratio

180 cm height long 45 cm height short

Cross fertilization
F1 progeny - expressed (all are long) - dominant T
Suppressed - recessive t

Male
Self pollination
F Gamete T t
F1 + F1 e
F2 1064 m T TT Tt
a
l t Tt tt
e

787 off springs long 277 off springs short

3 : 1

 Punnet has made square for proving Mendel ‘s results.

 It is called Chequered square

Page 2
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Mendel’s laws: same or different chromosomes.

1. Mono Hybrid cross  These elements called as
 Law of dominance transposable elements,
 Law of segregation (or) Law of transposons insertion, elements or
purity of gametes jumping genes.

2. Di Hybrid cross Glossary :

 Law of independant 1. Genes - Factors controlling a single
assortment (or) law of random character.
assortment 2. Phenotype - expression of a
 Mendel’s laws were introduce character
to the world by the followers 3. Gene type - the genes are
1900 controlling a character.
 Holland – Hugo de vries - 4. Allele - each of two or more
oenothera lamarckiana alternative forms of a gene (T, t)
 Germany – Carl correns - 5. Allelomorph - character having
Xenia, peas, majze different phonotype
 Austria – Von Tschermark - 6. Homozygous - having identical
flowering plants alleles at corresponding
 From this genetics is accepted as chromosomal loci (TT, tt)
a new branch. 7. Heterozygous - having dissimilar
 It is a younger branch in alleles at corresponding
science. chromosomal loci (T t)
 21st century is called as gene 8. Dominant - expressed character in
century F1
Jumping Genes 9. Recessive - suppressed character in
 Found by Barbara McClintock F1
 Working on Maize, presence of 10. Hybrid - a composite of mixed
movable genetic elements which origin
could detach from one site and
move to new positions in either the

Page 3
 ZOOLOGY

11. Emasculation - neutering a male Genetic Engineering

animal by removing the testicles  The technology of preparing
12. Back Cross - mate a hybrid of the recombinant DNA in vitro by
first generation with one of its cutting up DNA molecules and
parents splicing together fragments from
13. Test Cross - a cross between an more than one organism.
organism whose genotype for a
certain trait is unknown and an Applications of Genetic
organism that is homozygous Engineering in Biotechnology :
recessive for that trait so the  The basic principle of genetic
unknown genotype can be engineering is gene transfer,
determined from that of the achieved by various methods to
offspring. produce recombinant proteins,
genetically modified
Gene Therapy microorganisms, transgenic plants
 Gene therapy involves the and transgenic animals for
replacement of corrective genes commercial application.
in place of defective genes in  Genetic engineering, thus
human. ultimately influences the growth of
 Types biotech industry.
 Somatic cell gene therapy  The two significant feature of

 Germ line cell gene theraphy genetic engineering is production

 Both may be employed for of beneficial proteins and enzymes

treating the inherited diseases in surplus quantities and creation

of transgenic plants, transgenic

Human Chromosomes animals and genetically modified

 Male xy microorganisms with new

characters beneficial for
 Female xx
themselves using recombinant
23 pairs pedigree analysis
DNA technology.

Page 4
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

 The discovery of a new protein 4. Manufacture of acetic acid

either with a therapeutic property 5. Manufacture of vitamins
or application in food industry by a 6. Manufacture of vaccines
researcher or scientist would not 7. Manufacture of steroids
have reached humans, for the use 8. Manufacture of monoclonal
by humans without the application antibodies
of genetic engineering in mass Genetic Diseases
producing such proteins. 1. Sickle cell Anaemia

Restriction Enzymes 2. Thalassemia

 Restriction enzymes or to use their 3. Agammaglobulinemia

correct name, restriction 4. Albinism

endonucleases, are a type of 5. Huntington’s Chorea

enzyme which have the ability to 6. Severe combined

cut molecules of DNA. immunodeficiency (SCID)

 They are often referred to as

genetic scissors. Genetic Disorders

 The restriction enzyme recognises Mendelian Nature Chromosomal

a unique sequence of nucleotides Nature
in the DNA strand, which is Haemophilia Downs
usually between four to six base – Sickle cell Klinefelter’s
pairs in length. Anaemia
 The complimentary DNA strand Phenylketonuria Turners syndrome
has the same sequence but in the
reverse direction, thus ensuring Types of cloning :
both strands of DNA are cut at the 1.Molecular cloning :
same location.  Actually points to the procedure
of the isolation of a defined DNA
Uses of Bio technology : sequence (gene) and through
1. Manufacture of liquors which the obtaining of multiple
2. Manufacture of enzymes copies of it within a living
3. Manufacture of antibiotics organism.

Page 5

 Molecular Cloning is used in a
broad spectrum of biological
experiments and technological
applications which are
inclusive of large scale protein
production.
2.Embryo cloning :
 It is basically a medical
technique which duplicates the
process that nature uses to
produce twins or triplets.
 One or more cells are removed
from a fertilised embryo and
 Encouraged to develop into one
or more duplicate embryos.
Twins or triplets are
formed, with identical DNA.
 This has been done for many
years on various species of
animals, but only very limited
experimentation has been done
on humans.
3.Reproductive cloning :
 It involves producing a duplicate
of an existing animal.
 It has been used to clone various
mammals now, but the most
famous cloned mammal is still
"Dolly the Sheep".
ZOOLOGY
 The DNA from an embryo is
removed and replaced with the
DNA from an adult animal.
the Then, the embryo is implanted in
a womb and allowed to develop
into a new animal.
 It has not been tried on humans.
4.Therapeutic cloning:
 It is a procedure that starts off
like adult DNA cloning.
However, the stem cells; cells
that can replicate indefinitely
and which can differentiate into
other cells, are removed from the
embryo with the intent of
thus producing tissue or a whole
organ for transplant back into
the person who supplied the
DNA.
 The embryo dies in the process.
The goal of therapeutic cloning is
to produce a healthy copy of a
sick person's tissue or organ for
transplant in order to avoid
organ transplants from other
people.
 The tissue or organ would have
the sick person's original DNA so
there would be no fear of an
Page 6
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

immune reaction to the donor etc.) that transforms the signal

organ resulting from the interaction of
the analyte with the biological
Bio – Sensors: element into another signal (i.e.,
 A device which uses a living transduces) that can be more
organism or biological molecules, easily measured and quantified;
especially enzymes or antibodies,  Biosensor reader device with the
to detect the presence of associated electronics or signal
chemicals. processors that are primarily
responsible for the display of the
Uses of Bio – Sensors :
results in a user-friendly way.
 A biosensor is an analytical
 This sometimes accounts for the
device, used for the detection of
an analyte, that combines a most expensive part of the
biological component with a sensor device, however it is
physicochemical detector. possible to generate a user
 The sensitive biological element friendly display that includes
(e.g. tissue, microorganisms, transducer and sensitive
organelles, cell receptors, element.
enzymes, antibodies, nucleic
acids, etc.), a biologically derived Bio – Chips :
material or biomimetic  a microchip designed or
component that interacts (binds intended to function in a
or recognizes) the analyte under biological environment,
study. especially inside a living
 The biologically sensitive organism.
elements can also be created by
Uses of Bio – Chips :
biological engineering.
 Multi-purpose Tracking Device
 The transducer or the detector
 Medical / Scientific Device
element (works in a
 Identification System
physicochemical way; optical,
 Military / Defense Mechanism
piezoelectric, electrochemical,
 Business
Page 7
 ZOOLOGY

Stem cells is, drilling into bone (typically

 Stem cells are undifferentiated the femur or iliac crest),
biological cells that can  Adipose tissue (lipid cells),
differentiate into specialized cells which requires extraction by
and can divide (through mitosis) liposuction, and
to produce more stem cells. They  Blood, which requires
are found in multicellular extraction through apheresis,
organisms. wherein blood is drawn from
 In mammals, there are two broad the donor (similar to a blood
types of stem cells: embryonic donation), and passed
stem cells, which are isolated from through a machine that
the inner cell mass of blastocysts, extracts the stem cells and
and adult stem cells, which are returns other portions of the
found in various tissues. blood to the donor.
 In adult organisms, stem cells and  Stem cells can also be taken from
progenitor cells act as a repair umbilical cord blood just after
system for the body, replenishing birth.
adult tissues.  Of all stem cell types, autologous
 In a developing embryo, stem cells harvesting involves the least risk.
can differentiate into all the By definition, autologous cells are
specialized cells-ectoderm, obtained from one's own body, just
endoderm and mesoderm but also as one may bank his or her own
maintain the normal turnover of blood for elective surgical
regenerative organs, such as blood, procedures.
skin, or intestinal tissues.  Adult stem cells are frequently
 There are three accessible sources used in medical therapies, for
of autologous adult stem cells in example in bone marrow
humans: transplantation.
 Bone marrow, which requires  Stem cells can now be artificially
extraction by harvesting, that grown and transformed
(differentiated) into specialized

Page 8
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

cell types with characteristics can give rise to any of the 220 cell
consistent with cells of various types found in an embryo as well as
tissues such as muscles or nerves. extra-embryonic cells (placenta).
 Embryonic cell lines and Pluripotent Stem Cells
autologous embryonic stem cells  Pluripotent stem cells can give rise
generated through therapeutic to all cell types of the body (but not
cloning have also been proposed as the placenta).
promising candidates for future Multipotent Stem Cells
therapies  Multipotent stem cells can develop
Totipotent Stem Cells into a limited number of cell types
 Totipotent (omnipotent) stem cells in a particular lineage.

Page 9
 ZOOLOGY

DNA polymerase DNA seperation

DNA replication Topoisomerase

Foreign DNA
Molecular scissors Restriction endo nuclease

Molecular paste DNA ligase 1966

Recombinant DNA = r – DNA

Cloning

....
Vehicle Host cells
..............
..... .... Bacterio phage E coli
Pedri - Dish Plasmid Bacillus
cosmid Streptomyces
Ti Plasmid yeast

Heredity Diseases : III. Linked – dominant

I. Body cell deficiency -  Haemophilia
dominant  Christimas Disease
 Huntington Chorea  Color blindness
 Cat Cry Syndrome
 Brachy dactyly IV. Linked – dominant
 Hypertrichosis
II. Sex cells deficiency - recessive
 Albinism V. Linked – dominant
 Galactoseamia  Total color blindness
 Phenylketonuria

Page 10
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

 Ecology is a Greek word / Branches :

meaning : House or living area. 1. Autecology: The branch of
 Ecology word was introduced by ecology that deals with the
: Reiter biological relationship between
 Father of Ecology : Ernst an individual organism or an
Hackal (1869) individual special its

 Father of Indian Ecology : environment.

