LEA 6

COMPARATIVE POLICE
SYSTEM
A Compendium

RHEM RICK N. CORPUZ, Ph. D

This study covers the different transnational crimes, it nature and effects
as well as the organization of the law enforcement set-up in the
Philippines and its comparison of selected police models and their relation
with Interpol and UN bodies in the campaign against transnational crimes
and in the promotion of world peace.
Comparative Police system
It is the science and art of investigating and comparing the police system of
nations. It covers the study of police organizations, trainings and methods of
policing of various nations.

Comparative Criminal justice

It is subfield of the study of Criminal Justice that compares justice system worldwide. Such
study can take a descriptive, historical, or political approach .it studies and differences in
structure, goals, punishment and emphasis on rights as well as the history and political stature
of different systems.
Comparative criminal justice examines the differences between justice in different kinds
of societies and communities. Those who specialize in such a field are called comparativists. By
studying the differences in approach, methodology and effectiveness, they hope to discover
better ways of enforcing laws and ensuring justice for more people.

Police System vs. Criminal justice System

With these influences of societal system, Police systems and Criminal justice Systems
around the world varies depending on the legal system. With the exceptions of Japan and the
Common law nations, few countries hold their police officers accountable for violations of civil
rights. In socialist and Islamic countries, the police hold enormous political and religious
powers. In fact, un such places, crime is always seen as political crime or co-occurring religious
problem.

Comparative Court System

Court systems of the world are of two types:
1. Adversarial, where the accused in innocent until proven guilty. The U.S. adversarial
system is unique in the world. No other nation, not even the U.K. places as much
emphasis upon determination of factual guilt in courtroom as the U.S. does.
2. Inquisitorial, where the accused is guilty until proven innocent or mitigated, have
more secret procedures. Outside the U.S. most trials are concerned with legal guilt
where everyone knows the offender did it, and the purpose is to get the offender to
apologize, own up to their responsibility, argue for mercy, or suggest an appropriate
sentence for themselves.

Where lesser rights are granted to the accused and the written law is taken as gospel
and subject to little interpretation.

Comparative Correctional system

Correctional systems worldwide can be easily distinguished by whether they support
corporal punishment (beatings) or not. Some so-called “civilized’’ countries claim they are better
than the U.S. because they don’t perform death penalty but actually practice such corporal
punishments as beatings and whippings. Nations that practice corporal punishment do tend,
however, to have less of a correctional overcrowding problem. Probation and parole, where
they exist cross-culturally, are applied to the country’s citizens, and not for foreigners or
immigrants.

Comparative Juvenile Justice System

Juvenile justice systems vary widely. Scotland has the toughest system, regularly
sentencing juveniles to harsh boot camps with a strict military regimen and force labor.
Germany has a juvenile justice system similar to the U.S., where more emphasis is upon
education as punishment.

MODERNIZATION vs. COLONIZATION THESIS

The idea that technology produce common effects which tend to make all
nations increasingly similar is the MODERNIZATION THESIS (Shelley 1981). In this
view, the developing countries are destined to go through the same crime and
control patterns as the developed nations have gone through. This pattern mainly
involves a skyrocketing increase in property crime, the hall mark of industrial society. It also

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involves more female emancipation, and certain problems arise from this, not the least of
which is a backlash of male violence. THE IMPLICATION OF THE MODERNIZATION
THESIS is that developed countries, like the U.S., ought to reach out, and help
developing countries manage or regulate the inevitable stages they will have to go
through.

Opposed to this idea is the UNDERDEVELOPMENT, OR COLONIZATION THESIS

(Summer 1982) which holds that it is the more advance, developed nations in the
world which cause crime in dependent Third World nations. Corporations, for example,
are allowed to pillage raw materials and resources in the third World. Likewise, most of the
developed nations do not engage in free. Instead, they subsidize their farmers and
producers at home, prohibit the import cheap, foreign-made products, and make
their money by saturating foreign markets with luxury goods that create a sense of
rising expectation or unreachable aspirations in Third World.

There is little debate, however, over the importance of URBANIZATION (GROWTH).

Comparative criminologists believe urbanization is the primarily cause of violent crime in
any society (Archer and Gartner 1984). When citizens migrate to the cities, kinship
(relationship) and community ties are broken, and a sense of anonymity (secrecy)
and impersonality develops. Some of this impersonality is inherent to the nature of
INDUSTRIAL and BUREAUCRATIC WORK, but the problem in the cities appears to be the
problem of INCOME INEQUALITY, where vast numbers of poor people live in fairy close
concentration to wealthier people, or those who are on the verge of “making it” economically.

Legal traditions
Legal traditions play an important role in the development of international law and
justice. Comparativists for criminal justice study these traditions with the intent of finding
a way to combine the views of different traditions towards a single view that allows
for the successful development of international law . Many comparativists believe that
the more states with similar legal views the more likely it is to be able to create international
laws that please all. Reichel (2005) identifies four major legal traditions that each have their
own respective body of laws:
 Common law is found particularly in countries that are current or former members of
the British Empire.
 Civil law countries include most of continental Europe and various states in South
America and Africa.
 Socialist law is essentially civil law with major modifications from Marxist-Leninist
ideology. It is currently only used in China and a few other contemporary Communist
states, but has had enormous influence on Russia and the former USSR.
 Islamic law is religiously-inspired law used in Muslim countries.

1. Common law systems

These are also known as Anglo-American justice, and exist, in most
English-Speaking countries of the world, such as the U.S., England, Australia and
New Zealand. They are distinguish by a strong adversarial system where lawyers interpret
and judges are bound by precedent. Common law systems are distinctive in the significance
they attached to precedent (The importance of previously decided cases). They primarily rely
upon oral system of evidence in which the public trial is a main focal point

2. Civil law systems

Also known as Continental justice or Romano-Germanic justice, and
practiced throughout most of the European Union as well as elsewhere, in places
such as Sweden, Germany, France, and Japan. They are distinguishing by a strong
inquisitional system where fewer rights are granted to the accused, and the written
law is taken as gospel and subject to little interpretation. For example, a French maxim
goes like this: “IF A JUDGE KNOWS THE ANSWER, HE MUST NOT BE PROHIBITED
FROM ACHIEVING IT BY UNDUE (Unjustifiable) ATTENTION TO REGULATIONS OF
PROCEDURE AND EVIDENCE.” By contrast, THE COMMON LAW METHOD IS FOR A
JUDGE TO AT LEAST SUSPEND BELIEF UNTIL THE SPORTING EVENT OF A TRIAL IS

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OVER. legal scholarship is much more sophisticated and elitist in civil law system ,as opposed
to the more democratic comm9on law countries where just about anybody can get into law
school. Romano-Germanic systems are founded on the basis of natural law, which is respect for
tradition and custom. The sovereign, or leaders, of a civil law system are considered above the
law, as opposed to the common law notion that nobody is above the law.

3. Socialist systems
These are also known as MARXIST-LENINIST JUSTICE, and exist in many places, such
as AFRICA AND ASIA, where there has been a communist revolution or the remnants of one.
They are distinguished by procedures designed to rehabilitate and to retrain people
into fulfilling their responsibilities to the state. It is the ultimate EXPRESSION OF
POSITIVE LAW, designed to move the state forward toward the perfectibility of
state and mankind. It is also primarily characterized by ADMINISTRATIVE LAW,
where non legal official make most of the decisions . For example, in a socialist state,
neither judges nor lawyers are allowed to make law . LAW is the same as POLICY,
and an orthodox Marxist view is that eventually, the law will not be necessary.

4. Islamic systems
Are also known as Muslim or Arabic justice, and derive all their procedures and
practices from interpretation of the Koran. There are exemptions, however. Various tribes
(such as Siwa in the desert of North Africa) are descendants of the ancient Greeks and
PRACTICE URRF (the law of tradition) rather than the harsher Shariah punishment.
Islamic system is general are characterized by THE ABSENCE OF POSITIVE LAW (the use of
law to move societies forward toward some progressive future ) and are BASED MORE ON
THE CONCEPT OF NATURAL JUSTICE (crime are considered acts of injustice that conflict
with tradition). RELIGION plays an important role in Islamic system, so much a role that most
nations of this type are THEOCRACIES, where legal rule and religious rule go together.

Note: Theocracies - Government or community govern by a god or by priests.

Each society also has its own customary law or tribal traditions. Many parts of Africa, for
example, have reverted back to a TRIBAL SYSTEM because they could not accommodate
their heritage of colonialism, which essentially involved the problem of mixed Common, Civil,
Socialist and Islamic influences. Tribal justice system tends to be characterized by
arrest without trial and other summary procedures.
In other parts of the world, such as Latin America, the problem has been
MODERNIZATION. Advance in technology and the profits of drug crime have
outpaced the capability of western-oriented justice systems, and what would
normally be a trend toward decriminalization has become a haphazard set of legal
practices that are sometimes lenient and sometimes harsh. TRADITIONALISM (A
deep respect for tradition, especially for cultural or religious practices), COLONIALISM (a
policy in which a country rules other nations and develops trade for its own benefit),
MODERNIZATION, and the increasing tendency for crime to become transnational in an
international marketplace form the

COMPONENTS OF THE GLOBALIZATION PROBLEM IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE.

Each type of system – Common, Civil, and Socialist, Islamic-has LOCAL VARIATION. Even in
English-speaking countries, for example, there is variation. CANADIAN JUSTICE places more
emphasis upon the right to a fair trial, free from prejudicial publicity. In CANADA, the public
and the media are usually banned from the courtroom , and there is little interest in
crime news. In ENGLAND, there is more emphasis upon fairness in sentencing, and making
sure the guilty punished. England police dossiers along with two types of lawyers (solicitors
and barristers) and two types of courts (Magistrate and Crown) help ensure this.

Three (3) basic functions of criminal justice system

 Policing
 Adjudication
 Corrections

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Punishment
People who study comparative criminal justice study different forms and use of
punishment across societies, including capital punishment. FIFTY-NINE COUNTRIES
retain the death penalty as reported in 2007. Comparativists study the different ways in which
execution is carried out across the world including HANGING, SHOOTING, BEHEADING,
INJECTION, ELECTROCUTION, AND EVEN STONING . COMPARATIVISTS find that in
many developing countries such as Iran, Indonesia, Belarus, and many others, that violent
methods of execution such as hanging beheading, shooting, and stoning are much more
common ways of carrying out the death penalty, and in many cases the only ways. However in
western culture as well as developed countries such as the United States less brutal execution
such as lethal injection is utilized. Even prison sentences can come harshly. In many countries
such as Burma a person can be sentenced to prison for merely disagreeing with the
government. Presumably ridiculous sentences such as multiple life sentences or sentences of
hundreds, even thousands of years are meant to prohibit the chance of parole in the future.
Although it may seem preposterous, western cultures carry out the same type of sentencing.
Even though similar sentences are used across the globe leniency is varied widely between
societies. Many governments such as the one mentioned above in Burma provide swift and
heavy punishment to assert their roles of power.

International Criminal Justice

It involves the study and descriptions of one country’s law, criminal procedure, or justice
process (Erika Fairchild). Comparative criminal justice system attempts to build on the
knowledge of criminal justice in one country by investigating and evaluating, in terms of
another country, culture, or institution.

International crime
Defined as crimes against the peace and security of mankind (Adler, Mueller, and
Laufer, 1994). The UN has identified the following as international crimes.
 Aggression (by one state against another)
 Threat of aggression
 Genocide (destroying a national ,ethnic, racial, religious group)
 Terrorism
 Drug trafficking

Model system
Model system is used to describe the countries being use as topics of discussion.
These countries are chosen not because they are greater than the others but because they are
the focused of comparison being studied.

Why compare systems and issues in criminal justice?