R.Misra 2. Synecology: The ecological

study of the relation between
Ecology: A Branch of science
natural communities and their
concerned with the interrelationship of
environment.
organisms and their environments
3. Gynecology: The study of the
Enviornmental Biology :
gene frequency of a species in
 Environmental biology is the
relation to its population
study of how regional groups of
distribution within a particular
animals and plants interact and
environment
live within their environment.
4. Paleoecology: The branch of
They also explore the relationship
ecology that deals with the
of animals and plants within their
interaction between ancient
species and other species as well.
organisms and their
Eco - system : environment.
 The complex of a community of 5. Applied ecology: Ecology is
organisms and its environment defined as the branch of science
functioning as an ecological unit that studies how people or
 Introduced By : A.G. Tansley organisms relate to each other
1935 and their environment.

Page 1

6. Systems ecology: Ecology a
system involving the interactions
between a community of living
organisms in a particular area
and its non living environment
7. Bio ecology: The study of the
interrelations among
organisms in their
environment; ecology.
ECOSYSTEM
 The system of interaction between
living organisms and
environment is termed
ecosystem. It is the unit of the
environment.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem is classified on the
basis of the type of organisms and the
nature of habitat. The ecosystem are of
following types
1. Forest ecosystem
2. Grassland ecosystem
3. Desert ecosystem
4. Aquatic ecosystem
5. Coastal ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
It is a land with thick growth of
trees. Development of forest
determined by number of climatic
factors such as temperature, rainfall,
ZOOLOGY
humidity, altitude and availability of
sufficient space. About 23% of India's
land is under forest cover. Several
types of forests are recognized. The two
important types of forest seen in India
are tropical rainforest and tropical
living deciduous forest.
natural
Grassland Ecosystem
 Typical grasslands are
characteristics of temperate
climates and occur in the
their Himalayan region in India. The
as tropical grasslands found in India
and elsewhere are the Steppes
(shorter species of grass) and
Savannas (taller grass species).
Desert Ecosystem
 Desert is a waterless, treeless large
land covered with sand. Deserts
have extremes of temperature and
characteristic fauna and flora.
They occur in areas having less
than 25 cm rainfall per year. The
hot type desert is the Thar Desert
in Sindh - Rajasthan, and Cold
type is seen in Ladakh and Tibet.
Aquatic Ecosystem.
is  Aquatic ecosystem is associated
with water bodies. Two types of
aquatic ecosystems are identified
Page 2
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

based on the differences in salt Recent Tsunami had caused severe

content of the waters. They are the damage to the marine ecosystem.
marine ecosystem, fresh water Fresh water ecosystem.
ecosystem.  These are much smaller and are
Marine ecosystem. divisible into two types. They are
 The marine ecosystem is the lentic ecosystem or standing water
largest of all ecosystem and is the ecosystem. e.g., ponds, pools,
most stable one. It is not subjected lakes, and swamps and lotic
to severe climatic changes, ecosystem or running water
problems of water supply, food ecosystem. e.g., streams, rivers
and fire, and human activities like and springs.
industrialization. However Coastal ecosystem
earthquakes under the sea,  It includes saline, brackish
movement of land masses, (mixed saline and fresh) as well
eruption of volcanoes in the sea as coast lines and adjacent
lands."
may disturb the marine ecosystem.

ECOSYSTEM

Biotic Abiotic

Plant Animal Physical Organic In organic

light protein water
temperature carbohydrate oxygen
moisture fat nitrogen
atmosphere Co2
pressure
 Natural eco system : pond, meadow, forest, lake, desert
 Artificial eco system : aquarium, park, paddy field

Page 3
 ZOOLOGY

1. Biotic factors :  Plants need light, water and CO2

 Classified into three divisions for their life
 All the living things are included  Animals need food, water and
 Plants and animals depend on O2 for their life
each other for their life, growth
and reproduction Food Chain

 Ex : Honey Bees depend on  A food chain is the sequence of

flowers for their food. who eats whom in a biological

community (an ecosystem) to
 Flowers depend on Honey
obtain nutrition.
bees for pollination

a. PRODUCERS : Trophic Levels

 They can prepare their food by  The trophic level of an organism

photosynthesis. ex : plants is the position it holds in a food

chain.
 6 Co2 + 12 H2o → C6H12O6 +
• Primary producers:
6 O2 + 6 H2O
Organisms that make their own
b. CONSUMERS : food from sunlight and/or
 These can eat both plants & chemical energy from deep sea
animals vents are the base of every food
chain - these organisms are called
c. DECOMPOSERS : autotrophs.
 These can get their food by • Primary consumers: Are
disintegrated dead plant and animals that eat primary
animal matter. By this the producers; they are also called
minerals were reinter into soil. Herbivores (plant-eaters).
 Ex. Bacteria, fungi (natural • Secondary consumers : eat
scavengers) primary consumers. They are
2. Abiotic factors : Carnivores (meat-eaters) and
 Air, water, soil, light, Omnivores (animals that eat both
temperature included in this . animals and plants).

Page 4
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

• Tertiary consumers: eat functioning as a primary

secondary consumers. consumer.
• Quaternary consumers : eat  When a bear eats a plant-eating
tertiary consumers. rodent, the bear is functioning as
• Food chains "end" with top a secondary consumer.
predators, animals that have little  When the bear eats salmon, the
or no natural enemies. bear is functioning as a tertiary
 When any organism dies, it is consumer (this is because
eventually eaten by detritivores salmon is a secondary
(like vultures, worms and crabs) consumer).
and broken down by  since salmon eat herring that eat
decomposers (mostly bacteria zooplankton that eat
and fungi), and the exchange of phytoplankton, that make their
energy continues. own energy from sunlight).
 Some organisms' position in the  Think about how people's place
food chain can vary as their diet in the food chain varies - often
differs. For example, when a within a single meal.
bear eats berries, the bear is

1. Food Chain in Meadows:

Paddy Rat Snake Kite
(producer) (herbivore) (Primary carnivore) (Secondary carnivore)

2. Food Chain in Forest :

Grass Rabbit Wolf Tiger
(producer) (primary consumer) (primary carnivore) (Secondary carnivore)

3. Food Chain in Pond :

phytoplankton insect small fish Big fish Humans

Page 5
 ZOOLOGY

Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Energy

Upright Inverted Upright Inverted Upright only (10% law)

Only 10% energy transferred from one trophic level to another trophic level.

FOOD PYRAMID
 The graphic representation of food chain
 It is of two types
1. Up Pyramid – Terrestrial
heterotroph Omnivores - bacteria - fourth trophic level - 1kg
- 10 joule

Carnivores - snake – third trophic level

- 10kg - 100 joule

herbivores - insects - second trophic level

- 100kg - 1000 joule

producers - plant - first trophic level - 1000kg

auto trophs - 10000 joule
Sun light - 100000 joule

10 % Law is given by : Lindemamn 1942

2. Down Pyramid – Ponds :

carnivores - 12 gm / m2

herbivores - 8 gm / m2

producers - 4 gm / m2

Page 6

Food Web
 A food web is a system of
interconnected and
interdependent food chains.
 It can also be defined as a
network of food relationships
through which nutrients and
energy are passed from one
living organism to another. Food
web is a series of organisms
related by predator, prey and
consumer, resource interactions;
the entirety of interrelated food
chains in an ecological
community.
ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT
Biogeochemical Cycles
 In geography and Earth science, a
biogeochemical cycle or
substance turnover or cycling of
substances is a pathway by which
a chemical element or molecule
moves through both biotic and
abiotic compartments of Earth
Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen is required for the
manufacturing of all amino acids
and nucleic acids;
 however, the average organism
can not use atmospheric
Page 7
 ZOOLOGY

nitrogen for these tasks and as a (NH4+).

result is dependent on the  Atmospheric nitrogen can also
nitrogen cycle as a source for its undergo nitrogen fixation by
usable nitrogen. lighting and UV radiation and
 The nitrogen cycle begins with become NO3-. Following
nitrogen stored in the nitrogen fixation, nitrification
atmosphere as N2 or nitrogen occurs.
stored in the soil as ammonium  During nitrification, ammonia is
(NH4+), ammonia (NH3), nitrite converted into nitrite, and nitrite
(NO2−), or nitrate (NO3−). is converted into nitrate.
 Nitrogen is assimilated into  Nitrification occurs in various
living organisms through three bacteria. In the final stage,
stages: nitrogen fixation, plants absorb ammonia and
nitrification, and plant nitrate and incorporate it into
metabolism.. their metabolic pathways.
 Nitrogen fixation is a process  Once the nitrogen has entered
which occurs in prokaryotes in the plant metabolic pathway, it
which N2 is converted to may be transferred to animals
when the plant is eaten.
 Nitrogen is released back into
the cycle when denitrifying
bacteria convert NO3- into N2 in
the process of denitrification,
 When detrivorous bacteria
convert organic compounds back
into ammonia in the process of
ammonification, or when
animals excrete ammonia, urea,
or uric acid.
 A lot of environmental problems
are caused by the disruption of

Page 8
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

the nitrogen cycle by human  But the activities of humans the

activity some of the problems land, water, air is polluted leads
caused range from the to harmful effects to eco systems
production of tropospheric  They are classified as follows
(lower atmospheric) smog to the 1. land pollution
perturbation of stratospheric 2. water pollution
ozone and contamination of 3. air pollution
ground water. 4. sound pollution
 An example of one of the 5. radioactive pollution
problems caused is the
formation of greenhouse gas. Carbon Cycle
 Like carbon dioxide and water  Carbon is required for the
vapor greenhouse gas traps heat building of all organic
near the earth’s surface and compounds.
destroys the stratospheric ozone.  Carbon in the form of carbon
 Once that occurs nitrous oxide in dioxide (CO2) is obtained from
the earth’s atmosphere is broken the atmosphere and transformed
down by UV light into nitrogen into a usable organic form by
dioxide and nitric oxide. organisms.
 These two products can reduce
the ozone.
 Nitrogen oxides can be changed
back into nitrates and nitrite
compounds and recycled back
into the earth’s surface.
 The non disturbance of eco
system
 It is naturally done by bio geo
chemical cycles.