According to Harry Damner there are many reasons why we need to compare but the
basic reasons are:
 To benefit from the experience of others
 To broaden our understanding of the different cultures and approaches to problems
 To help us deal with the many transnational crime problems that plague our world
today.

Four (4) types of societies

The following are the four types of societies in the world that comparativists study:

1. Folk-communal societies are also called primitive societies.

A folk-communal societies has little codification of law ,no specialization among police
, and a system of punishment that just lets things go for a while without attention until
things become too much ,then harsh , barbaric punishment is resorted to. Classic Eastern
tribes, and Puritan settlement in North America (with the Salem” witch trials”)

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2. Urban-commercial societies, which rely on trade as the essence of their market
system.
An urban-commercial societies has civil law (some standards and customs are written
down), specialized police forces (some for religious offenses, others for enforcing the king’s
law), and punishment is inconsistent, sometimes harsh, sometimes lenient.
Most of Continental Europe developed along this path.

3. Urban –industrial societies, which produce most of the goods and service they
needs without government interference.
An urban-industrial society not only has codified laws(statutes that prohibit ) but
laws that prescribe good behavior, police become specialized in how to handle properties
crimes, and the system of punishment is run on market principles of creating incentives and
disincentives . England and the U.S. followed this positive legal path.
4. Bureaucratic-societies are modern post-industrial societies where the emphasis
is upon technique or the “technologizing” of everything, with the government.
A bureaucratic society has a system of laws (along with armies of lawyers), police
who tend to keep busy handling political crime and terrorism, and a system of punishment
characterized by over criminalization and overcrowding. The U.S. and perhaps only eight other
nations fit the bureaucratic pattern. Juvenile delinquency is a phenomenon that occurs in a
bureaucratic society.

Some people also talk about a fifth type: Post-modern society, where the emphasis is
upon the meaning of words and the deconstruction of institutions.
Developing countries tend to be lumped into the first two (1) and (2) types, and the
study of culture becomes more important in these contexts. Developed countries tend to be the
last two (3) and (4) types, and the study of structure becomes more important. The study of
culture involves the study of customs and folkways of the people. The study of culture involves
the study of institutions, like economic and political system.

Comparative Research Methods (The Need for innovative policing)

Theories and practices in law enforcement have been compared in several studies under
diverse circumstances, the goal is to test whether the theory and practice in policing needs
innovation to meet the demands of the present trends in crime fighting.
Comparative research is usually carried out by the following:
A. “safari” method (a researcher visits another country) or “collaborative” method (the
researcher communicates with a foreign researcher).
Published works tend to fall into three categories:
 Single-culture studies(the crime problem of a single foreign country is
discussed )
 Two-cultured studies (the most common type)
 Comprehensive textbook often requires an historical perspective since the
phenomena under study are seen as having developed under unique social,
economic, and political structures.
B. Historical-comparative method the most often employed by researchers. It is
basically an alternative to both quantitative and qualitative research methods that is
sometimes called historiography or holism.
The examination of crime and its control in the comparative context often requires
historical perspective since the phenomena under study are seen as having developed under
unique social, economic, and political structures.

Note: On the other hand, whatever method used in comparative research in this subject
matter, one thing is evident – police systems are now moving towards innovative law
enforcement.

Countries with lesser or no crime (Model Police Systems)

The basis of modeling police system is the continental and police system. Continental
policing is traditional in nature as it based its crime control efficiency to the number of arrests

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and people being put to jail for punishment. The modern system uses measurement of crime
control efficiency and effectiveness based on absence of crime or low crime rate.
Hence, on account of historical findings on crime volume, the following are hereby
considered Model Police Systems.

1. Switzerland
For many years used to have travel brochures saying “there is no crime in Switzerland “,
and criminologist were stumped on why this was so, whether because of the high rate of
firearm ownership or the extensive welfare system. It turned out that the Swiss (along with
some other welfare nations, like Sweden) were not reporting their entire crime rate. However, it
was true that their crime rate was fairly low.

Reasons of having low crime rates:

 They did a remarkable job in managing their underclass populations, the poor people
who live in the ghettos and slums.
 Swiss crime controls highly effective in using an “iron fist, velvet glove “approach toward
those who commits crime and come from the bottom echelons of Swiss society. For
example, when a poor person commits a crime, the government goes to work analyzing
the family. Then, after some punishment (which the offender frequently agrees with as
deserved), a long-term treatment plan is put into effect to raise that family out of
poverty.

2. Japan
Another country with an interestingly low crime rate is Japan where the crime rates are
not necessarily that low, but stable and resistant to fluctuating spikes.
Some reasons of having low crime rates are the characteristics of this country which
includes:
 Community policing
 A patriarchal family system,
 The importance of higher education ,
 And the way business serve as surrogate families.

Asian societies are also “shame-based” rather than “guilt-based” as Western societies
are. For example, it is unthinkable to commit a crime in such places because of the shame it
would bring upon one’s family and the business or corporation with which that family is
associated with.

3. Ireland
Is another place with an unexpectedly low crime rate .despite a serious unemployment
problem, the presence of large urban ghettos, and a crisis with religious terrorism, the Irish
pattern of urban crime is no higher than its pattern of rural crime.
The key reason of having low crime rate is the factor that appears to be:
a. A sense of hope and confidence among the people legitimacy surveys, for example show
that 86% of more of the population believe that the lo9cal authorities are well-skilled and
doing everything they can.
b. People felt like they had high degree of popular participation in crime control

4. Egypt
The Siwa Oasis in Egypt is another place with little or no crime. The population of
23,000 consists of 11 tribes who are the descendants of ancient Greeks, and it is sa8id that
Plato himself fashioned his model of perfect government in the Republic there,
The inhabitants practice a moderate form of Islamic justice, rejecting Shariah
punishment and embracing Urrf law (the law of tradition). Conflicts are resolved by a tribal
council, and there are no jails or prisons. The last known crime occurred around 1950, and was
an act of involuntary manslaughter. The typical punishment for wrong doings is social
ostracization (shunning). This type of society is an excellent example of the folk-communal or
informal justice system.

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Seven (7) Theories of Comparative Criminology
According to Schneider (2001), the various theories that exist with empirical support are
the following theories of comparative Criminology:
1. Alertness to crime theory is that as a nation develops, people’s alertness to crime is
heightened, so they report more crime to police and also demand the police become
more effective at solving crime problems.
2. Economic or migration theory is that crime everywhere is the result of unrestrained
migration and overpopulation in urban areas such as a ghettos and slums.
3. Opportunity theory is that along with higher standards of living, victims become more
careless of their belongings, and opportunities for committing crime multiply.
4. Democratic theory is based on the event of when a greater number of children are being
born, because as these baby booms grow up, delinquent subcultures develop out of the
adolescent identity crisis.
5. Deprivation holds that progress comes along with rising expectations, and people at the
bottom develop unrealistic expectations while people at the top don’t see themselves
rising fast enough.
6. Modernization theory sees the problem as society becoming too complex.
7. Theory of anomie and synomie (the latter being a term referring to social cohesion on
values ),suggest that progressive lifestyles and norms result in the disintegrations of
older norms that one’s held people together(anomie)

Variable affecting System Comparison on police System

Many comparativists romanticize the folk-communal society for its low crime rates as
well as the way most quarrels and conflicts are settled privately. However, folk societies are
also known for ”lumping it” which is the process of letting things go on longer until it’s too
much to tolerate anymore. Nonetheless, folk societies work very hard to avoid the over
criminalization common to modern bureaucratic societies.
The most frequently studies variable in comparative police system and criminal justice in
urbanization, or the process of internal migration from the countryside to the cities. It is
suspected that urbanization dissolves family ties, creates cultures of poverty, and produce a
stabilized criminal underworld consisting of well-defined criminal career pathways. Also of
importance are the variables of colonization and underdevelopment, as these processes of
globalization shape underdog ideologies among exploited third world people which come back
in form of terrorism against the more developed countries. However, an event (like urbanization
or colonization) is not the cause of crime if it occurs when crime rates are falling.

Types of police in the world

The following are some of the types of police
1. Uniformed police
2. Detectives
3. Auxiliary
4. Special police
5. Military police
6. Religious police
7. Border police
8. Transport police

Difference between centralized from decentralized system of law enforcement

Decentralized law enforcement
Decentralized police refers to a system where police administrations and operations are
independent from one state to another. It is more applicable to countries with federal
government.
In many countries, particularly those with a federal system of government, there may be
several police or police-like organizations, each serving’s different levels of government and
enforcing different subsets of the applicable law. The United States has highly decentralized and
fragmented system law enforcement, with over 17,000 state and local law enforcement
agencies, Germany and UK has also decentralized law enforcement agencies.

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Countries with centralized policing systems
Simply means on police force operating in a country.
Some countries, such as Chile, Israel, Philippines, France, and Austria use a centralized system
of policing. A country with only one recognized police force which operates entire that country
is called centralized police. Thus, the Philippines is an example of centralized police because the
Philippine National Police has one central office with many regional, provincial and local
branches throughout the country.

COMPARATIVE LAW ENFORCEMENT

After we have discussed the effect of globalization and Interpol’s role in policing the
world, let us now look into some police systems and models which their methods can be
adopted in our own system for effective modern day policing.
As stated earlier, the examination of crime and its control in the comparative context
often requires a historical perspective since the phenomena under study are seen as having
developed under unique social, economic, and political structures. Hence, the method most
often employed by researchers is the historical-comparative method.
To summarize the historical-comparative method, it is basically an alternative to both
qualitative research methods that is sometimes called historiography or holism. In
historiography, there are at least eight ways to do history: the great man approach: the
dialectic approach: the evolutionary approach; the crisis of civilization approach; historical
forces approach; the geographic factors approach; the conflict or “who won” approach; and the
serendipity or accidental discovery approach. In holism (which is term that describes when a
whole gives meaning to parts,) there is an emphasis upon inductive inference from description,
which is similar to Max Weber’s notion of types that are general to many cases. It should be
noted that historical-comparative method is tied to the origins of sociology. Patterns, trends,
and syndromes are the words most often used in comparative law enforcement and criminal
justice with the same meaning as ideal-types.

What can the Philippines National Police adopt?

As to organization, decentralization of regional or city police office that can financially
support its operation. This is to do away with the scenario that the fault of manila police is the
fault of the entire officers of PNP.

As to responsibilities, the specific functions of officer assigned the Koban and Chyuzaizho
can be applied hence, the new PNP officers can be assigned to
A. Gather data related to his jurisdiction (for city police officer)like list of people who are
 Working late at night who might be help as witnesses to crime
 Normally cooperative with the police
 Not engage in formal employment (stand by)
 Owns gun or swords
 With mental illness
 Old living in the area alone who should be visited periodically
 Leaders of legitimate organizations
 Leaders of illegitimate organizations
 Total populations
 List of households, rented homes and apartments

B. Conduct the following (for provincial or municipal police officer) like

 Visit each house twice a year to be acquainted and determine their need related to law
enforcement
 Seminars among barangay leaders related to peace and order

As to the general entry qualification, height must not be requirement (from UK law
enforcement) when the applicant has an above average intelligent Quotient.
As to participation of the civilian, accreditation of individuals who are not members
of the PNP but with specialization in the fields related to law enforcement is encouraged.
For example, priest pastors and ministers may be involved in values training of the
PNP. Biologist, Chemist, Ballisticians and other related professions maybe accredited to help in
law enforcement exercises.

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 Another organization and supervision, the PNP may be separated and be fully
controlled and supervize3d by the National Police Commission without interference of local
executives.
For example, a City Chief of Police could have some position as a City Mayor. The former
is in charge with peace and order and law enforcement concerns while the latter is more on the
administration9f the city’s concern not covering the concerns of the chief police .Coordination
and cooperation are imperative in this recommendation. This idea will empower the PNP to
initiate a more constructive and practical ways to improve peace and order. This
recommendation may also reduce the incidence of taking orders from the whims and caprices
of corrupt politicians, example is the Maguindanao Massacre.