Page 9
 ZOOLOGY

 The reservoirs for the carbon oxidizing the molecules

cycle are the atmosphere, where containing "fixed" carbon.
carbon dioxide exists as a free  The burning of organic material
gas, fossil organic deposits (such such as wood or fuels also results
as oil and coal), and durable in the release of carbon dioxide
organic materials like cellulose. from organic carbon.
 Mineral carbonates, such as  CO2 is a trace gas and has huge
limestone, are a significant effects on Earth’s heat balance by
geological sink for carbon. absorbing infrared radiation.
 During the process of carbon  During the growing season or
fixation, carbon dioxide is taken summer, there is a decrease in
up from the atmospheric atmospheric CO2 because
reservoir (or from biocarbonates increased sunlight and
dissolved in water) by plants, temperature helps plants increase
photosynthetic bacteria, and their carbon dioxide uptake and
algae and is "fixed" into organic growth.
substances.  In the winter time, more CO2
 Animals obtain their enters the atmosphere than can
requirements for carbon (as be removed by plants.
carbon-based molecules) by  This happens because plant
eating plants or other animals.
 For the biological links, the
carbon cycle comes full cycle
when carbon is released by either
plants and animals as they
respire or after life as they
decompose.
 Organisms respire carbon dioxide
as a waste product from the
breakdown of organic molecules
as their cells derive energy from

Page 10
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

respirations and the death of silicate and oxide minerals of the

plants happens faster than crust and mantle (99.5%).
photosynthesis. Life and  Only a small portion has been
Biogeochemical Cycles released as free oxygen to the
biosphere (0.01%) and
Oxygen Cycle atmosphere (0.36%).
 The oxygen cycle is the  The main source of atmospheric
biogeochemical cycle that free oxygen is photosynthesis,
describes the movement of which produces sugars and free
oxygen within its three main oxygen from carbon dioxide and
reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), water:
the total content of biological  Photosynthesizing organisms
matter within the biosphere (the include the plant life of the land
global sum of all ecosystems), areas as well as the
and the lithosphere (Earth's phytoplankton of the oceans.
crust).  The tiny marine cyan bacterium
 Failures in the oxygen cycle Prochlorococcus was discovered
within the hydrosphere (the in 1986 and accounts for more
combined mass of water found than half of the photosynthesis of
on, under, and over the surface of the open ocean.
planet Earth) can result in the  An additional source of
development of hypoxic zones. atmospheric free oxygen comes
 The main driving factor of the from photolysis, whereby high
oxygen cycle is photosynthesis, energy ultraviolet radiation
which is responsible for the breaks down atmospheric water
modern Earth's atmosphere and and nitrous oxide into
life on earth (see the Great component atoms.
Oxygenation Event).  The free H and N atoms escape
 By far the largest reservoir of into space leaving O2 in the
Earth's oxygen is within the atmosphere:

Page 11
 ZOOLOGY

 The main way free oxygen is lost Pollution

from the atmosphere is via  Pollution is the introduction into
respiration and decay, the air, water or ground of toxic
mechanisms in which animal life substances that are damaging to
and bacteria consume oxygen and human health and ecosystems.
release carbon dioxide.  It is mainly linked with human
 The lithosphere also consumes activity: discharge of domestic,
free oxygen via chemical industrial and agricultural waste;
weathering and surface reactions. application of pesticides by
An example of surface weathering farmers; leaks of radioactive
chemistry is formation of iron- materials; gas emissions into the
oxides (rust): atmosphere etc
 Oxygen is also cycled between the
Pollutants: Something that pollutes,
biosphere and lithosphere.
especially a waste material that
Marine organisms in the
contaminates air, soil, or water
biosphere create calcium
carbonate shell material (CaCO3)
Land pollution
that is rich in oxygen.
 Land is the degradation of
 When the organism dies its shell Earth's land surfaces often
is deposited on the shallow sea caused by human activities and
floor and buried over time to their misuse of land resources. It
create the limestone sedimentary occurs when waste is not
rock of the lithosphere. disposed properly.
 Haphazard disposal of urban and
 Weathering processes initiated
industrial wastes, exploitation of
by organisms can also free
minerals, and improper use of
oxygen from the lithosphere.
soil by inadequate agricultural
Plants and animals extract
practices are a few factors.
nutrient minerals from rocks and
 Urbanization and
release oxygen in the process.
industrialization are major
causes of land pollution.

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 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

 The Industrial Revolution set a that have been weakened by

series of events into motion pollution.
which destroyed natural habitats
Recycling
and polluted the environment,
 One of the easiest things we can
causing diseases in both humans
all do to improve our
and other species of animals
environment is to recycle wastes
whenever possible. Recycling
Pollutants :
saves natural resources and
 Land pollution is the destruction
energy and reduces the need for
of Earth's land surfaces through
landfills or incinerators.
misuse of land resources by
 It can also increase local jobs by
human activities.
collecting processing and
 Polluted land has deposits of
manufacturing new products out
liquid and solid waste such as
of discarded materials.
rubbish, garbage, paper, glass
 Efforts to reduce the use of
and plastic objects.
plastics and to promote plastic
Effects :
recycling have occurred.
 When land pollution is bad
 E.g: Some supermarkets charge
enough, it damages the soil.
their customers for plastic bags,
 This means that plants may fail to
and in some places more efficient
grow there, robbing the eco-
reusable or biodegradable
system of a food source for
materials are being used in place
animals.
of plastics.
 Eco-systems may also be upset by
pollution when the soil fails to
Bio plastic / natural plastic /
sustain native plants, but can still
biopal
support other vegetation.
 It is made up micro organisms
 Invasive weeds that choke off the
known as alcaligenes by the
remaining sources of native
process of disintegration
vegetation can spring up in areas
 It’s a homopolimer type

Page 13
 ZOOLOGY

 It’s also called as WASTE GENERATION AND

polyhydroxybutrate. MANAGEMENT
SOURCES OF WASTE :
Uses :
Pollution of land mainly affects
 Packaging such as milk bottles
the soil and water due to accumulation
and water and soft drinks
of undesirable materials disposed off as
bottles is easily identified and
a result of human activity (Fig. 19). The
hence setting up a recycling
waste consists of garbage, paper, wood,
infrastructure has been quite
cloth, plastic, iron scrap, food residue,
successful in many parts of the
farm waste etc., The municipal solid
world
waste generated in Indian cities has
 There are also concerns that
increased from 480 lakh tonnes in1997
bioplastics will damage
to 10 crore tonnes currently. The
existing recycling projects.
sources of waste generated in our day-
 Packaging made of PLA-blend
to-day life are classified broadly into
bio-flex
 Medicine : artificial heart valves ,
a. Domestic
serate dentition , bone fracture
b. Industrial
plates , artificial skin
c. Agricultural and
d. Commercial

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Sources Activity Types of Waste

Residential Single family, multi Garbage, Rubbish, ashes

family, medium and
high rise apartments

Industrial Fabrication, light and Garbage, rubbish,

heavy manufacturing Chemical and special
refineries, power plants. wastes.

Page 14
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

Open areas Street, parks, vacant Rubbish and special

plots, play grounds, waste
highways, beaches, etc.

Treatment plant Water, sewage and Treatment plant waste

industrial waste
treatment plant

WASTE GENERATION

Waste handling separation, storage

and processing at the source

Collection

Transfer and Separation and

Transport processing and
transformation of
solid waste

Disposal

Page 15
 ZOOLOGY

Sources and Types of Solid waste 3. Gaseous waste

Domestic Waste • Toxic: toxic fumes like
 Waste generated from residential ammonia, Hydrogen sulphide
premises is called domestic waste. etc.,
• Non - toxic: steam / water
Municipal waste vapour
 The combined solid and liquid
waste from residential, Agricultural and Animal
commercial and industrial sources husbandry waste
are called municipal waste.  Agricultural and animal husbandry
wastes are those generated by the
Industrial waste rearing of animals and the
All the unwanted materials production and harvest of crops or
generated from industries are called trees. It includes feed waste, non-
industrial wastes. The industrial wastes edible oil seeds, straw, husk,
may be liquid, sludge, solid, gases, etc. coconut waste and cotton waste,
The absence of adequate disposal rubber waste and its by products.
facilities for the industries is a main
factor for indiscriminate disposal of Commercial waste
solid waste. It is mainly of three types  Most of the shops, restaurants,
1. Solid waste - Toxic - mining markets, offices are sources of
waste, Non-toxic - building commercial wastes like bottles,
materials. plastic bags, polythene, paper
2. Liquid wastes - organic liquid wrappers, non-biodegradable cups
waste and inorganic liquid waste. and wastes that are produced
• Organic liquid waste - effluents during construction of buildings
from tanneries / distilleries / etc.,
sugar factories CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE
• Inorganic liquid waste - from  Rapid industrialization and
chemical and fertilizing urbanization without due regard to
industries environmental considerations are

Page 16
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

leading to extensive environmental chromosomes), teratogenic (in

pollution. The materials consumed nature).
during these activities reduces  Toxic waste are produced during
non-renewable resources, and industrial, chemical and biological
generate wastes. The wastes are process. Even household office and
classified into bio-degradable, commercial wastes contain small
non-biodegradable, toxic, non- quantities of toxic wastes (e.g.,
toxic and bio-medical wastes. Batteries, old pesticides). Paints,

Biodegradable pesticides, toxic chemicals broken

 Any waste that is capable of tube lights, expired medicines,

undergoing decomposition by etc., are some of the toxic wastes.

microbes are called biodegradable The waste generated by the

wastes. The food, garden wastes, nuclear power plant such as heavy

paper and paper board are certain water or the spent nuclear fuel are

examples of bio-degradable highly hazardous to the

wastes. environment and all life forms.