Different Police Global Organization

The different police international association in the world is
 ASEAN Chiefs of Police
 Europol
 IACP
 Interpol
 UN policing

GLOBALIZATION
The present era is said to be an age of globalization. Globalization is a broad term and
encompasses varied perspectives. It refers to the global outlook of different nations of
the world coming closer and joining hands in terms of economy, education, society
and politics. Globalization empowers a view for the entire world as a whole irrespective of the
national identity and thus globalization has narrowed the world by bringing people of all nations
closer. 
Enabling people of one nation to communicate with those of the other nation(s) is the
biggest achievement in terms of globalization and development. The culture, trade, business,
ethics and conduct of one group in one part of the world can influence others may or may not
be of same nation. It is irrespective of the time and space and language bindings as these
communications are in terms of trade, social internet forums. The process of globalization is
therefore, an amalgamation of interaction and integration among different groups of people,
various organizations and governments of different nations. This communication is supported
by information technology (What is globalization?). The interaction not only influences people
and their welfare in terms of civilization, traditions, political structure, financial growth and
affluences but also affects the environment as a whole. 
Gradually globalization has defined its terminologies in all aspects of human civilization
by making the countries formulate to the policies for open economies both, domestically and
internationally (What is globalization?). With the implementation of free market economic
systems, path is paved for mounting their own industrious potentials and creating multitude
openings for international trade and investment. This served as an opportunity for the foreign
markets, factories, production and marketing measures with people belonging to different parts
of the world. 
I. What is globalization?
It is a process of interaction and integration among people, companies and
governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and
investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the
environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on
human physical well-being in societies around the world.
It is a package of transnational flows of people, production, investment,
information, ideas and authority.
The term globalization refers to the process of global integration of the
economies of nations by allowing the unrestricted flow of goods, services,
investments and currencies between countries. Nation states pursued globalization in the
hope that this would lead to prosperity.
In economic context, it refers to the reduction and removal of barriers between national
borders in order to facilitate the flow of goods, capital services and labor…although
considerable barriers remain to the flow of labor.

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 Globalization (or globalisation) refers to the increasing global relationships of
culture, people, and economic activity. It is generally used to refer to economic
globalization:
1. The global distribution of the production of goods and services, through reduction of
barriers to international trade such as tariffs, export fees, and import quotas and
2. The reduction of restrictions on
the movement of capital and on
investment.
3. Globalization may contribute to
economic growth in developed
and developing countries
through increased
specialization and the
principle of comparative
advantage.
The term can also refer to the
transnational circulation of ideas,
languages, and popular culture.
Some have argued that a form of
globalization began with the rise of
trade links between Sumer and the
Indus Valley Civilization in the third
millennium B.C. In the recent decades,
globalization has made large
advances.
Globalization refers to the integration of economies around the world contingent
on the removal of restrictions on trade and finance. Globalization also refers to the
exchange of cultural ideas. The effects of globalization reach all countries from the richest
to the poorest.
Alison Brysk in a digest paper stated that Globalization is the growing
interpenetration of states, markets, communication, and ideas. It is one of the
leading characteristics of the contemporary world. International norms and
institutions for the protection or policing human rights are more developed than at
any previous point in history, while global civil society fosters growing avenues of
appeal for citizens repressed by their own state.
But assaults on fundamental human dignity continue, and the very blurring of borders
and rise of transnational actors that facilitate the developed of a global human rights regime
may also be generating new sources of human rights abuse.
With Brysk’s view on globalization and human rights, a more broadly articulated and
accepted way of protecting these rights is with in the hands of law enforcements Agencies in
the world. The rights of individuals have come to depend ever more on a broad array of global
system of policing and forces, from the local to the INTERPOL.

While there are also opportunities connected with the globalization process,
these are often overshadowed by the one-sided pursuit of economic growth and
global competition.
In the Figure, FIVE FORMS OF GROWTH are identified as leading to unsustainable
development. The whole process is fueled by globalization.
A. JOBLESS GROWTH results when economic output increases amidst high
unemployment and underemployment.
B. RUTHLESS GROWTH is forcing millions of Filipinos to live in poverty, constraining
them from developing as full human beings. Meanwhile, a few individual
billionaires/millionaires enjoy an income level equivalent to the combined income of the
millions in poverty. Globally, for example, the 1999 UNDP Human Development Report
estimated that the $140 billion combined asset of Bill Gates and the two other top
owners of Microsoft is more than the combined gross national product (GNP) of the 43
least economically developed countries and their 600 million people. 
C. FUTURELESS GROWTH - results from the destruction of nature through improper
mining practices, use of pesticides, insufficient and improper environmental planning for

10
 the construction of dams and a range of other ecologically unsound development
projects.
D. ROOTLESS GROWTH refers to the cultural decay and loss of meaning and identity
which often accompany economic growth fueled by globalization and the entrance of
materialistic lifestyles of industrialized countries.
E. VOICELESS GROWTH is economic growth racing ahead of direct human rights and
democratic processes and participatory governance essential to modern societies.
To these five undesirable forms of growth can be added a sixth. MEANINGLESS
GROWTH results when some combination of the other five forms of undesirable
growth blocks the creativity of the human spirit. The resulting loss in creativity,
perspective, meaning, hope, and morality necessarily expresses itself in suicide,
violence, drug addiction, crime, corruption and other social ills.
II. Rationale
With globalization goes transnational crimes like terrorism, drug trafficking, money
laundering and human smuggling. Transnational crimes across borders and the need for
bilateral and international cooperation become imperative . It is also essential to study trends in
policing because the speed by which changes affect the lives of people disturbs traditional
values and social arrangements which used to unite people in pursuing common goals in the
past. This state of anomie (as merton termed it) or “normlessness” brings about a new breed of
crimes which the police normally is not prepared to face. As we compare our own police
system with other models we would be able to gain insights into how to deal with transnational
or borderless crimes. Besides, best practices may be adopted from other police models in order
to make policing in the Philippines more current and effective.

How to measure globalization?

 Goods and services
 Labor/people
 Capital
 Technology

III. Globalization and Law Enforcement

Every nation has its own law enforcement agency called the POLICE. One thing is
common, the police symbolize the presence of a civil body politics in everyday life; they
symbolize the capacity of the state to intervene and the concern of the state for the affairs of
citizenry. It is the therefore timely to discuss the connection of globalization to policing.

Effects of Globalization on Law Enforcement

Every law enforcement agency in the world is expected to be the protector of the
people’s rights. Globalization has great impact on every human right.
The emergence of an “international regime” for state security and protection of
human rights, growing transnational social movement networks, increasing consciousness and
information politics have the potential to address both traditional and emerging forms of law
violations. Open international system should free individuals to pursue their rights, but large
numbers of people seem to be suffering from both long standings state repression and new
denials of rights linked to transnational forces like international terrorism and other acts against
humanity.
The challenge of globalization is that unaccountable flows of migration and open
markers present new threats, which are not amenable to state-based human rights
regimes, while the new opportunities of global information and institutions are
insufficiently accessible and distorted by persistent state intervention.

Threats on Law Enforcement brought by globalization

1. Increasing volume of human rights violations evident by genocide or mass killing.
2. The underprivileged gain unfair access to global mechanisms on law enforcement and
security.
3. Conflict between nations.
4. Transnational criminal networks for drug trafficking, money laundering, terrorism.
5. International criminal networks have been quick to take advantage of the opportunities
resulting from the revolutionary changes in the world politics, business, technology, and

11
 communications that have strengthened democracy and free markets, brought the
world’s nations closer together and given the some countries unprecedented security
and prosperity:
6. Globalization allowed international criminals to
expand their networks and increase their cooperation in
illicit activities and financial transactions.
7. Criminals have taken advantage of transitioning and
more open economics to establish front companies and
quasi-legitimate businesses that facilitate
smuggling, money laundering financial frauds,
intellectual property piracy, and other illicit ventures.
8. Criminal groups have taken advantage of the high
volume of legitimate trade to smuggle drugs, arms, and other contraband across
national boundaries.
9. Criminals are able to exploit the complexity of the intermodal system to hide drugs or
others contraband or to conceal the true origin and ownership of cargo within which
contraband is hidden.
10. Though the use of computers, international criminals has an unprecedented capability
to obtain process and protect information and sidestep law enforcement investigations.
They can use the interactive capabilities of advanced computers and
telecommunications system to plot marketing strategies for drugs and other illicit
commodities, to find the most efficient routes and methods for smuggling and moving
money in the financial system, and to create false trails for law enforcement or banking
security. International criminals also take advantages of the speed and magnitude of
financial transactions and the facts that there are few safeguards to prevent abuse of
the system to move large amount of money without scrutiny. More threateningly, some
criminal organizations appear to be adept at using technology for counterintelligence
purposes and for tracking law enforcement activities.

Opportunities for Law Enforcement

1. Creation of international tribunals to deals with human rights problems.
2. Humanitarian interventions that can promote universal norms and link them to the
enforcement power of states.
3. Transnational professional network and cooperation against transnational crimes.
4. Global groups for conflict monitoring and coalitions across international issues.

Law Enforcement in a Global Arena

How can the police or law enforcement agencies safeguard like and human
dignity in a global scale? The system norms are codified in a widely endorsed set of
international undertakings; the “international Bill of human rights” (Universal
Declaration of human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and political rights,
and international Covenant on Social and economic Rights); phenomenon-specific
treaties on war crimes (Geneva Conventions), genocide, and torture; and
protections for vulnerable groups such as the UN Convention on the rights of the
Child and the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.
International dialogue on human rights has produced a distinction between three ”generations”
of human rights, labeled for their historical emergencies. Security rights encompass life, bodily
integrity, liberty, and sometimes associated rights of political participation and democratic
governance. Social and economic rights, highlighted in the eponymous international Covenant,
comprise both negative and positive freedoms, enacted by states and others; prominently,
rights to food, health care, education, and free labor.
With this is the creation of an international regime to enforce these UN
declarations, bills and other international standards. We may call it “Universal
Declarations” However; the very process of globalization blurs distinctions among categories of
law enforcement due to racial differences and states on standards or laws.
Analysts on crime control have identified a variety of psychological, social, economic,
and political patterns that put societies “at risk” of law and order violations. These generally
include authoritarian government, civil war, strong ethnic cleavages, weak civil society, power
vacuums, critical junctures in economic development, and military dominance. Above all, the

12
study of human rights teaches us that human rights violations usually reflect a calculated
pursuit of political power, not inherent evil or ungovernable passions.

Effect of globalization on human rights

The effect of globalization on state-based human rights violations will depend on the
type of state and its history. In democratizing countries with weak institution and elite-
controlled economies (Russia, Latin America, Southeast Asia), the growth of global markets and
economic flows tends to destabilize coercive forces but increases crime, police abuse, and
corruption.
Global mobility and information flows generally stimulate ethnic mobilization, which may
promote self-determination in responsive states but more often produces collective abuses in
defense of dominant-group hegemony. On the other hand, the same forces have produce slow
institutional openings by less fragmental single-party states (like china and Mexico). In much of
Africa, globalization has ironically increased power vacuums, by both empowering sub-state
challengers and providing sporadic intervention, which displaces old regimes without
consolidating new ones. Some of the most horrifying abuses of all have occurred in the
transnationalized Hobbesian civil wars of Sierra leone, Angola, and Congo.
In general, analysts of globalization find that states’ international integration improves
security rights, but increases inequality and threatens the social rights of citizens. However,
neither economic development nor economic growth in and of themselves improves law
enforcement capabilities and human rights performance. In addition to globalization and
growth, findings on the findings on the effectiveness of international pressure on state human
rights policy suggest that target state must be structurally accessible, internationally sensitive,
and contain local human rights activists for linkage.

Challenges of Globalization in the field of law Enforcement

In the law enforcement and security sphere, states respond with increased repression to
fragmentation, transnationalized civil war, and uncontrolled global flows such as migrants and
drug trafficking. Transborder ethnic differences help inspire civil conflict, while the global arms
trade provides its tools. Even extreme civil conflicts where states deteriorate into warlordism are
often financed if not abetted by foreign trade; diamonds in the Congo and sierra leone, cocaine
in Colombia. While non-state actors like insurgents and paramilitaries pose increasing threats to
human rights, state response is a crucial multiplier for the effect on citizens. Since all but the
most beleaguered states possess more resources and authority than rebels, they can generally
cause more damage and human rights monitoring in a wide variety of settings from Rwanda to
Haiti attributes the bulk of abuses to state (or state-supported) forces. State also differ in their
ability and will to provide protection from insurgent terror campaigns (like that in Algeria).
Global economic relationships can produce state policies that directly violate social and
labor rights and indirectly produce social conflict that leads to state violations of civil and
security rights. While globally induced economic adjustment may cut services and intensify
poverty and protest, global windfalls of wealth may also underwrite repressive and civil war
(Harden 2000). It is states that largely determine labor rights and security response to labor
dissidence; states also regulates multinationals, certify unions, and form joint ventures with
global investors.
The challenge now is on how every state pursues a strong relationship in the area of
policing these global wrongs.

Globalization and terrorism

The nature of the threat, its targets and impact, and the response all indicate the
growing power of globalization as a parameter of political action. The emergence of
transnational civil networks capable of state-level crimes against humanity depends upon the
globalizing patterns of connection, communication, and even commodification (via financial
networks). It is inspired by a transnational ideological of a radical, extremist version of Islamic
fundamentalism that largely is reactive to economic and cultural globalization, and thus targets
sites and symbols of cosmopolitanism. The shattering impact of threats globalizing flows such
as air travel on the world economy and daily life demonstrate how deeply dependent we have
become on this connections.

13
 And even the U.S. sponsored response against terrorism and all its form has gone
beyond the historical standard of a great power under direct attack; it is more internationalist,
multi-sectoral in its treatment of areas like migration and finance, and much more conscious of
human rights issues such as laws of war, refugees, and humanitarian assistance.

Effects of Globalization to Law Enforcement in the Philippines (V. Delos Santos)

 The facilitation of transnational crimes and criminals can be easily achieved.
 There is a need for transnational policing. The cooperation among police organization in the
world is vital.
 Training instructions for incoming law enforcement
officers must include advance computer to prepare theme as
cyber cops so they can be better prepared to deal with
cybercrimes.
 Development of new strategies to deal with
international organized crimes is a must.
 Provisions of law enforcement with updated legislations
related to modernization theory of crime.

Globalization has tremendously affected

world in various different aspects 

1. Industrial- it has provided the surface to the production market with an enhanced access
to a wide variety of foreign products and therefore globalization has increased large number
of customers for itself. This has helped in the movement of goods and materials between
and within the national boundaries. 
2. Financial- Globalization has opened the way to procure external financing opportunities to
the borrowers. 
3. Economic- the freedom of exchange of goods and capitals tells us that the markets are
interrelated and any kind of economic collapse in one country could be manged by others. 
4. Political- the United States has come up with the supreme power in the era of globalization
as it has strong and wealthy economy. Also in the recent decade the People’s Republic of
China has skilled with great economic growth. 
5. Informational- flow of information from one part of the globe to another and even to the
remote locations, through satellites, wireless communication or through internet. 
6. Competition- globalization has given birth to tremendous competition and has made the
market an open place to excel with skills and quality. 
7. Ecological- the most neglected part after globalization; it is inadequately affected because
of the climate changes that are occurring due to pollution made by the industrial set up. The
areas around the industries are becoming slums and the waste released from the industries
is affecting the flora and fauna of the domain. It is forcing the inhabitants to inhale polluted
and obnoxious air which not only contains high of carbon-di-oxide but also contains
methane, halogen gases and various other particulates responsible for altering the
physiology of the inhabitants. Altered physiology becomes the leading cause of ill-health
causing hypertension, diabetes and may lead to cancer can be as lethal to generate neonatal
teratogenesis. 
8. Cultural- Cross-cultural contacts are the result of globalization. It has generated better
understanding towards cultural diversity and has promoted travels and tourism to
understand each other to a greater extent. This has enhanced greater consumer products at
the same time it has generated a pseudo-cultural patterns. 
9. Social- due to globalization the social network of people is widening and people are able to
understand each other in a better way howsoever distant geographically they may be. 
10. Technical- Any kind of technological advances can be communicated to other parts of the
world and thus feedback to further enhance it can be procured. 
11. Legal or Ethical- the guidelines are laid down for any kind of legal issues; international
criminal court and international justice movements (Nijam, A., Runnalls, D., Halle, M., 2007) 

14
 Pro Globalization
A rapid economic transformation made the
world more interdependent
Communications have revolutionized our
transactions and interactions
There is now a global culture with urbanization Globalization may simply be the latest stage of
and resemblance
Pro Globalization
The world is becoming more homogeneous
Time and space become relative
There is emerging a global polity, with
transnational social and political movements
A cosmopolitan culture is developing in which
people think globally
A risk culture is emerging
Contra Globalization
Globalization is a mere buzz word, or
globaloney. There is actually nothing new
under the sun.
Globalization is very uneven in its effects.
Globalization mainly applies to the developed
world.
Western (American?) imperialism
Contra Globalization
Globalization is not a win-win strategy but a
win-lose strategy with significantly more losers
than winners. Globalization thus is
exploitative.
Globalization has its dark sides. Drug cartels,
prostitution rings, international terrorism, etc.
can now operate globally.
There is a lack of democratic control and
accountability
There seems to be a paradox at the heart of
the globalization thesis: the most successful
national economies do NOT subscribe to
Western values

IV. Institution of Globalization

A. World Bank – The World Bank made loans to developing countries for dams and other
electrical-generating plants, harbor facilities, and other large projects. These projects
were intended to lower costs for private businesses and to attract investors. Beginning
in 1968 the World Bank focused on low-cost loans for health, education, and other basic
needs of the world’s poor.
B. International Monetary Fund - The IMF makes loans so that countries can maintain
the value of their currencies and repay foreign debt. Countries accumulate foreign debt
when they buy more from the rest of the world than they sell abroad. They then need to
borrow money to pay the difference, which is known as balancing their payments. After
banks and other institutions will no longer lend them money, they turn to the IMF to
help them balance their payments position with the rest of the world. The IMF initially
focused on Europe, but by the 1970s it changed its focus to the less-developed
economies. By the early 1980s a large number of developing countries were having
trouble financing their foreign debts. In 1982 the IMF had to offer more loans to Mexico,
which was then still a developing country, and other Latin American nations just so they
could pay off their original debts.
The IMF and the World Bank usually impose certain conditions for loans and
require what are called structural adjustment programs from borrowers. These programs
amount to detailed instructions on what countries have to do to bring their economies
under control. The programs are based on a strategy called neoliberalism, also known as
the Washington Consensus because both the IMF and the World Bank are
headquartered in Washington, D.C. The strategy is geared toward promoting free
markets, including privatization (the selling off of government enterprises); deregulation
(removing rules that restrict companies); and trade liberalization (opening local markets
to foreign goods by removing barriers to exports and imports). Finally, the strategy also
calls for shrinking the role of government, reducing taxes, and cutting back on publicly
provided services.
C. World Trade Organization - Another key institution shaping globalization is the World
Trade Organization (WTO), which traces its origins to a 1948 United Nations (UN)
conference in Havana, Cuba. The conference called for the creation of an International

15
 Trade Organization to lower tariffs (taxes on imported
goods) and to encourage trade. Although the
administration of President Harry S. Truman was
instrumental in negotiating this agreement, the U.S.
Congress considered it a violation of American
sovereignty and refused to ratify it. In its absence
another agreement, known as the General Agreement
on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), emerged as the forum
for a series of negotiations on lowering tariffs. The last of these negotiating sessions,
known as the Uruguay Round, established the WTO, which began operating in 1995.
Since its creation, the WTO has increased the scope of trading agreements. Such
agreements no longer involve only the trade of manufactured products. Today
agreements involve services, investments, and the protection of intellectual property
rights, such as patents and copyrights. The United States receives over half of its
international income from patents and royalties for use of copyrighted material.

V. Globalization in the Philippines

Globalization has offered considerable controversial

impact. It has been viewed as a process that is major factor
that is a key to the development of the world economy and also it
is inevitable and irreversible. Some regard it with hostility, fear
that increases inequality between nations, threatens employment
and living standards and social progress. These brief facts is
an overview of some aspects of globalization and aims to
identity ways in which countries can tap the gains of this process
while remaining realistic about its possible abilities and its dangers.
In fact, globalization offers essential opportunities for global developments but it is not
progressing in an evenly pace. Some countries have adapted to globalization and it is
participating into the global economy faster than other countries are. This is because countries
with globalization some countries have been able to integrate and are growing faster and
reducing poverty. However, the effectiveness of globalization in developing countries is widely
active because globalization helps give opportunities in such countries in order to establish
stability especially in the economy, trade, politics, society, labor, technology and to reduce
poverty level.
Developing country like the Philippines , is one of the countries in Asia where the
country has been effected by globalization. The country is taking part in the process of
globalization ever since the country signed agreements with WTO (World Trade Organization) in
1995. Since then, the nation had hope for WTO to bring developments within the nation’s poor
economy and also to have a role within the global economy and trade. Now, globalization is
very effective in the Philippines, it has allowed major changes in the nation like more labor, and
more Filipino and foreign companies has emerged in the nation in order to help the country’s
developing economy. Generally, the Philippines is one of the developing countries that is rapidly
dealing with globalization ever since the influence of the US during the World War II.
The country had high levels of education and English literacy due to the influence of
Uncle Sam, decent savings rates, and an export-oriented agricultural sector that generated
more than sufficient foreign exchange. The industrial sector was growing rapidly and the
country had one of the highest per capita incomes in Southeast Asia.
There was much to look forward to on the economic and business front. The Philippines
is a country of ups and downs of conspicuous consumption of devastating poverty, hunger and
suffering. The economy is basically agricultural, with rice, corn, and kamote (sweet potatoes)
the staple food crops. Key cash crops include coconuts, fruits and vegetables, sugar, tobacco,
and abaca (the famous "Manila hemp" used for rope making). In aggregate, about two-thirds of
Filipinos continue to depend on the agricultural sector. The Philippines is rich in natural
resources, as reflected in the fact that foreign exchange earnings have derived largely from
export of primary commodities. The export of fruits and vegetables, especially pineapple
products and bananas, plays a key economic role every year.
Among the minerals that the Philippines produces are copper, gold, nickel, chromium,
iron, and manganese. Mining will continue to be important in the future, particularly copper,