Non-biodegradable Non-toxic waste

 Non-biodegradable wastes are  The wastes of non-hazardous

those that cannot be category are called non-toxic
decomposed by bacteria. Waste wastes. They do not harm to life.
like ceramics, aluminium cans,  Kitchen waste, garbage, street
PVC articles, plastics, bottles etc
sweepings, roadside litter, etc.
are best example for non-
are some examples of non-toxic
biodegradable waste.
wastes.
Toxic waste Biomedical waste
 Any waste that are harmful to life  The wastes that are generated in
and environment is known as toxic hospitals are biomedical wastes.
waste. The toxic waste may be e.g., syringes, blades, needles,
poisonous, radioactive, corrosive, cotton, human body parts, soiled
carcinogenic (causing cancer), plasters etc.,
mutagenic (damaging

Page 17
 ZOOLOGY

IMPACT OF WASTE and industries reach the soil and

ACCUMULATION accumulate in the soil. Waste
Spoilage of Landscape from nuclear reactors emit
 Sanitary landfill is commonly radiations are harmful to soil,
used for final disposal of solid plants and affects the health of
wastes. The main disadvantage human by causing cancer.
over open dumps is in the aspects
Effect on Terrestrial and aquatic
of public health. The availability
life
of land for the dumping of wastes
 Most of the thermal and electric
is also a problem.
power plants discharge large
Pollution quantities of hot water into
 Land and soil pollution is streams or rivers. Hot water has
responsible for loss of fertility and lower dissolved oxygen level. So,
productivity of soil. thermal pollution is considered
 The decomposition of the various for the whole aquatic ecosystem.
types of waste material releases Due to a minimum concentration
harmful gases and bad smell, which of oxygen, fishes and other
pollute the environment. marine organisms migrate from
 The municipal and domestic waste the polluted area or die in large
is often discharged in water bodies, numbers. Waste from industries
is responsible for water pollution such as insecticides, acids,
 The excreta of humans, animals and alkalies etc. also destroy the
birds is a source of soil pollution by growth of aquatic plants.
biological agents. Digested sewage
sludge, used as a fertilizer also NEED FOR MANAGEMENT OF
causes soil pollution. WASTE
 Waste can be converted into new

Health hazard products using technology. Used

 The radioactive wastes produced or unused wastes cause a great

by nuclear testing laboratories hazard to the human

environment. Utilization and
Page 18
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

reducing of waste is a complex wastes. The waste disposal is

field. In waste management, expensive and also cause
there is a need for techno- pollution to environment. Much
economic studies. To live in a of our waste could be minimized
better way, the quantity of wastes by our waste management plans
should be minimized by by means of the following three
controlling wastes from industry, methods (Three 'R's). They are as
agriculture, urban areas etc., we follows.
can protect the health of future 1. First Reduce the waste
generation and also the 2. Then Re-use items or articles
environment.  Then Recycle them for further
 Due to expansion of industrial use and finally dispose of what is
activities and growth of left.
population, we are using more
resources and producing more

Waste Recycling Possibilities

Paper • Use of scrap paper or personal stationery, exchange
magazines and newspapers with friends , Repulp to reclaim
fibre , Compost, Incinerate heat
Glass • Purchase drinks in deposit bottles and return them, use other
bottles as storage bins in the home , Crush and remelt for
glass manufacture Crush and use as aggregate for building ,
material or antiskid additive for road surface.
Tyre • Recap usable casings
• Use of swings, crush guards, boat bumpers, etc.,
• Shred and use of manufacture of new tyres Grind and use as
additive in road construction
Manure • Compost or spread directly on fields
• Pertinent to yield methane, use residue as compost
• Convert to oil by chemical treatment

Page 19
 ZOOLOGY

• Treat chemically and re-use as animal feed

Food scraps • Save for meals of leftovers
• Sterilize and use as hog food
• Compost
• Use as culture for yeast for food production
• Sterilize and use as animal feed

METHODS OF SAFE DISPOSAL Composting

OF WASTES  It is a biological process of
 The methods of disposal of decomposing organic materials
wastes can be carried out by such as fallen leaves, grass
segregation, dumping, clippings, kitchen wastes, garden
composting, drainage, treatment wastes, food wastes etc., by
of effluents before discharge, microbes.
incineration and sue of scrubbers
Drainage
and electrostatic precipitators.
 Wastewater and sewage must be

Segregation taken away from all buildings

 The waste materials of non- through gully. In urban areas the

biodegradable type like glass, rain water cannot drain into the

plastics etc and bio-degradable grounds. Therefore, the excess

like paper and organic materials rain water are nowadays drained

are separated before being by soak ways or by down pipes in

disposed off. to the well to harvest the rain

water.
Dumping
 Attempt of depositing solid Treatment of effluents before

wastes upon land is known as discharge

dumping. The segregated wastes  In urban areas two drainage

are dumped separately for further systems are found. One is

process of management. designed to collect clean

rainwater and the other is to

Page 20
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

collect foul sewer from toilet and Electrostatic precipitator

sink wastes. The dirty water  Electrostatic precipitator is a
including industrial wastes and device developed to reduce the
domestic wastes are let into a serious smoke nuisances. Today
treatment tank. In the treatment it is found mainly on large power
tank, the drained effluents are plants, cement plants,
biodegraded before returning to incinerators and various boiler
river. The sewage sludge formed applications. Electrostatic
during treatment process are precipitators are 99 effective
recycled as fertilizers. instrument for the attraction of
particle emitted power plants,
Incineration paper mill etc.,
 It is destruction of waste by NEED FOR REDUCING, RE-
controlled burning at high USING AND RECYCLING
temperature. It is the best way to WASTES
dispose of pharmaceuticals Reduce of Waste
wastes. It is an environmentally We can reduce the waste by way
and technically superior method of consuming and throwing away less.
of waste disposal. It includes:

Scrubbers  Purchasing of durable and long

 The Scrubbers are another lasting goods

device, which saturate the gas  Buying products with packaging

stream in order to remove the dry that are as free of toxic as

fly ash. Particulate vapours and possible.

gases are controlled by this  Avoid disposable products.

device. Scrubbers are used on  Get drinks in returnable

coal mining power plants, products

asphalt, concrete plants which  Repair rather than buy a new

are emitting sulphur dioxide and one

hydrogen sulphide.  Compost kitchen and garden

waste.

Page 21
 ZOOLOGY

Re-use of Wastes pollution control boards (SPCBs)

After reducing the waste, we and pollution control committees
need to think about reusing of goods. in states.
Reusing involves neither additional  India is one of the first countries,
energy consumption nor for raw which has provided a protection
materials. The following are certain for the improvement of
methods for re-use of products which environment in its constitution.
are likely to be thrown away as wastes. The article 51.A(g) of the
 Donate unwanted goods to constitution states the
charity club responsibility of every citizen to
 Purchasing refillable pens protect the environment. Among
 Refill the water bottles the existing environmental
Protection Act, the act such as
Recycle of Wastes
"Hazardous Waste (Management
 Converting of waste materials
and Handling) Rules, 1989" and
into valuable new materials or
"Biomedical Wastes
products is termed as recycling of
(Management and Handling)
wastes. This method of waste
Rules, 1996 are providing some
management generates
legal provisions for handling and
environmental, financial and
management of solid wastes.
social benefits. Materials like
WATER
glass, metals, plastics and paper
 Water pollution refers to the
can be processed into new
contamination of water bodies
products.
such as rivers, oceans, lakes, and
LEGAL PROVISIONS FOR
groundwater caused by human
HANDLING AND MANAGEMENT
activities.
OF WASTES
 This can be harmful to plants
 The Government has framed
and organisms which live in
several rules and guidelines on
these water bodies.
the management and handling of
hazardous waste. These rules are
implemented through State
Page 22
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

EARTH WATER

Sea water Pure water

97% 3%

Ice bergs ground water others surface water

69% 30.1% 0.9 % 0.3 %

lake mangroove other

87% 11% 2%

 The pollutants undergo many quality so as to constitute a

reactions and can become hazard, or impair the usefulness
hazardous. of water.
 70 % of India’s fresh water is  It contains various types of
polluted, including several high impurities such as dissolved
altitude lakes. gases, dissolved minerals,
 While water pollution is easier to suspended matters and even
study and manage, its control is microbes.
highly complex and very costly.  Per day a man consumes around
 Water pollution is defined as 50 lts of water for drinking ,
presence of any foreign washing , cooking and for
substance (organic, inorganic, maintenance of body
biological or radiological) in
water which tends to degrade the
Page 23
 ZOOLOGY

 On the basis of availability of that life is so dependent on water

water for a year to a man , India as the medium of chemical
stands on 133th place reactions within cells.
 In human body two third of  While it generally is the case that
water is present. we discuss the water cycle in terms
 In India , the renewable water of the various states of water, at
capacity is 1897 sq kilo meters / least some water molecules are
per year taken up by plants and split apart
 WHO states that wouldbe heavy (photolysed) into atoms of
water scarcity by 2025 hydrogen and oxygen; the latter is
Water Cycle released into the atmosphere as
 A very significant molecule molecular oxygen (O2).
(on planet Earth) that cycles  Thus, by virtue of
through ecosystems is the water photosynthesizing organisms
molecule (H2O), for the reason (photoautotrophs), the water cycle

Page 24

is an important part of both the
oxygen and the hydrogen cycles.
 Note that hydrogen ends up as
part of an organic molecule, and
therefore a participant in the
carbon cycle.
 The majority of water in the water
cycle is found within the oceans
and the polar ice caps, although
water is present in the bodies of
organisms, in freshwater lakes and
rivers, frozen in glaciers, and in
the ground as groundwater.
 Water moves more or less freely
between these storage reservoirs:
by evaporation, by precipitation,
and by runoff from the land.
 The sedimentation cycle is an
extension of the hydrological cycle.
The water carries material from
the land to the ocean, where they
are added as sediments.
 The sediment cycle includes the
physical and chemical erosion,
nutrient transport, and sediment
formation from water flows.
 The sedimentation cycle is an
extension of the hydrological cycle.
The water carries material from
ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT
the land to the ocean, where they
are added as sediments.
 The sediment cycle includes the
physical and chemical erosion,
nutrient transport, and sediment
formation from water flows.
 The sediment formed from water
flows is mostly responsible for the
buildup of sediments at the bottom
of the ocean. The sediment cycle is
tied in with the flow of six
important elements, which are
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur.
These elements also known as
macroelements make up 95 % of
all living things.
 The balancing of these molecules
is required to sustain life. These
elements have to be recycled for
life to continuously regenerate.
Decrease of Water
1. Natural reasons:
 Low amount of rainfall and hot
air will decrease the ground
water level
2. Human activities:
 Deforestration, population
explasion, fast urbanization, and
Page 25
 ZOOLOGY

more usage of ground water will change the amount or type of

reduce the water level. precipitation that falls from

3. Sea water intrusion: clouds, by dispersing substances

 Due to the flow of sea water into into the air that serve as cloud

pure water resources will leads condensation or ice nuclei, which

into spoilage of drinking water. alter the microphysical processes

 The ground water is also spoiled within the cloud.