16
nickel, chromite, and iron. It is estimated that 90% of the country's mineral resources are
unsurveyed and undeveloped. However, the costs are high according to the international
standards and many gold mines and other operations are not economically at its best. The
Philippines global economy remains in transition and the nation has been living through a
period of increasing volatility. Globalization, whether individuals favor it or not, is taking place at
a rapid pace, integrating more and more of the nation’s and world economy. Philippines have
four regions that globalization has targeted and these four are: liberalization, mobility of capital,
technology, and management of organization through private and public sectors.
Each of these factors has been in its own way force throughout the world. But more
interesting is the realization that governments today no longer possess the reserves to
materially affect the global capital markets. Capital now moves according to the dictates of
markets, not of governments. With its great confidence on joining the WTO, the Philippines are
still lagging behind its Southeast Asian neighbors in terms of economic performance. Whereas,
the Philippine economic growth was second only to Japan ’s in the 1960’s. But when the nation
joined the WTO in 1995, the Philippines had entered the global economic game with its
domestic political economy unprepared and undeveloped.
As a result, the Philippine state has failed to create the kind of organized socioeconomic
environment that would have prepared the country for global competition. There are many
things that globalization that brought quick changes into the Philippine society. With its vast
development it has brought about technologies mostly computers and software and also
telecom companies are being introduced into the market. Thanks to globalization, such
technologies were influenced by Philippines neighboring Asian countries like Malaysia and China
, and even Japan . Thanks to globalization, it has opened its economy to foreign trade and
investment. Furthermore, globalization has allowed Filipino workers to travel the world, but
most head for the Middle East, East Asia, the US and Canada and Europe due to better
economies and better money. Filipinos working overseas numbered more than three million -
about 10 percent of the labor force. The total number of overseas Filipinos may be as high as
eight million, according to the government.
Those Filipinos working overseas send about $10.7 billion back to their families or
relatives in the Philippines in 2005. In contrast, the question that the Filipino society asks
themselves is: “Can the Philippines handle globalization”? Many Filipinos believe that
globalization has done nothing for their country. And this is due to the poverty that has been
becoming worse each year. The Philippines is still corrupt and still faces economic and political
problems, therefore, the nation and its people does not trust the process of globalization. The
majority of Filipinos believe that globalization has brought about problems and conflict rather
than changes. The people of the Philippines mostly rely on its leaders because it’s the leaders
whom the society believes and trust for the people know that the leaders are the ones that can
make the whole Philippine society better and much more developed or well-organized. So,
globalization has to take place within the country in order to make such changes happen. Due
to the process of globalization in the Philippines , poverty level has been increasing.
There are over 80 million people living in the whole of Philippines about 60 percent of
the population lives in poverty. This is why the Philippines is corrupt because they cannot solve
nor reduce the poverty rate. However, poverty has been a major struggle within the nation and
most the society is the ones that are suffering especially those who suffer are the ones who do
not have any jobs, money, and homes. That is why the people protest to the leaders and the
government to ask them for better lives. For example, the world economic globalization affects
nearly every person, but the process of globalization is a challenge to indigenous peoples. In
most countries, native peoples have little voice within the government, and their owned lands
are taken away by corporations. Indigenous farmers typically farm small plots and sell their
crops locally; their farms do not scale up to the size and technology necessary for export.Like
the indigenous peoples of the Cordilleras, in the southern part of the Philippines , have lived in
the mountains for generations. In the past century, Cordilleras farmers began planting cash
crops, including vegetables, coffee and beans. Increasingly the people are moving to towns and
cities because they government are taking over their lands and allowing companies to built their
industrial plants there due to the major threats that the indigenous people face.The farmers in
the Philippines are suffering and this is due their competitiveness in selling crops to the market
is being eroded by foreign imports. In fact, vegetable prices in the Philippines are high.
Consumers in non-producing areas pay 50-100% more than what farmers usually receive.

17
 Farmers receive 28% more than wholesale prices in surrounding countries. These
results are why vegetables are smuggled in the nation for vegetables have become a form of
contraband. These are the problems with developing countries is that they are very corrupt
politically and economically but its not the fault of globalization but it’s the whole nation is at
fault.Overall, the Philippines is a developing country that is bound to develop due to
globalization. I believe that globalization will make its impact in the Philippines because the
whole society relies on westernization due to globalization.
Globalization can make the Philippines into a better nation if the Philippine leaders to
make their economy more advance through global trading and allowing more foreign investors
to the help boost the economy. And by accomplishing those goals, the Philippines should be
able to reduce the poverty level as well as increase labor force for job opportunities for those
that are in need for a living. However, sine the poverty level is still increasing, most Filipinos
has managed to find work overseas and they have managed to seek better living than in the
Philippines. The most effective factor in the Philippines is education. The society’s mentality is
to be educated and it’s with education that people in the nation see their opportunity for a
better life in the future.

18
 CHAPTER III
INTERNATIONAL POLICE ORGANIZATION (INTERPOL)

International Criminal Police Organization –

INTERPOL
Common name Interpol
Abbreviation ICPO
Agency overview
Formed 7 September 1923
Annual budget €59 million
Legal personality Governmental: Government
agency
Jurisdictional structure
International agency
Countries 190 member states Interpol Head Quarter at Lyon, France

Governing body Interpol General Assembly

Constituting ICPO-INTERPOL Constitution
instrument and General Regulations
General nature Law enforcement
Civilian agency
Operational structure
Headquarters 200, quai Charles de
Gaulle,Lyon, France
Agency executives Khoo Boon Hui, President
Ronald Noble, Secretary
General
Facilities
National Central 190
Bureaus
Languages (4)

I. Introduction
International Criminal Police Organization or Interpol, intergovernmental body
established to promote mutual cooperation between police authorities around the world and to
develop means of effectively preventing crime. Founded in VIENNA in 1923 and
reconstituted in 1946, Interpol is strictly non-political and is forbidden to undertake any
activities of a religious, racial, or military nature. The majority of countries (177 in 1997) belong
to Interpol, and only government-approved police bodies may hold membership. The general
assembly meets annually to decide policy and to elect the executive committee, consisting of a
president, three vice presidents, and nine delegates, all of different nationalities. The general
secretariat, based in Lyon, France, is the permanent administrative headquarters. It coordinates
the international activities of member countries, holds a library of international criminal records,
and organizes regular meetings at which delegates can exchange information on police work.
Interpol is financed by contributions from member countries; its budget in 1997 was $28
million.

II. About Interpol

Interpol is the short form of International Criminal Police Organization. It began in 1923,
and at that time its name was international criminal police commission. In 1956, its name
became International Police Organization. The word Interpol was a short form of International
Police Organization. This short form served as the address to receive telegrams. Slowly, the
name of this international organization became famous as Interpol. Now, Interpol is the second
biggest international organization; the United Nation is the first. Some important information
about Interpol:

19
 Interpol is crime fighting organization, just like your local police department. Instead, they
help other member countries that need to cooperate by connecting all members of Interpol by a
network of files of criminals and cases if any of Interpol’s 182 nations need them.
INTERPOL is the world’s largest international police organization. Interpol, whose full name
is the International Criminal Police Organization – INTERPOL, is an organization facilitating
international police cooperation. It was established as the International Criminal Police
Commission in 1923. INTERPOL adopted its telegraphic address as its common name in 1956.

Basic Info:
 It facilitates cross-border police co-operation, and supports and assists all
organizations, authorities and services whose mission is to prevent or
combat international crime.
 190 countries are the overall members of Interpol.
 It provides finance of around $59 million through annual contributions. The
organization's headquarters are in Lyon, France.
 It is the second largest intergovernmental organization after the United Nations.
 INTERPOL aims to facilitate international police co-operation even where
diplomatic relations do not exist between particular countries.
 Its Action is taken within the limits of existing laws in different countries and in the
spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
 Its work focuses primarily on public safety, terrorism, organized crime, crimes
against humanity, environmental crime, genocide, war crimes, piracy, illicit drug
production, drug trafficking, weapons smuggling, human trafficking money
laundering, child pornography, white-collar crime, computer crime, intellectual
property crime and corruption.

Note:
 Ronald Noble – Current Secretary-General and a former of the United States Treasury.
 Jackie Selebi - National Commissioner of the South African Police Service, was
president from 2004 but resigned on 13 January 2008, later being charged in South
Africa on three counts of corruption and one of defeating the course of justice.
 Arturo Herrera Verdugo - Current National Commissioner of Policía de
Investigaciones de Chile and former vice president for the American Zone, who
remained acting president until the organization meeting in October 2008, and was
subsequently replaced by Commissioner of Police Singapore Police Force, Khoo Boon
Hui.

III. Vision and mission

A. THE VISION – what INTERPOL aspires to achieve: "Connecting police for a safer
world"
Its vision is that of a world where each and every law enforcement professional will be
able through INTERPOL to securely communicate, share and access vital police information
whenever and wherever needed, ensuring the safety of the world's citizens. We constantly
provide and promote innovative and cutting-edge solutions to global challenges in policing and
security.

B. THE MISSION – what INTERPOL does to achieve its vision: "Preventing and fighting
crime through enhanced international police cooperation"

(1) It facilitates the widest possible mutual assistance between all criminal law
enforcement authorities.
(2) It ensures that police services can communicate securely with each other around
the world.
(3) It enables global access to police data and information.
(4) Provide operational support on specific priority crime areas.
(5) Foster continuous improvement in the capacity of police to prevent and fight
crime and the development of knowledge and skills necessary for effective
international policing.

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Role
Its role is to enable police around the world to work together to make the world a safer
place. Our high-tech infrastructure of technical and operational support helps meet the growing
challenges of fighting crime in the 21st century.

What does Interpol do?

Interpol records any information about something that was in a criminal case, ex:
information on criminals, type of crime, vehicles anything to help any police officer with
information about a certain crime.

Recruitment
Approximately 650 staff members from 89 different countries are employed at the
INTERPOL General Secretariat, Regional Bureaus and Liaison offices, working in any of the
organization’s four official languages: Arabic, English, French and Spanish. A third of these are
either seconded or detached by their national law enforcement administrations in INTERPOL’s
190 member countries; the remaining are international civil servants hired under contract
directly by the organization. INTERPOL accepts applications from nationals of all member
countries to ensure that the organization remains truly representative.

Values
With such a diverse group of men and women, the organization's values play a particularly
important role in maintaining a harmonious and effective working environment. The INTERPOL
General Secretariat defines its values through the following qualities:
 Respect for human rights
 Integrity
 Commitment to quality
 Availability
 Team spirit
 Value for money
 Accountability

Fundamental Competencies
Competencies are the set of capabilities (incl. knowledge, skills, experience, values,
behaviour and attitudes) required to perform effectively in a post. 6 Fundamental
Competencies have been defined by INTERPOL and are applicable to 'all' staff regardless of
their function/grade within INTERPOL. This aims at indicating to the applicants the type of basic
competencies which are expected from them, in addition to the requirements specified in the
vacancies.

Training and capacity building

Police training plays a key role in INTERPOL’s overall mission to promote international police
cooperation.
It help to build the capacity of police in our member countries, equipping them with the
knowledge, skills and best practices needed to meet today's policing challenges.
Interpol wide range of initiatives is designed to bridge the gap between national and
international policing and help law enforcement agencies make maximum use of the services
provided by INTERPOL.
Partnerships with the public and private sectors ensure the continued relevance of our
training courses and access to the latest thinking and expertise.

A Comprehensive Approach
Operational training courses cover specialized crime areas – such as terrorism, drugs
and trafficking in human beings – as well as investigative support tools, such as forensic
techniques and the use of INTERPOL's network and databases.

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 Other programmes are aimed at senior officers with responsibility for international
police cooperation, and who are in a position to bring about change and improvement upon
return to their respective administrations.
The INTERPOL Training Quality Assurance (TQA) ensures the effective delivery of
training courses. It ensures that General Secretariat training programmes are in line with the
necessary standards; that the training cycle is fully respected to reach the best quality; and that
resources are used efficiently.
National Central Bureaus (NCBs) are INTERPOL’s link with national police forces and
they are increasingly called upon to play a greater operational role as INTERPOL expands the
range of its activities. A set of Core Competency Guidelines outline the five main areas of skills
and experience required of NCB staff. The guidelines were developed by a group of NCB
volunteers representing each of INTERPOL’s regions, together with representatives from the
General Secretariat.
Interpol strengthening its Regional Bureaus (RBs) in support of
the NCBs, and in collaboration with regional bodies of chiefs of police and other
organizations. Each RB is equipped with modern training facilities, and has a designated
Regional Training Officer who coordinates and enhances the regional training services.
The INTERPOL Global Learning Centre (IGLC) is a web-based portal giving authorized
users access to a comprehensive range of online learning products. The IGLC is aimed at
INTERPOL's National Central Bureaus and the wider police community across the world. Its goal
is to encourage the sharing of knowledge and best practice between INTERPOL member
countries as well as providing the opportunity for interactive e-learning. IGLC contains a wide
catalogue of e-learning courses as well as an online library of resources with a wealth of links to
reports, documents and websites of law enforcement organizations. This is complemented by
resources from other relevant bodies such as universities, police colleges, academies and
training institutions.

Training statistics
In 2010, a total of 141 police training programmes were delivered covering 17 different
subject areas. They benefited 4,200 participants from 182 countries.
Number of operational training sessions per subject area (2010)

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 Number of participants per region (2008-2010)

INTERPOL Global Learning Centre

IGLC is an Internet learning portal that brings together:
 e-Learning modules
 Online resources
 Police training websites
 Research publications

IV. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF INTERPOL

(1) 1914 - First International Criminal Police Congress held in Monaco. Police officers, lawyers
and magistrates from 14 countries meet to discuss arrest procedures, identification
techniques, centralized international criminal records and extradition proceedings.
(2) 1923 - Creation of the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) with headquarters
in Vienna, Austria, on the initiative of Dr Johannes Schober, president of the Vienna
Police. Following the Anschluss (Austria's annexation by Nazi Germany). Wanted persons
notices first published in INTERPOL’s International Public Safety Journal.
(3) 1926 - The General Assembly, held in Berlin, proposes that each country establish a
central point of contact within its police structure: the forerunner of the National Central
Bureau (NCB).
(4) 1927 - Resolution to establish NCBs adopted.
(5) 1930 - Specialized departments established to deal with currency counterfeiting, criminal
records and passport forgery.
(6) 1932 - Following the death of Dr Schober, new statutes put in place creating the post of
Secretary General. The first was Austrian Police Commissioner Oskar Dressler
(7) 1935 - INTERPOL international radio network launched.
(8) 1938 - The Nazis assume control after deposing of President Michael Skubl. Most countries
stop participating and ICPC effectively ceases to exist as an international organization.
(9) 1938 to 1945 - The presidents of Interpol include:
a. Otto Steinhäusl - A general in the SS.

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 b. Reinhard Heydrich - A general in the SS, and chair of the Wannsee
Conference that appointed Heydrich the chief executor of the "Final solution to the
Jewish question").
c. Arthur Nebe - A general in the SS, and Einsatzgruppen leader, under
whose command at least 46,000 people were killed.
d. Ernst Kaltenbrunner - A general in the SS, the highest ranking SS officer
executed after the Nuremberg Trial.
(10) 1942 - ICPC falls completely under German control and is relocated or eventually moved
to Berlin. It is unclear, however, if and to what extent the ICPC files were used to further
the goals of the Nazi regime.
(11) 1945 - After the end of World War II, the organization was revived as the International
Criminal Police Organization by European Allies of World War II officials from Belgium,
France, Scandinavia and the United Kingdom.
Its new headquarters were established in Saint-Cloud, a town on the outskirts of
Paris.
(12) 1946 - Belgium leads the rebuilding of the organization after the end of World War II. A
new headquarters set up in Paris, and ‘INTERPOL’ chosen as the organization’s telegraphic
address. Democratic process to elect the President and Executive Committee instituted.
Present INTERPOL colour-coded notice system initiated and first Red Notices for persons
wanted internationally issued.
(13) 1949 - The United Nations grants INTERPOL consultative status as a non-governmental
organization.
(14) 1956 - Following the adoption of a modernized constitution, the ICPC becomes the
International Criminal Police Organization-INTERPOL, abbreviated to ICPO–INTERPOL or
just INTERPOL. The Organization becomes autonomous by collecting dues from member
countries and relying on investments as the main means of support.
(15) 1958 - Contributions of member countries revised and financial regulations adopted.
(16) 1963 - First regional conference held, in Monrovia, Liberia.
(17) 1965 - The General Assembly sets out formal responsibilities and operating policies for
NCBs.
(18) 1971 - The United Nations recognizes INTERPOL as an intergovernmental organization.
(19) 1972 - A Headquarters Agreement with France recognizes INTERPOL as an international
organization.
(20) 1982 - An independent body created to monitor the implementation of INTERPOL’s
internal rules in relation to data protection. This will become the Commission for the Control
of INTERPOL Files in 2003.
(21) 1989 - INTERPOL moves its General Secretariat (Interpol headquarters) to present
location in Lyon, France.
(22) 1990 - The X.400 communication system launched, enabling NCBs to send electronic
messages to each other and to the General Secretariat directly.
(23) 1992 - An automated search facility for remote searches of INTERPOL databases
introduced.
(24) 1995 - As part of a programme of regionalization the General Assembly adopts guidelines
for the establishment and operation of Regional Bureaus.
(25) 1998 - INTERPOL Criminal Information System (ICIS) database created.
(26) 2002 - The I-24/7 web-based communication system launched, significantly improving
NCBs’ access to INTERPOL’s databases and services. Canada is the first country to connect
to the system. Database of stolen and lost travel documents launched.
(27) 2003 - Official inauguration of the Command and Coordination Centre at the General
Secretariat, enabling the organization to operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
(28) 2004 - INTERPOL liaison office inaugurated at the United Nations in New York and first
Special Representative appointed.
(29) 2005 - First INTERPOL-United Nations Special Notices issued for individuals subject to UN
sanctions against Al Qaeda and the Taliban. Technology known as MIND/FIND allows
frontline officers to connect directly to INTERPOL's systems.
(30) 2008 - The Interpol General Secretariat employed a staff of 588, representing 84 member
countries.
The Interpol public website received an average of 2.2 million page visits every month.
Interpol issued 3,126 red notices led to the arrest of 718 people.

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 (31) 2009 - Official opening of the Office of the Special Representative to the European Union
in Brussels.

Who is the only Filipino former president of Interpol?

Jolly R. Bugarin was the Filipino president of the Interpol in 1980-1984 after the term of
Carl G. Persson of Sweden.

V. Name and logo

Official name and abbreviations 
The Organization's official name is "ICPO–INTERPOL".
The official abbreviation "ICPO" stands for 'International Criminal Police Organization'. In
French this is "O.I.P.C.", which stands for "Organisation internationale de police criminelle".
The word "INTERPOL" is a contraction of "international police", and was chosen in 1946
as the telegraphic address.
Until 1956, the Organization was known as the International Criminal Police Commission.

The logo 
The logo, in use since 1950, comprises the following elements:
(1) A representation of the GLOBE, to indicate that INTERPOL's activities are
worldwide;
(2) Blue Background symbolized the worldwide
nature of Interpol.
(3) FLASHES symbolized the speed of
communication.
(4) Olive branches either side of the globe to
symbolize peace;
(5) The name "INTERPOL" below the globe in the centre
of the olive branches;
(6) A vertical sword behind the globe,
symbolizing the sharpness of police action/activities.
(7) The abbreviations "OIPC" and "ICPO" above the globe either side of the sword;
(8) The scales below the olive branches symbolize justice.

The flag 
The flag has been in use since 1950.
(1) It has a light-blue background;
(2) The logo is in the centre;
(3) The four lightning flashes arranged
symmetrically around the emblem symbolize
telecommunications and speed in police action.

Protection of INTERPOL's distinctive signs 

As an international organization, INTERPOL's distinctive signs are protected by the 1883
Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property.
Under the terms of Article 6 of this Convention, which has been ratified by the majority
of INTERPOL's member countries, the signatory countries have agreed to refuse to register as
trademarks and ban the use of coats of arms, flags, emblems, initials and names of states and
intergovernmental organizations.
The Organization's logo and the name "INTERPOL" have, in addition, been registered as
European Community and US trademarks.

Authorization to use INTERPOL's distinctive signs 

In exceptional cases, the Organization may authorize a third party to use its distinctive
signs. Authorization can only be given by INTERPOL's Secretary General.
In any event, authorization to use the organization's distinctive signs is limited:
 Authorization is given for a specific, identified project;
 The duration of the authorization is specified;

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  Authorization does not confer any exclusive rights.
The signs may not be modified or adapted and, where appropriate, the media (documents,
films, etc.) must be submitted to the Organization for approval before publication.
INTERPOL may automatically revoke the entitlement to use its distinctive signs if it
transpires that the project is likely to prejudice its reputation or image.

VI. Priorities
INTERPOL has developed a strategic framework for the years 2011-2013, to provide a
focused and effective direction for our programmes and activities during this period. Within this
framework, approved by our General Assembly in November 2010, we have defined four
strategic priorities and two corporate priorities.
These priorities are in line with the Organization's vision and mission and reflect the
dynamic environment and challenges of international policing in the 21st century.

Strategic priorities

1: Secure global communication network

Interpol run a secure global police communications and support system (known as I-
24/7) that connects all 190 National Central Bureaus
(NCBs), along with other authorized law enforcement
agencies and strategic partners, allowing them to
instantly access, request and submit vital data.
Interpol are committed to making these
tools and services more efficient and effective over the
next three years. We will achieve this through a number
of objectives and activities, for example by enhancing the
infrastructure of I-24/7, continuing to expand the
system beyond NCBs and to officers in the field, and by
better integrating the sharing of data between INTERPOL
and other systems.

2: 24/7 support to policing and law enforcement

INTERPOL provide round-the-clock support and a wide range of operational assistance
to our member countries, including emergency and crisis
response. We are committed to further improving response
times, follow-up and the integrated nature of our
response.
Objectives and activities are focused around our Command
and Coordination Centre, the development of new
investigative expertise, and the deployment of teams
specialized in incident response, security issues at
major events and the identification of disaster
victims.

3: Capacity building
Interpol are committed to enhancing the
tools and services that we provide in the area of law
enforcement training and to raising standards in
international policing and security infrastructures. We will
work with partners and stakeholders in order to build
the capacity of police services in countries in need and
to empower them to respond effectively to the
challenges of transnational crime.
Over the next three years we will work to leverage
current resources in our member countries, implement new training programmes, build
partnerships internationally with the public and private sectors to deliver training and technical
assistance, and work with member countries to develop common standards and recognized best
practices.

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 4: Assisting member countries in the identification of crimes and criminals
INTERPOL provide the highest quality database
services, analytical capabilities and other innovative tools to
assist in preventing crime as well as assisting in the
identification, location and arrest of fugitives and
transborder criminals. We aim to further improve our criminal
information databases and better support their
integration, along with analytical/investigative
methods and mechanisms.
Objectives and activities will centre on
improving the quality and quantity of information in our databases, enhancing investigative and
analytical capabilities, developing a global approach to integrated border management, and
actively supporting member countries in locating and apprehending fugitives and other
transnational criminals.

Corporate priorities

5: Business continuity and sustainability

We will focus efforts on strengthening our core infrastructure, improving our business
model and communicating our long-term relevance in terms of policing and law enforcement
leadership and support.
We will strengthen our business infrastructure and support mechanisms in order to
ensure efficient delivery of our core services. A key activity in this area will be the
implementation of a new INTERPOL Global Complex in Singapore. Other objectives will focus on
human resources, financial management and communications strategies. In addition we will
foster outside partnerships in support of our strategic priorities.