 The usual intent is to increase

4. Commercial water : precipitation (rain or snow), but

 Some private organization make hail and fog suppression are also

use of more water from rivers widely practiced in airports.

will leads to lower level of

ground water. 2. Rainwater harvesting:

 eg : Tiruppur dyeing factories –  Rainwater harvesting is the

Noyyal river accumulation and deposition of

rainwater for reuse before it
5. Agricultural reasons: reaches the aquifer.
 Basically India is an agricultural  Uses include water for garden,
based nation. water for livestock, water for
 So the usage of water is always irrigation, etc. In many places
high. the water collected is just

WATER MANAGEMENT redirected to a deep pit with

 Water resource management is percolation.

the activity of planning,

developing, distributing and Uses :

managing the optimum use of  Makes use of a natural resource

water resources. It is a sub-set and reduces flooding, storm
of water cycle management. water, erosion, and
1. Cloud Seeding : contamination of surface water
 A form of intentional weather with pesticides, sediment, metals
modification, is the attempt to and fertilizers.

Page 26

 Excellent source of water for
landscape irrigation, with
chemicals such as fluoride and
chlorine, and any dissolved salts
and minerals from the soil.
 Home systems can be relatively
simple to install and operate and
it may reduce your water bill.
 Promotes both water and energy
conservation.
3. Dams, Reservoirs, Canals
 By constructing these we can able
be to store excess amount of
water from the river.
4. Watershed management
 Watershed management is the
study of the relevant
characteristics of a watershed
aimed at the sustainable
distribution of its resources and
the process of creating
implementing plans, programs,
and projects to sustain
enhance watershed functions that
affect the plant, animal, and
human .
5. Icebergs drinking water:
 The concept of using icebergs as
a water source has been around
ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT
for a long time. It has always
no been seen as something that is
vaguely possible one day in the
not too far distant future.
6. Storage in wet land :
 Main purpose is for drinking
Transportation purpose and
also for taking one place to
another place.
7. Saving in Houses:
 Due to some changes in our daily
activities we can able to save
some amount of water daily
8. Purification of Sea Water :
 Reverse osmosis is most
commonly known for its use in
drinking water purification from
seawater, removing the salt and
other effluent materials from the
water molecules.
and  It is very expensive method
and 9. Saving in factories:
 The coolant used in machineries
is to be recycled again and again.
Water Pollution
 Water pollution is the
contamination of water bodies
Page 27
 ZOOLOGY

(e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, Reasons for water pollution :

aquifers and groundwater). 1. Factory waste
 Water pollution occurs when 2. Soil Erosion.
pollutants are directly or 3. Oil waste
indirectly discharged into water 4. Domestic waste
bodies without adequate Control measures:
treatment to remove harmful
1. Cleaning of waste water before
compounds.
liberated in water sources.
 Water pollution affects plants
2. Avoid of fertilizers, insecticides
and organisms living in these
and weedicides.
bodies of water.
3. Avoid more usage of water
 In almost all cases the effect is
4. Domestic used water used in
damaging not only to individual
gardens.
species and populations, but also
5. Nitrosomonas Europhea –
to the natural biological
bacteria is used to demolish the
communities.
micro organisms in domestic
waste water.

Spoilage Bad smell Sand formation

Algal bloom Water Eutrophication

pollution

Diseases O2 deficiency

Page 28
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

6. Eucalyptus trees can absorb  Stratospheric ozone depletion

minerals from waste water. due to air pollution has long been
7. Implementing law full act. recognized as a threat to human
8. Awareness in peoples. health as well as to the Earth's
ecosystems
Air pollution

 Air pollution is the Composition of air :

introduction of chemicals, nitrogen : 78%

particulates, biological O2 : 20.9%

materials, or other harmful Argan : 0.9%

materials into the Earth's Co2 : 0.03%

atmosphere, possibly causing Water vapour : less amount

disease, death to humans,

Causes of Air pollution :
damage to other living organisms
1. Natural soruces :
such as food crops, or
 Volcanoes, forest fire, sea water
the natural or built environment.
salinity, photo chemical
 The atmosphere is a complex oxidation, pollens, sperms,
natural gaseous system that is radioactive elements in earth
essential to support life on crust, radiation in atmosphere.
planet Earth.
Pollutants Sources Effect
Carbon monooxide Fuels Death of humans
Carbondioxide Coal, petrol Global warming
Nitrogen oxide Vehicles Acid rain
Sulphur di oxide Factories Cancer, asthma
Carbon Coal mines Black lung disease
CFC Fridge, Air cooler , solvents Ozone depletion,
cancer
Methyl Iso Cyanide Bhopal – union carbide Many death, disease
factory

Page 29
 ZOOLOGY

2. Human activity sources / 4) Building impact: Tajmahal is

anthropogenics : affected.
 Mainly of factory song Ozone Depletion
 Ozone depletion describes two
Acid Rain
distinct but related phenomena
 Rainfall made so acidic by
observed since the late 1970s: a
atmospheric pollution that it
steady decline of about 4% per
causes environmental harm,
decade in the total volume of
chiefly to forests and lakes.
ozone in Earth's stratosphere,
 The main cause is the industrial
and a much larger springtime
burning of coal and other fossil
decrease in stratospheric ozone
fuels, the waste gases from which
over Earth's Polar Regions.
contain sulphur and nitrogen
 The latter phenomenon is
oxides which combine with
referred to as the ozone hole.
atmospheric water to form acids.
 In addition to these well-known
 Co2 + H2o H2Co3 carbonic acid
stratospheric phenomena, there
 So2 + H2o H2So4 sulphuric acid
are also spring time polar
 No2 + H2o HNo3 nitric acid
tropospheric ozone depletion
Causes events.
1. Burning of fossil fuels like coal.  The details of polar ozone hole
2. Vehicle emission formation differ from that of mid-
3. Burning of forests and grasslands latitude thinning, but the most
4. Release of gases from chemical important process in both
industries. is catalytic destruction of ozone
Effects : by atomic halogens.
1) Soil acidity: eco system is affected.  The main source of these halogen
2) Water acidity: pond, river are atoms in the stratosphere
affected, is photo dissociation of man-
3) Human impact: ground water made halocarbon refrigerants,
spoilage, eye and skin irritation solvents, propellants, and foam-

Page 30
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

blowing agents (CFCs, HCFCs, reduction of plankton

freons, halons). populations in the ocean's photic
 These compounds are zone may result from the
transported into the stratosphere increased UV exposure due to
after being emitted at the ozone depletion.
surface.
 Both types of ozone depletion Ozone O2 cycle:

have been observed to increase as  Three forms (or allotropes)

of oxygen are involved in
emissions of halo-carbons
the ozone-oxygen cycle: oxygen
increased.
atoms (O or atomic oxygen),
 CFCs and other contributory oxygen gas (O2 or diatomic
substances are referred to oxygen), and ozone gas (O3 or
as ozone-depleting triatomic oxygen).
substances (ODS).  Ozone is formed in the
 Since the ozone layer prevents stratosphere when oxygen
most harmful UVB wavelengths molecules photodissociate after
(280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light absorbing an ultraviolet photon
(UV light) from passing through whose wavelength is shorter than
the Earth's atmosphere, observed 240 nm.
and projected decreases in ozone  This converts a single O2 into two
have generated worldwide atomic oxygen radicals.
concern leading to adoption of  The atomic oxygen radicals then
the Montreal Protocol that bans combine with separate O2
the production of CFCs, halons, molecules to create
and other ozone-depleting two O3 molecules.
chemicals such as carbon  These ozone molecules absorb UV
tetrachloride and trichloroethane light between 310 and 200 nm,
 It is suspected that a variety of following which ozone splits into a
biological consequences such as molecule of O2and an oxygen
increases in skin cancer, atom.
cataracts, damage to plants, and

Page 31

 The oxygen atom then joins up
with an oxygen molecule to
regenerate ozone.
 This is a continuing process that
terminates when an oxygen atom
"recombines" with an ozone
molecule to make two O2
molecules.
 2 O3 →3 O2 chemical equation
 The overall amount of ozone in the
stratosphere is determined by a
balance between photochemical
production and recombination.
 Ozone can be destroyed by a
number of free radical catalysts,
the most important of which are
the hydroxyl radical (OH•), the
nitric oxide radical (NO•), atomic
chlorine ion (Cl•) and atomic
bromine ion (Br•).
 The dot is a common notation to
indicate that all of these species
have an unpaired electron and are
thus extremely reactive.
 All of these have both natural and
man-made sources; at the present
time, most of the OH• and NO• in
the stratosphere is of natural
origin, but human activity has
dramatically increased the levels of
chlorine and bromine.
ZOOLOGY
 These elements are found in
certain stable organic compounds,
especially chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), which may find their way
to the stratosphere without being
destroyed in the troposphere due
to their low reactivity.
 Once in the stratosphere, the Cl
and Br atoms are liberated from
the parent compounds by the
action of ultraviolet light, e.g.
 CFCl3 + electromagnetic
radiation → CFCl 2 + Cl
 The Cl and Br atoms can then
destroy ozone molecules through
a variety of catalytic cycles.
 In the simplest example of such a
cycle, a chlorine atom reacts with
an ozone molecule, taking an
oxygen atom with it (forming ClO)
and leaving a normal oxygen
molecule.
 The chlorine monoxide (i.e., the
ClO) can react with a second
molecule of ozone (i.e., O3) to
yield another chlorine atom and
two molecules of oxygen. The
chemical shorthand for these gas-
phase reactions is:
 Cl + O3 → ClO + O2:
Page 32
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

 Ozone = Greek = smell area : 20 m.sq.km

 Discovered by : van marron first by : 1984 / NASA

 Name coined by : Shaan Bean place : antartica

 Density unit : Dobson unit (Du)

 The chlorine atom changes an substances (ODS) are mainly

ozone molecule to ordinary oxygen responsible for man-made
 ClO + O3 → Cl + 2 O2 chemical ozone depletion.
 The ClO from the previous  The total amount of effective
reaction destroys a second ozone halogens (chlorine and bromine)
molecule and recreates the original in the stratosphere can be
chlorine atom, which can repeat calculated and are known as the
the first reaction and continue to equivalent effective stratospheric
destroy ozone. chlorine
 CFCs and related compounds in
the atmosphere
 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
other halogenated ozone depleting

800km Exosphere

80km Ionosphere

50km Mesosphere

25 km Ozone layer

18 km Stratosphere

0 km Trophosphere

Page 33
 ZOOLOGY

Effects :  Greenhouse gases are those that

 Skin cancer can absorb and emit infrared
 Cataract radiation, but not radiation in or
 Melanin pigment change near the visible spectrum.