6: Legal foundation of INTERPOL

INTERPOL will focus efforts on enhancing the legal stability and foundation for
international activities.
Objectives include registering INTERPOL's Constitution with the United Nations,
extending INTERPOL privileges and immunities, and ensuring compliance with INTERPOL rules
and regulations. One of the overriding considerations is to enhance the Organization's neutrality
and independence. 

VII. INTERPOL’s Four Core Functions

The mandate and primary function of INTERPOL is to support the police services of its
member countries in their efforts to prevent crime and conduct criminal investigations as
efficiently and effectively as possible. Thus, together with the NCBs, INTERPOL facilitates across
border police cooperation and supports and assists all organizations, authorities and services
whose mission is to prevent or combat crime.
In order to achieve these aims, INTERPOL conducts all of its activities within the framework of
the following four ‘core services’ or ‘functions’:
1. Secure Global Police Communications Services
2. Operational Data Services and Databases for Police
3. Operational Police Support Services
4. Training and Development

1. The first of these services, Secure Global Police Communications Services is a

fundamental condition for successful international police cooperation. It is essential for
police forces to be able to communicate with each other, worldwide, in ‘real time’, and in a
secure way. Realizing the dire need for improved means of communication in today’s highly
technical world, INTERPOL subsequently designed and implemented a state of- the-art
global communications system for the law enforcement community, called “I-24/7”. “I”
stands for INTERPOL; 24 hours a day, 7 days a week .

I-24/7
The I-24/7 system was created in January 2003, and is an enhanced communication
service and an innovative, user-friendly tool for international law enforcement. Information

27
about suspected individuals and groups and their activities is exchanged between INTERPOL’s
member countries and its General Secretariat in a fast, reliable and secure manner. I-24/7
provides a creative, modern and sophisticated way to make international law enforcement
efforts more effective, and easier to perform. This type of system and exchange of information
is absolutely essential in combating terrorism and other types of transnational crime.
The I-24/7 ‘dashboard’ is a unique gateway that provides access to INTERPOL
databases and contains a wealth of expert information on a variety of crime issues. This makes
I-24/7 an indispensable tool, not only for the NCBs, but also for control, investigative and
analytical units within national police forces. Furthermore, through INTERPOL’s encouragement,
many NCBs – all of which are connected to the I-24/7 system - are now extending I-24/7
access to additional authorized law enforcement entities, such as border control units and
customs officials. INTERPOL continues to provide technical assistance and support to further
extending its I-24/7 system to additional authorized law-enforcement organizations.

2. Once police have the capability to communicate internationally, they need access to
information to either assist in their investigations or to take necessary steps to prevent
crime. Thus, INTERPOL provides its second core service - Operational Data Services
and Databases for Police.
In fighting transnational crime, international police cooperation “lives” on information.
This means that without gathering and sharing information that is timely, accurate, relevant
and complete, cooperation is limited, if not impossible. INTERPOL has, therefore, developed
a broad range of global databases, incorporating key information such as names of criminals
and suspected individuals, fingerprints, photographs, DNA profiles, requests for wanted
persons, lost and stolen travel documents, stolen vehicles, and weapons related to criminal
cases. The information contained in these databases can be critical to assisting member
countries in the event of terrorist incidents or related investigations. Analysis of the
information associated with these databases is also extremely beneficial to achieving
positive results in fighting and investigating terrorism cases, particularly concerning making
positive identifications. INTERPOL’s databases include:

ASF Stolen/Lost Travel Documents (SLTD) Database

Bearing in mind that terrorists and other serious criminals regularly use false documents
to travel, INTERPOL established its Stolen/Lost Travel Documents (SLTD) database in 2002.
This database has subsequently proven to be an effective tool for intercepting such individuals
when attempting to cross borders. Since its creation, and across crime areas, the database has
helped field officers with innumerable cases of individuals using fraudulent travel documents.
In many cases where the documents were identified as lost or stolen, they were
ultimately linked to high-profile cases involving suspected terrorists and war criminals.
As of November 2007, this database contained thirteen and a half million records,
coming from nearly 130 member countries. However, there is an on-going need for member
countries to continually populate the database to increase its effectiveness. The UN Security
Council also recognized the importance of this informational tool in its Resolution No. 1617
(2005) and encouraged member countries to share information on those documents with other
member states through the INTERPOL database. Use of the database was also endorsed by the
G8, European Union, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Civil
Aviation Organization and members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation.
In December 2005, Switzerland became the first country to use an integrated solution
developed by INTERPOL to expand access to the database to some 22,000 federal agents at
border control points, customs and immigration offices and embassies, enabling police to verify
instantly whether a travel document is stolen. INTERPOL further encourages all of its member
countries to expand access to the database beyond its NCB to officers at crucial locations such
as airports and border crossings. By scanning a passport over a machine readable device,
national immigration officers can find out in a few seconds whether that foreign visitor’s
passport is one of the nearly 8 million passports contained in INTERPOL’s database. France also
began screening passports at Charles de Gaulle Airport, Paris, in June 2006 using the system
and has now extended its access to six international train stations, 11 international seaports
and 21 airports resulting in more than 700,000 queries per month.

Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)

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 Recognizing the increasing need for countries to exchange information on fingerprints
for investigative purposes such as those relating to terrorism, and individuals potentially
associated therewith, INTERPOL recommends amongst its Best Practices the implementation
and utilization of its Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS).
Through the INTERPOL AFIS Expert Working Group (IAEWG), INTERPOL promotes the
use of standards for the capture, storage, and transmission of fingerprints, electronically. The
IAEWG’s focus is to provide general guidance to countries/organizations acquiring, developing,
integrating, and operating national AFIS systems. The IAEWG actively promotes implementable
approaches to the international electronic exchange of fingerprint images and data. Recognizing
that the technical capabilities of various countries differ greatly, INTERPOL provides advice and
guidance to member countries in the process of acquiring and implementing national AFIS
standards and systems.
It is important to emphasize the significance and critical need for countries to submit
fingerprints to INTERPOL in furtherance of populating the AFIS system. With the contribution of
such singular identifying data, law enforcement organizations can help make ‘links’ in
investigations and achieve successes in combating criminal activities.

DNA

In recognizing the ever-increasing value of DNA and DNA profiling, INTERPOL

established an INTERPOL DNA Unit in 1998. In so doing, INTERPOL has been able to foster and
facilitate the advancement of international law enforcement cooperation through the use of
DNA in criminal cases world-wide, as well as in terrorism cases. As such, the objective of the
INTERPOL DNA unit is to ultimately provide strategic and technical support to enhance member
states' DNA profiling capacity, and promote its widespread use in the international law
enforcement environment.
In order to assist member states and encourage DNA profile comparison across
international borders, the DNA Unit created and developed a DNA Database together with the
INTERPOL DNA Monitoring Expert Group.

INTERPOL DNA Monitoring Expert Group :

The external INTERPOL DNA Monitoring Expert Group (MEG) is the main source of
reference for the INTERPOL DNA Unit. The MEG acts as an advisory board and provides expert
guidance and direction for INTERPOL DNA policies and projects. The MEG members consist of
10-12 senior experts in the fields of forensic science and law enforcement who are drawn from
member states across INTERPOL’s five regions. The MEG examines the contemporary field
applications of DNA profiling as an investigative tool and makes recommendations on the use of
DNA in criminal investigations with a view to promoting the international use of this technique,
particularly as terrorism incidents are occurring worldwide

INTERPOL DNA Database:

The INTERPOL DNA Database introduces a data matching system with the capacity to
connect its international profile matching system to all member states using DNA profiling in law
enforcement . DNA profiles can be stored and searched across international borders using the
INTERPOL Standard Set of Loci (ISSOL). In compliance with INTERPOL's regionalization policy,
the INTERPOL DNA Unit provides regional support to Member States to consolidate ‘best
practices’ with the ultimate goal of increasing member state involvement in the international
transfer of DNA profiles.
As with INTERPOL’s fingerprint database, it is important to recognize and emphasize the
significance and on-going need for countries to contribute to and populate this system. The
value of DNA as a unique and singular identification tool in investigations is undeniable.

Stolen Vehicle Database

The INTERPOL General Secretariat developed the Automated Search Facility-Stolen
Motor Vehicle (ASF-SMV) database to support police in member countries in the fight against
international vehicle theft and trafficking.
As at November 2007, the database held almost 4 million records of stolen motor
vehicles reported by 115 countries + UNMIK. So far during 2007, 25,677 motor vehicles have
been discovered worldwide through this database.

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 At the international level, the General Secretariat has been organizing and chairing
several working groups which meet on a regular basis, and developing numerous projects to
address the issue

IWeTS
The INTERPOL Weapons electronic Tracing System (IWeTS), which is currently in the
development stage, is a tool which will provide Member States with the capabilities to trace
illicit firearms that are seized through law enforcement investigations and activities in their
countries. The value of such a system for law enforcement is that it will make it easier to
initiate the trace of a specific weapon. Furthermore, this database will be able to enhance
investigations relating to criminal and terrorism matters at both the national and international
levels.

Integrated Solutions to Access INTERPOL’s Databases – FIND /MIND

Recognizing that direct access to such information should not be limited to NCBs, it is
INTERPOL’s policy to expand access beyond these national focal points. In order to make
reliable, accurate and up-to-date information available to the front-line officers in real-time,
INTERPOL has developed new Integrated Solutions to allow for instant access for
example to its database on stolen and lost travel documents. This new technology called FIND /
MIND refers to the two different ways of connecting INTERPOL’s databases at border entry
points or other field locations.

INTERPOL Money Laundering Automated Search Service (IMLASS)

The IMLASS project - which is currently in the development stage – will assist anti-money
laundering and terrorism financing investigators and analysts throughout the world to
automatically compare suspected money laundering and terrorism financing-related queries
against database records submitted by INTERPOL’s 186 member countries. Queries concerning
money laundering-related targets, associates, companies, ID documents, addresses, telephones
and suspicious transaction data will then be automatically compared with the existing data in
INTERPOL database for links with past and present investigations in other countries. An
effective conclusion of this project will help money laundering investigators around the world to
access police as well as financial information from all INTERPOL’s member countries at one
place and at one time.

Border & Ports Security Center

To strengthen border protection, INTERPOL intends to establish a Border and Ports
Security Center at its General Secretariat in Lyon, France. The goal of the Center will be to
increase security at borders and all points of entry by supporting member countries in the
monitoring, prevention and investigation of fraudulent and illegal activities in these areas. The
specific objective of this Center will be to analyze the use of INTERPOL’S tools, such as the
SLTD Database, by member countries and to co-ordinate the delivery of training and other
capacity building measures that would help member countries comply with the present
international security requirements for ports-of-entry. The Center will develop strong linkages
with other international organizations involved in port security and enforcement.

3. INTERPOL’s third core service is Operational Police Support Services. Simply put,
this means making available INTERPOL’s know-how, expertise and best practices to all
authorities, services and organizations world-wide, whose mission is to prevent, detect and
suppress crime. Through the extension of such services, INTERPOL helps enhance the role
of NCBs and regional offices and thus increases INTERPOL’s responsiveness to their needs.
This involves the development of emergency support and operational activities based on the
organization’s priority crime areas - terrorism and public safety, drugs and organized crime,
fugitives, human trafficking, and financial and high-tech crime. Support Services also include
the collection, analysis and evaluation of information which INTERPOL’s headquarters
receives from its member countries.
Upon request, INTERPOL further extends support to its member countries by sending police
officers with special law enforcement expertise to investigation sites. For example, after various
terrorist attacks worldwide, INTERPOL assisted national law enforcement entities by facilitating

30
- on-site - the exchange of information regarding individuals and groups alleged to have been
involved in the attacks.
INTERPOL’s broad range of ‘support services’ includes the following:

INTERPOL’s Command and Coordination Center

INTERPOL’s Command and Coordination Center (CCC) operates around the clock – 24
hours a day, 7 days a week - in each of INTERPOL’s four official languages (English, French,
Spanish and Arabic). The CCC serves as the first point of contact for any member country faced
with a crisis and/or terrorist situation. The Center’s staff monitors INTERPOL messages
exchanged between member countries and ensures that the full resources of the Organization
are ready and available whenever and wherever they might be needed. For instance, if a
terrorist attack or natural disaster occurs, the CCC mobilizes to offer and coordinate the
Organization’s response. All messages and requests for information and assistance from the
affected member countries are treated with the highest priority.