 Global warming  In order, the most abundant

greenhouse gases in Earth's
Green House Effect
atmosphere are:
 The trapping of the sun's warmth
in a planet's lower atmosphere,
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) - 60%
due to the greater transparency
 Methane (CH4) - 20%
of the atmosphere to visible
 Nitrousoxide (N2O) - 16%
radiation from the sun than to
 CFCs - 6%
infrared radiation emitted from
 Ozone (O3)
the planet's surface.
 The greenhouse effect is a  Watervapor (H2O)

process by which thermal

radiation from a planetary  The Earth receives energy from

surface is absorbed by the Sun in the form UV, visible,

atmospheric greenhouse gases, and near IR radiation, most of

and is re-radiated in all which passes through the

directions. atmosphere without being

 Since part of this re-radiation is absorbed.

back towards the surface and  Of the total amount of energy

the lower atmosphere, it results available at the top of the

in an elevation of the average atmosphere (TOA), about 50% is

surface temperature above what absorbed at the Earth's surface.

it would be in the absence of the  Because it is warm, the surface

gases radiates far IR thermal radiation

 CO2 is produced by fossil fuel that consists of wavelengths that

burning and other activities are predominantly much longer

such as cement production and than the wavelengths that were

tropical deforestation absorbed (the overlap between

Page 34
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

the incident solar spectrum and cleaner is a particulate collection

the terrestrial thermal spectrum device that removes particles
is small enough to be neglected from a flowing gas (such as air)
for most purposes). using the force of an induced
 Most of this thermal radiation is electrostatic charge.
absorbed by the atmosphere and  Electrostatic precipitators are
re-radiated both upwards and highly efficient filtration devices
downwards; that radiated that minimally impede the flow
downwards is absorbed by the of gases through the device, and
Earth's surface. can easily remove fine
 This trapping of long-wavelength particulates such as dust and
thermal radiation leads to a smoke from the air stream.
higher equilibrium temperature  Baghouses Designed to handle
than if the atmosphere were heavy dust loads, a dust
absent collector consists of a blower,
dust filter, a filter-cleaning
Control devices system, and a dust receptacle or
 The following items are dust removal system
commonly used as pollution (distinguished from air cleaners
control devices by industry or which utilize disposable filters
transportation devices.
to remove the dust).
 They can either destroy  Particulate scrubbers Wet
contaminants or remove them scrubber is a form of pollution
from an exhaust stream before it control technology.
is emitted into the atmosphere.  The term describes a variety of
devices that use pollutants from
Particulate control a furnace flue gas or from other
 Mechanical collectors (dust gas streams.
cyclones, multicyclones)  In a wet scrubber, the polluted
 Electrostatic precipitators gas stream is brought into
(ESP), or electrostatic air contact with the scrubbing

Page 35
 ZOOLOGY

liquid, by spraying it with the  Noise pollution is measured by

liquid, by forcing it through a decibel units.
pool of liquid, or by some other  Jet plans - 145 db
contact method, so as to remove  Traffic - 90 db
the pollutants.  Vaccum cleaner - 85 db
 Speech - 60 db
Sound Pollution
 Noise pollution is the disturbing Effects :
or excessive noise that may harm  Hearing loss
the activity or balance of human  Cardiovascular effects
or animal life.  Stress
 The source of most outdoor noise  Annoyance
worldwide is mainly caused by  Child physical development
machines and transportation  The skin, the largest organ of the
systems, Noise pollution is a body, protects the internal system
major problem in countries such from knocks, scrapes and cuts;
as India during the festivals of senses changes in the
Diwali, Navaratri, and Ganpati. environment;
 The government of India has  The main route for air pollutants
regulations against firecrackers is through the nose, mouth and
and loudspeakers, but throat.
enforcement is extremely lax.  The nose is very efficient at
Vehicle, aircraft, and trapping and holding some
trains.Outdoor noise is inhaled pollutants.
summarized by the word  Concentrations of chemicals
environmental noise. build up in the nose as the air is
 Poor urban planning may give cleaned.
rise to noise pollution, since side-  The pollutants that accumulate in
by-side industrial and residential the nose can cause problems in
buildings can result in noise the nose and sinuses or be
pollution in the residential areas absorbed in mucus membranes,

Page 36
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

resulting in a number of harmful radiation can have far more

effects on the body. serious health effects.
 Radioactive rays can cause
Radio Active Pollution irreparable damage to DNA
 Radioactive wastes are wastes molecules and can lead to a life-
that contain radioactive material. threatening condition. Prolonged
Radioactive wastes are usually exposure leads to a large number
by-products of nuclear power of molecules in the body being
generation and other applications ionized into free radicals.
of nuclear fission or nuclear  Free radicals promote the
technology, such as research and growth of cancerous cells, i.e.
medicine. tumors, in the body. People with
 Radioactive contamination, also heavy radiation exposure are at a
called radiological contamination, very high risk for cancers
is the deposition of, or presence  The impact of radioactive
of radioactive substances on pollution on human beings can
surfaces or within solids, liquids vary from mild to fatal; the
or gases (including the human magnitude of the adverse effects
body), where their presence is largely depends on the level and
unintended or undesirable . duration of exposure to
 Such contamination presents a radioactivity.
hazard because of the radioactive  Low levels of localized exposure
decay of the contaminants, which may only have a superficial effect
emit harmful ionising radiation and cause mild skin irritation.
such as alpha or beta particles,
gamma rays or neutrons. Preventive Measures :
 Out coming of Ratioactive waste
Effects: is to be avoided
 The impact Long-term exposure  Ratioactive waste is to be
or exposure to high amounts of eliminated in safe manner.

Page 37
 ZOOLOGY

 Precautionary measures is to be Because of the increase in

taken before the construction of population, we use up the
nuclear breeders. resources excessively. We do not
 Controlled atom bomb test is have control over the use of
essential. natural resources. We convert the
forests into living places. Thus.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION - we stop the rain which is a major
CAUSE AND EFFECT natural source of water. Since
Emerging life styles in modern forests disappear fast, we are
societies causing soil erosion yet another
 Earth is the only planet known so damage to natural resource.
far to have life in the solar  The rapidly increasing population
system. Conditions on earth has led to an increase in the
when life just originated were consumption of energy. The
very different from what they are increasing consumption of fuels
today. As condition changed, such as coal and petroleum is an
there evolved more and more alarming issue because already
varied forms of life. the world is running short of
 Primitive man's needs were these fuels. Major amount of our
modest gradually he discovered precious foreign exchange goes
fire and invented tools and out only for importing crude oil &
techniques. The invention and petroleum products.
widespread use of different kinds  The modern life style of man has
of machineries brought about the ushered in the production and
Industrial revolution. This may the usage of synthetic materials
be considered as a boon as well as such as plastics, detergents,
bane to humanity. paints, refrigents etc. There are
 Some of our 'technological both advantages and
progresses' have seriously disadvantages of using these
affected our air, water, land, synthetic materials.
forests, plants and animals.

Page 38
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

Plastic: Advantages affects soil fertility. Quantity of

1. Plastics are attractive and they water used for rinsing is
are available in various forms. comparatively more because of
2. They are easy to handle excessive lather. Sometimes they
3. Plastic bags are convenient for are the cause of skin allergies.
packing.
Factors affecting environment
Disadvantages  There are many factors which
1. Plastics are not easily affect our environment adversely,
degradable ego over and unplanned
2. They affect the soil fertility exploitation of resources,
when dumped in the soil. They exploding population growth,
block the sewers. industrialisation, use of synthetic
3. The plastic bags cause serious materials etc. Man has started
problems if they are swallowed over using and over exploiting the
by animals. natural resources such as, water,
4. Health will be affected if low land, fuels etc which in turn cause
quality plastics are used. the depletion or shortage of the
5. When burnt, plastic produces resources. Over exploitation of
toxic gases. the natural resources like forest,
6. Wastes generated from plastic may result in shortage of fuel
manufacturing industries are wood, changed climate, soil
toxic. erosion, drought, etc.

Advantages of Detergents
The impact of the human
1. Good fragrance, better lather
activities on environment due to
formation and quick result in
over population are as follows:
removing dirt.
1. Air pollution (automobile and
Disadvantages industrial exhausts)
 Waste water mixed with
detergents when discharged

Page 39
 ZOOLOGY

2. Water pollution (Sewage from  McLuhan described how the

houses, effluents from globe has been contracted into a
industries) village by electric technology and
3. Land pollution (excessive use of the instantaneous movement of
fertilizers, non-degradable information from every quarter to
materials, pesticides, fungicides every point at the same time.In
etc) bringing all social and political
4. Urbanisation (encroachment, functions together in a sudden
deforestation) implosion, electric speed
heightened human awareness of
Green chemistry
responsibility to an intense
 Production of non hazardous
degree.
chemicals and avoiding its usage
leads to green world.
Global Village Tech Park:
Kyoto Protocol :
 Global Village Tech Park is a
 The Kyoto Protocol to the United
Software Technology park in
Nations Framework Convention
Bangalore, India.
on Climate Change is an
 The park is situated on Mysore
international treaty that sets
Road, about 12 km away from the
binding obligations on
city railway station.
industrialised countries to reduce
 Global Village Tech Park was
emissions of greenhouse gases.
constructed, and is owned, by the
 1997 In December the countries
Coffee Day group under the
conclude the Kyoto Protocol in
brand name Tanglin. It is
Kyoto, Japan, in which they agree
equipped with all modern
to the broad outlines of emissions
facilities and boasts posh
targets.
greenery inside the park.

Global Village :
 Global Village is a term closely
associated with Marshall
McLuhan,
Page 40
 ECOLOGY & ENVIRONMENT

INDIA ENVIRONMENT the open felling of trees in regions

MOVEMENTS as far reaching as Vindhyas and
M.S. Swaminathan Research the Western Ghats. Today, it is seen
Centre: as an inspiration and a precursor
 M S Swaminathan Research for Chipko movement of Garhwal.
Foundation (MSSRF) is a non-  Its leader was Sunderlal Bahuguna.
profit research organization and
was established in 1988. Silent Valley movement :
 MSSRF has all along been  Silent Valley was a social movement
developing and following a pro- aimed at the protection of Silent
nature, pro-poor, pro-women and valley, an evergreen tropical forest
pro-sustainable on-farm and in the Palakkad district of Kerala,
non-farm livelihoods through India.
appropriate ecotechnology and  It was started in 1973 to save the
knowledge empowerment. Silent Valley Reserve Forest from
being flooded by a hydroelectric
Bishnois Movement :
project. The valley was declared as
 Khejarli which is a village in
Silent Valley National Park in 1985.
Jodhpur district of Rajasthan, India
 The Kuntipuzha is a major river that
26 km south-east of the city of
flows 15 km southwest from Silent
Jodhpur.
Valley. It takes its origin in the lush
 The Bishnois sacrificed their lives
green forests of Silent valley.
while protecting trees by hugging to
 In 1928 the location at Sairandhri
them.
on the Kunthipuzha River was
identified as an ideal site for
Chipko movement :
electricity generation.
 Act of hugging trees to protect them
 A study and survey was conducted
from being felled.
in 1958 of the area about the
 By the 1980s the movement had
possibility of a hydroelectric project
spread throughout India and led to
of 120 MV and one costing Rs. 17
the formulation of people-sensitive
forest policies, which put a stop to
Page 41
 ZOOLOGY

Crore was later proposed by the wildfires, heat waves and tropical

Kerala State Electricity Board. storms. This is particularly because of

the Global Warming.
 Global Warming is the increase of
Narmada Bachao Andolan
Earth's average surface
Movement :
temperature due to effect of
 Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is greenhouse gases, such as carbon
a social movement consisting of dioxide emissions from burning fossil

adivasis, farmers, fuels or from deforestation, which trap

heat that would otherwise escape from
environmentalists, and human
Earth. This is a type of greenhouse
rights activists against a number of
effect.
large dams being built across the
Narmada river.
Ocean acidification
 The river flows through the states of
 Ocean acidification is the on-going
Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh in decrease in the pH of the oceans,
India. caused by the uptake of Carbon
 Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is Dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
one of the biggest dams on the river  An estimated 30–40% of the carbon

and was one of the first focal points dioxide from human activity released
into the atmosphere dissolves into
of the movement.
oceans, rivers and lakes.
 Narmada Bachao Andolan, with its
leading spokespersons Medha
Climate change
Patkar and Baba Amte.
 The term mitigation refers to efforts to
cut or prevent the emission of
Blue cross movement : greenhouse gases - limiting the
 Animal welfare is main motive. magnitude of future warming.
 It may also encompass attempts to
Global Warming
remove greenhouse gases from the
 Earth has warmed at an unprecedented
atmosphere.
rate over last hundred years and
 It differs from climate change
particularly over the last two decades.
adaptation, which refers to the actions
 There is also an upsurge in the amount
taken to manage the unavoidable
of extreme weather events, such as
impacts of climate change.
Page 42
 HEALTH & HYGINE

 Average 70 kg man will content the followings in body (in grams)

Water - 41, 400 Mg - 21
Fat - 12,600 Cl - 85
Protein - 12,600 P - 670
Carbohydrate - 300 S - 112
Na - 63 Fe - 3
K - 150 I - 0.014
Ca - 1160

 For body growth, protection and various physiological activities energy

should be derived from food.

Nutrition types :
Carbohydrate
Fat
Protein
Vitamins
Iodidne
water

Types of foods :
a) bodybuilders - Protein - 4.3/ gm
b) energy producers - Carbohydrate - 4.1 / gm
c) stored energy - Fat - 9.3 / gm

Page 1
 HEALTH & HYGIEN

Food materials :
S.N Food Materials Ingradients Uses
o
1. Rice, wheat, sugar, Carbohydrate energy producers
potata
2. Oil, butter, ghee Fat stored energy
3. Egg, milk, soya, Protein bodybuilders
grams, fish, meat
4. Vegetable, meat, fish,
egg Iodidne regulators

5. Fruits, vegetable. Vitamins Protection

6. Water Water Transport medium;

Ingredients in 100 grams of nutritive food :

Carbohydrate Protein Fat
Food materials (gm) (gm) (gm)

Millets 70 10 0

Grams 60 20 0
soya 20 40 20
Fruits, vegetable 10 1 0
milk 3 4 4
egg 0 13 13
meat, fish 0 20 0
ghee 0 0 100
sugar 100 0 0

Page 2
 ZOOLOGY

nuts 20 20 50

Composite food :
 The food which is essential for body growth should be having .
Carbohydrate, Fat > Protein, water & Vitamins.
Indian % man Indian % woman

sedentar Moderate heavy sedentar Moderate heavy

y work work work y work work work
Works
Basal 460 460 460 354 354 354
activities
Non 1220 1220 1220 826 526 526
working
activities
working 750 1100 2200 610 900 1800
activies
Total 2430 2780 3880 1790 2080 2980

BMI - Body Mass Index

BMI = body weight (kg)
height (meter 2)
1) 18.5 - 24 - 9 - correct weight
2) Below 18 - low weight
3) 25 - 30 - excess weight
4) Above 30 - obesity

 Sidha medicine : Agasthiar - Father of sidha medicine

 Ayurvedic medicine : Charaka - Father of Ayurvedic medicine
 Homoeopathy medicine : Samueval hennman - Father of Homoeopathy
medicine

Page 3
 HEALTH & HYGIEN

 Unani medicine : Hippocratus -Father of Unani medicine

 Yoga : Pathanchali - Father of yoga medicine
National Institutes
Siddha - Tamilnadu
Ayurveda - Jaipur
Homeopathy - West Bengal
Unani - Bengaluru, Karnataka
Yoga - Delhi

IMMUNE SYSTEM

Innate / Natural immunity Adaptive/acquired immunity

(Non Specific) (Specific)

Physical Physiological Cellular Cytokine

Skin Acid in stomach WBC’s Viral infected cells
Nucleus Saliva in mouth produce interferon’s

Active Passive

Natural Artificial Natural Artificial

Injection recovery Immunisation Mother to Injection of
an actual disease vaccination 1. Child via placenta immune serum
or milk (Gama globulin)
2. Mother’s milk has
Yellowish fluid colostrums
That has abundant
Antibodies (lgA)

Page 4
 ZOOLOGY

VACCINES
AGE VACCINE

New born boby BCG

15 days Polio
6 th week Tripleantigen
10 th week Tripleantigen+ Polio
14 th week DPT + Polio
9 -12 month Measles
18 - 20 month DPT + Polio
1 - 2 years MMR
2 - 3 years Typhoid
4 - 6 years DT + Polio
10 - years TT + typhoid
16 - years TT + typhoid

Page 5
 BIO-DIVERSITY & ITS CONSERVATION

WORLD WIDE ENVIORNMENT ORGANIZATIONS

 CSD - Commission on Sustainable Development
 WWF - World Wide Fund for nature
 IUCN - International Union for Conservation of nature.

INDIAN ENVIORNMENT ORGANIZATIONS

 MoEF - Ministry of Enviornment of Forests
 CPCB - Central Pollution Control Board
 NGT - National Green Tribunal
 TERI - Tata Energy Research Institute
 BRAI - Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India

Total number of plants in India Total Number of Animals in India :

Totally 81,251 species are in India
Phanarogams plants - 15000 Insects - 60000
Algae - 1676 Mollusca - 5000
Creep plant - 1940 Mammals - 372
Fungi - 12480 Birds - 1228
Bryophytes - 2813 Reptiles - 446
Pteridophytes - 1012 Amphibines - 204
Fishes - 2546

India
 National Animal - Bengal Tiger - Panthera tigris
 National Bird - Peacock - Pavo Crytatus

Page 1
 BIODIVERSITY & ITS CONSERVATION

 National Fruit - Mango - Mangifera indica

 National Tree - Banyan Tree - Ficus Bengalensis
 National Flower - Lotus - Nelumbo neucifera
 Special Animal - Elephant - Elephentiasis Maximus
 National Aquatic - gangetic dolphins - Planista gangestica
animal

Tamil Nadu
 Animal - Nilgiris Tahr
 Tree - Palmyra Palm
 Flower - Gloriosa lily / glory lily
 Bird - Emerald Dove
 Special flower - Kurinchi

National Park Wild life sanctuary

 National Park is an area  Sanctuaries are the places where
dedicated to protect the the animals are well protected
environment, the natural from any disturbance.
objects and the wild life there in
no human habitation is
permitted in main area.
 Harvesting timbers, cultivation,  Harvesting timbers, cultivation,
collection of forest products are collection of forest products are
restricted allowed with permission.
 The national park is cannot be  The wildlife sanctuary can be
changed into wildlife sanctuary changed into national park
 Total number of national park  Total number of wild life
in India is 166 sanctuary in India is 442

Page 2
 ZOOLOGY

MAB – Man And Biosphere

 In India there are 18 biosphere ‘s are there among which in these 11 were
recognized by UNESCO
Sl. World Biosphere
Reserve State Year
No.
1. Nilgiri TamilNadu, Karnataka, 2000
Kerala
2. Gulf of Mannar Tamilnadu 2001
3. Sundarbungs West Bengal 2001
4. Nandadevi Uttarkhand 2004
5. Simlipal Odisha 2008
6. Pachmarhi Madhya Pradesh 2009
7. Nokreh Mehlaya 2009
8. Achanakmar-Amarkantak Chhattisgarh- 2012
Madhyapradesh
9. Nicobar Island Andhaman- Nicobar 2013
10. Agasthyamalai B.R. Kerala – TN 2016

11. Khangchentzonga Sikkim 2018

The other biosphere’s in India

Biosphere State year

Manas Assam 1989

Dipru Assam 1997

Dihang- Dibang Arunachal pradesh 1998

Kangchenjunga Sikkim 2000

Agashthyamalai Kerala, Tamilnadu 2001

Great Rann of Kutch Gujarat 2008

Cold Desert Himachalpradesh 2009

Page 3
 BIODIVERSITY & ITS CONSERVATION

Seshachalam Andhrapradesh 2010

Panna Madhya Pradesh 2011

Part Name Area Year Special

Nilgiri Western ghats 1986 First Bio-spehere
(Karnataka> reserve in India
Tamilnadu> Kerala
Gulf of Mannar In between India & 1989 Marine biosphere
Biosphere Sri lanka reserve in India
Reserves Agashthyamalai Tamilnadu, Kerala, 2001
Western Ghats
Guindy Chennai 1976 Eighth Smallest
national park in
India
Gulf of Mannar Ramnad 1980
marine national
Park
Mukurthi Nilgiri 1982 The park was
created to protect

National its Keystone species,

parks the Nilgiri Tahr

Mudumalai Nilgiri 1940 First Modern
National park in
south India
Indhra Gandhi Coimbatore 1989 First it was called
national Park Annaimalai
National park.
Largest national
park in TamilNadu
Mudumalai (Tiger) Nilgiri 1940
Kalakkadu Tirunelveli 1962 Lion tailed macaque

Page 4
 ZOOLOGY

Mudumalai Tirunelveli 1962 The Kalakkad

wildlife Sanctuary Mundanthurai Tiger
Reserve was created
in 1988 by
combining Kalakad

Wildlife Wildlife Sanctuary.

Sanctuary Point calimere Nagapattinam 1967 Deers

Annamali/ Indhira Coimbatore 1974 Inspite of Indhira

Gandhi Wild life Gandhi remarkable
sanctuary visit the old name of
Annamalai was
changed to Indhira
Gandhi wildlife
sanctuary
Srivilliputhur Virudhunagar 1988 Grizzled squirrels
sanctuary

Sathyamangalam Erode 2008 Largest wildlife

Squirrel Tiger & Wildlife sanctuary in
Wildlife Sanctuary Tamilnadu
Sanctuary Kanyakumari Kanyakumari 2006
Meghamalai Theni 2012 Last wildlife
sanctuary in
Tamilnadu
Vallanadu Tutucorin
Mudumalai Nilgiri 2007
Kalakkadu Tirunelveli 1988
Tiger Annamalai Coimbatore 2006
Reserve parambikkulam

Page 5
 BIODIVERSITY & ITS CONSERVATION

Sathyamangalam Erode 2012 Maximum tiger

resident area

1992 PROJECT ELEPHANT – 4 SANCTUARY

Srivilliputhur Virudhunagar 2002

Elephant
Nilgiri Nilgiri 2003
Sanctuary
coimbatore Coimbatore 2003
Annamali Coimbatore 2003
Conservation Thiruvidaimarudhur Tanjore 2005
Reserves
Bird Vedanthangal Kanchipuram 1936
Sanctuary Kodiyakkarai Nagappatinam 1967
Vetangudi Sivagangai 1977
Moondradaippu Tirunelveli 1977
Pulicat lake Thiruvallur 1980
Moondradaippu Ramnad 1989
Kanchirakulam Ramnad 1989
karikili Kanchipuram 1989
Udhayamarthandapuram Thiruvarur 1991
Vaduvoore Thiruvarur 1991
Kundhankulam Tirunelveli 1994
Vellode Erode 1997
Melselvanoore Ramnad 1998
Vaduvore Tanjore 1999
Viralimalai Trichi
Kalaperampur Tanjore
Suchindram Teroor Kanyakumari

Page 6
 HUMAN DISEASES

Disease
Disease is a condition of the body or a part of it in which functions are disturbed
Human Diseases

Congential Diseases Acquired Diseases

a) Infectious
b) Deficiency
c) Allergies
d) Degenerative
Communicable Diseases Non Communicable Diseases

1. Bacteria Deficiency Degenerative

2. Virus 1. Vitamin 1. Heart
3. Protozoa 2. Proteins 2 Brain
4. Fungi 3.Digestive
5. Helminth 4.Lungs
5. Kidney
6.Eye
1. Bacteria :
Diseases Causative agent

Thyphoid Salmonella typhosa

Tetanus Clostridium tetani
Cholera Vibrio cholera
Syphilis Troponema pallidum
Pneumonia Diplococcus pneumonia
Gonorrhoea Nesseria gonorrhoeae

Page 1
 HUMAN DISEASES

Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae

Plague Bacillus yersinia pestis
Tuberculosis Mucobacterium
Whooping cough tuberculosis
Meningitis Berdetall pertussis
Diptheira Neisseria meningitides
Cornebacterium
diptheria

2. Virus:
Virus Family
HIV virus Retrovirus
Chicken pox Orthomyzovirus
Influenze Paramyxovirus
Measles Paramyxovirus
Mumps Togavirus
German Measles Enterovirus
Poliomyelitis Rabdovirus
Rabies Rabdovirus

3. Fungi :
Name of Disease Causative Agent
Dermatitis Epidermophyton
Candiasis Candido albigans
Liverrosis Asper flavus
Allergy Asper gillus
Drug Claviceps purpuria

Page 2
 ZOOLOGY

4. Protozoa :
Name of Causative agent Vector Parts affected/
Disease symptoms
African Trypanosome gambiense Tse – tse Blood and nervous
sleeping tissue.
sickness Entamoeba histolytica --- Pain in abdomen.

Amoebic Leishmania donovani Sand fly Spleen and liver

Dysentery enlarge and high
fever develops.
Kala Azar Plasmodium sp Female Periodical attack
. anopheles of high fever, pain
mosquito joints
Malaria i) p. vivax ” accompanied by
ii) p. falciparum ” chill heavy
iii) p. malariae ” perspiration and
iv) p. ovale ” fast pulse.

5. Helminth :
Name of Disease Causitive agent vector Parts affected/
symptoms

Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides ---- loose motions.

Elephantiasis Wuchereria bancrofti Female Anaemia, abnormal
or filariasis culex enlargement and
mosquito swelling of legs.
snail
Schistosomiasis Schistosoma pig Itching rachesaches
haematobium fever and eosinophilia
General weakness
Taenuasis Tenia solium

Page 3
 HUMAN DISEASES

6. Vitamin : VIT – A :

Name Discovered Deficiency

Retinol Maccallum 1913 Xerophthalmia
Antixerophthalmic vitamin Nyctalopia
anti infection vitamin Dermatosis
Keratomalacia

VIT – D :

Name Discovered Deficiency

Calciferol, antirachitic, Maccullum 1922 Osteomalacia, Rickets, tetany
Sunshine Vit

VIT – E :

Name Discovered Deficiency

Tocopherol, Mattil & Conklin; 1920 Muscular atrophy
Antisterility Sterility

VIT – K :

Name Discovered Deficiency

Antihamorrbagic Dam 1935 Haemorrhage due to defective blood
coagulation

VIT – B Complex

Vitamins Name Discovered Deficiency

B1 Thiamine Janson & donath 1926 Beri-beri
B2 Riboflavin War burgh & Christian Chilosis, keratosis
1932
B3 Pantothenic acid Williams; 1933 Nervous disorders

Page 4
 ZOOLOGY

B5 Nicotinic acid, Kesal 1935 pellagra

niacin

B7 Biotin Bateman 1916 Dermatits, thickening

of skin
B9 Folic acid Day Nutritional disorder,
Retarded growth
B12 Cyanocobalamin Smith & parker 1948 Megaloblastic or
or cobalamin pernicious anaemia,
hyperglycaemia
Vit C Ascorbic acid Szent gyorgi 1928 Scurvy, malformation
of teeth, bones and
gums

7. Proteins :

Diseases Causes
Marasmus Weight loss in children, dysentery, skin is coated over body.
kwashiorkor Muscles become thin face and stomach becomes bulgy

8. Heart :

Diseases Causes
Myocardial infraction Death
Heart pain Due to oxygen Deficiency
Arteriosclerosis Blood arteries swallon in size
Heart block Waves do not pass to ventricles.
Blood pressure Averge 120 / 80 mm hg / by : Sphygmomanometer.

Page 5
 HUMAN DISEASES

9. Brain
Diseases Causes
Amnesia Memory loss
Parkinson Paralysis
Huntington chorea Body movement paralysed (Third generation )
Block Blood vessel collapse
Head ache Brain membrane swelling
Herpes zoster Skin disease
Alzheimer Continuous memory loss
Epilepsy Excessive function of CNS
Edema Blood leak in blood vessels

10. Digestive :
Diseases Causes
Peptic ulcer More secretion of Hcl
Herenea (hernia) Busrtruptuned (pain)
Appendix Small intestinal bulge
Gall bladder stone Stone formation above 40 years
Hepatitis Malfunction of liver

11.; Lungs :
Diseases Causes
Pneumonia Blood stroge in alveoli
1. virus
2. bacteria

T.B 1. bacteria

Bronchitis Shrunken alveoli

Chronic Bronchitis Swallon alveoli
Asthma Shrunken bronchi

Page 6
 ZOOLOGY

12. Kidney :
Diseases Causes
Kidney malfunction Pressure increased
Kidney stones Pain
Diabetes mellitus Polyurea, polydypsia, polyphagia
(insulin dependent)

13. Eye :
Name of Diseases Effects / symptoms
Myopia Short sightedness (Bioconcave lens)
Hypermetropia Far sightness (Biconvex lens)
Cataract Lens becomes opaque - Normal vision in hampered,
blindness may be caused

Agencies involved in Control of Diseases

The following are involved in control of diseases:
 National Leprosy Eradication Programme (NLEP) – to eradicate leprosy
 Massive Polio immunisation campaign to arrest polio completely
 National Tuberculosis Programme – NTP to eradicate Tuberculosis
 National Filaria Control Programme (NFCP) – to eradicate Filaria
 National Malaria Eradication Programme (NMEP) – to stamp out Malaria
 The National Immunisation programme in India – recommends Measles
vaccination MMR between 9 and 15 Months of age
 Global immunisation programme for children to protect them against six
preventable diseases DPT, Polio, Tuber Culosis and Measles.
 The state AIDS cell started functioning in Tamilnadu from 1990 to create
awareness about AIDS.

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 HUMAN DISEASES

14. Latest Disease:

Origin and Year Pathogen

Disease Causes Affected Areas
Severe Acute Fever of 380C SARS Corona
Respiratory (1000F) or higher virus (SARS –
Syndrome and shortness of Southern China 2002 COV)
(SARS) breath
Zika Virus 1. Increase Zika forest of 1947 Aedes
neurologic Uganda Mosquitoes
complications such as
2. Infection A.aegypti
during A.albopictus
pregnancy
cause
microcephaly
in infants
Ebola Virus  Decrease the West Africa 2013-2015 Zaire Ebola
(EBOV) function of Virus
Liver and
Kidneys
 Highrisk of
death
Dengue Fever  Muscle and Across world Since Aedes
(Dengue joint second Mosquitoes
Virus)  Higher Fever world war principally
A.aegypti
Swine  Fever 1918, In Swine in
influenza  Muscle pains India – Fluenza Virus
 Respiratory 2015 (SIV)
problems

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