Incident Response Teams

In the aftermath of a terrorist act or other critical incident, the affected member
country/countries often request INTERPOL’s support in the form of an Incident Response Team
(IRT). The IRT consists of on-site specialized personnel who are able to provide investigative
and analytical support directly from the incident location. As a result of the circumstantial
elements, INTERPOL evaluates the situation and assists member countries in determining the
police requirements needed to further provide specific support, expertise, and information.
INTERPOL deploys police officers with special law enforcement expertise to the area where the
specific incident has occurred, and provides not only specialized police officers, but forensic
experts and criminal analysts as well.
While the investigation of terrorist acts is handled by the respective law enforcement
agency in the concerned country, many investigative leads and evidence span the globe, thus
adding an international dimension to the investigation. Through pro-active support and
assistance of its member countries, INTERPOL is able to coordinate information and resources
to assist in these complex investigations, which can result in the subsequent dismantling of
terrorist groups and organizations, thus preventing them from carrying out further attacks.

INTERPOL Network of Experts

In collaboration with INTERPOL member countries, the INTERPOL Command and
Coordination Center is in the process of establishing a crisis support strategy to coordinate
multidisciplinary, international police assistance through the implementation of a network of
INTERPOL experts in areas such as counter-terrorism, criminal intelligence analysis, forensics,
case management, specialized crime investigations, fugitive tracing, and linguistic capabilities.
Together with a ‘menu’ of service options, a centralized contact database for these experts will
be maintained. The objective of this strategy, once completed, will be to enable, at the request
of a member country, the deployment of a team of said experts, upon short notice, to any
location in the world where there is appropriate need, with the team maintaining direct links to
the Command and Coordination Center at all times.

INTERPOL Vulnerable Targets Referral Centre

INTERPOL, together with the UN Department of Safety and Security (DSS) and the UN
Interregional Criminal Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) are the leading entities of the UN
Counter Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF) Working Group on Protecting Vulnerable
Targets, whose aim is to establish appropriate mechanisms to facilitate both the sharing of
existing best practices and the development of further best practices to protect vulnerable
targets. In order to achieve this, INTERPOL is currently in the process of creating a “Vulnerable
Targets Referral Center”, and will act as an intermediary, facilitating the exchange of
information in the area of vulnerable target protection. The main objective of the center is to
identify responsible units and relevant experts in countries where vulnerable target protection
strategies have already been developed and have this contact information available in order to
bring those with relevant expertise together with those who are in need of such information.

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 INTERPOL Major Event Support Teams
INTERPOL implemented a strategy to support countries which are organizing
international major events. An important objective of this strategy is to help member countries
plan for prevention of attacks and/or disruptive action during major events, and to subsequently
manage the consequences of such incidents. This includes making available relevant INTERPOL
services, such as I-24/7, INTERPOL databases and threat assessments, in support of the
organizing country. INTERPOL has established a mechanism for regular global sharing of good
practices in securing international major events, where one member country organizing an
event can learn from other countries which recently hosted similar events.

INTERPOL-UN Security Council Special Notices

In 2005, upon the request of the United Nations Security Council, and in support of its
work in the fight against terrorism, INTERPOL created the ‘INTERPOL-United Nations Security
Council Special Notice’ (IP-UN SC Special Notices). This notice is specifically issued for
individuals associated with Al-Qaeda and the Taliban, as listed by the 1267 Committee, which
has designated them subject to sanctions through the freezing of assets, travel bans and arms
embargoes, with a view to alert national law enforcement agencies and assist them to more
effectively pursue suspected terrorists. As of November 2007 INTERPOL has published around
300 IP-UN SC Special Notices.

The Fusion Task Force

In order to assist member countries in terrorism-related investigations at the
international level, INTERPOL created the Fusion Task Force (FTF). Established in September
2002, the FTF has evolved into a significant, vital, specialized and multi-disciplinary entity for
assisting member countries in their terrorism-related investigations. The primary objective of
the FTF is to identify members of criminal groups involved in international terrorist activity
through the establishment of a network of law enforcement contact officers. The Task Force
has put into place regionally focused projects which are designed to identify active terrorist
groups and their membership in specific regions. The Task Force also solicits, collects, and
shares information and intelligence, provides analytical support, and enhances the capacity of
member countries to address the threats of terrorism and organized crime. The Task Force
maintains a dedicated global database of information on terrorist groups, organizations and
individuals.
Particular to terrorism cases, INTERPOL also coordinates the circulation of alerts and
warnings for terrorists, dangerous criminals and weapons-threats to police. In order to help
member countries report terrorist activity, INTERPOL has issued practical guidelines on the type
of information required. Member countries are also encouraged to report on other crimes which
may be linked to terrorism, such as suspicious financial transactions, weapons trafficking,
money laundering, falsified travel and identity documents, and seizures of nuclear, chemical
and biological materials.
The FTF also assumes the important role of developing ‘capacity’ in various areas where
there are deficiencies in order to improve and expand its role in assisting with the targeting and
dismantling of criminal and terrorist organizations.

Establishment and/or Reconstruction of NCBs in Post-Conflict Countries

INTERPOL provides assistance in building police capacity in post-conflict environments
by assuming a pro-active role with respect to either creating a new NCB in the region, or further
developing an already existing one, including the provision of training at the national level, as
well as providing links to international police cooperation. INTERPOL’s Sub-Regional Bureaus
also play an important role in this initiative - particularly with respect to their language
capabilities - to assist countries in their respective regions to build-up and/or enhance police
structures and provide training at the national level.

INTERPOL’s Sub-Regional Bureaus (SRBs)

INTERPOL’s Sub-Regional Bureaus, located in Harare, Nairobi, Abidjan, Buenos Aires,
and San Salvador, and its Liaison Bureau in Bangkok carry out regional operational activities,
serve as regional training centres and possess crime analysis capabilities. An additional Sub-
Regional Bureau will be opened in Yaoundé in early 2008 to support the Central African region.

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 Disaster Victim Identification
One aspect common to disasters, whether natural, technological or man-made is that
some type of investigation will follow, whether law enforcement, technical, medical and/or
related. For this reason, in 1984 INTERPOL published its first ‘INTERPOL Manual on Disaster
Victim Identification’. The purpose of the guide is to promulgate good practice(s) in respect to
this type of investigation. The identification procedures described in this guide can be used in all
circumstances. The manual is reviewed and revised on a regular basis, and is circulated to all
INTERPOL member countries. It is designed to encourage the compatibility of procedures
across international boundaries.

Criminal Analysis Unit

INTERPOL’s Criminal Analysis Unit contributes to investigations by assisting officers
working at the General Secretariat and in member countries by conducting research and
analysis of crime trends. This service includes the collection, analysis, evaluation, exchange,
and storage of information which INTERPOL’s headquarters receives from its member countries.
In providing this service, INTERPOL’s goal is not only to inform its member countries of new
developments in the context of criminal activities, but also to provide national law enforcement
authorities with additional information which might be helpful to the progress of an on-going
investigation or contribute to the initiation of a new one.

Bio-Terrorism Unit
Of imminent and increasing concern and related to terrorism is the growing possibility of
terrorists launching attacks with biological or chemical weapons. With INTERPOL devoted to
matters associated with public safety, it has made available various resources to support
member countries in their efforts to protect their citizens from bio-terrorism, firearms and
explosives, attacks against civil aviation, maritime piracy, and weapons of mass destruction.
The first step in countering the threat of bio-terrorism is recognizing the imminent dangers
represented by this lethal form of crime. Thereafter it is vital to put in place the tools which will
enable law enforcement to take appropriate measures to deal with the dangers.
INTERPOL recently created a special unit to focus exclusively on preventing and
combating bio-terrorism threats. The Bio-Terrorism Unit at INTERPOL Headquarters has been
established to focus on this issue and implement various bio-terrorism projects with the close
cooperation of INTERPOL’s National Central Bureaus (NCBs) and regional offices. The goal of
this initiative is to heighten the awareness of the dangers posed by bio-terrorism, and
to develop and enhance the knowledge, training and capability of law enforcement to
recognize, prevent, contain and investigate bio-terrorist threats. This unit is developing a
program to build capacities to counter this threat at both national and international levels.
INTERPOL has also produced a Bio-Terrorism Incident Preparedness and Response Guide,
compiled by experts from INTERPOL member countries. The Guide is a comprehensive, step-by-
step manual for law enforcement in preparing for and dealing with bio-terrorism incidents.

4. INTERPOL’s fourth core service is Training and Development. Training and

development plays a key role in INTERPOL’s overall mission to promote international
police cooperation. The aim is to help officials in INTERPOL’s 186 member countries to
improve their operational effectiveness, enhance their skills and build their capacity to
address the increasingly globalised and sophisticated nature of criminality today.
Following a notable increase in demand for training from member countries,
INTERPOL included Training and Development as its fourth core function in 2007.
The INTERPOL ‘Guide for Effective Training’ explains how training needs are
identified and assessed, the steps required to design, plan and implement quality
training programmes and how evaluations and assessments should be conducted.
INTERPOL is exploring opportunities with member countries to establish training
institutions that can address priority crime areas of other areas of high concern.

VIII. INTERPOL’S STRUCTURE

INTERPOL’S LEADERSHIP: The President of INTERPOL and the Secretary General
work closely together in providing strong leadership and direction to the Organization.

33
(1)GENERAL ASSEMBLY
 This is the Interpol’s supreme governing body. It meets annually and comprises
delegates appointed by each member country.
 The assembly takes all important decisions related to policy, resources, working
methods, finances, activities and programs

(2)EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
 This 13-member committee is elected by the General Assembly, and comprises the
president, three vice-presidents and nine delegates covering the four regions.
 Functions are as follows:
(a) Supervise the execution of the decisions of the General Assembly;
(b) Prepare the agenda for sessions of the General Assembly;
(c) Submit to the General Assembly any program of work or project which it considers
useful;
(d) Supervise the administration and work of the Secretary General;
(e) Exercise all the powers delegated to it by the Assembly.

(3)GENERAL SECRETARIAT
 Located in Lyon, France, the General Secretariat operates 24 hours a day, 365 days a
year and is run by the Secretary General. Officials from more than 80 countries work
side-by-side in any of the Organization’s four official languages: Arabic, English,
French and Spanish.
 The Secretariat has seven regional offices across the world; in Argentina, Cameroon,
Côte d’Ivoire, El Salvador, Kenya, Thailand and Zimbabwe, along with Special
Representatives at the United Nations in New York and at the European Union in
Brussels.

(4)NATIONAL CENTRAL BUREAUS (NCB)

 Each INTERPOL member country maintains a National Central Bureau staffed by
national law enforcement officers.
 The NCB is the designated contact point for the General Secretariat, regional offices and
other member countries requiring assistance with overseas investigations and the
location and apprehension of fugitives.

NCB MANILA
 The INTERPOL NCB Manila traces its beginning in 1961 when Philippines become a
member of Interpol, with the NBI as its focal point.
 Pres. Ramos issued MO # 92 on Feb. 1993, designating PNP as its focal point with the
CPNP as its concurrent chairman.
 May 31, 1993 – the Interpol NCB Manila Secretariat was established to ensure the
smooth operation of NCB with the DCO as its head.
 On February 2000 – NCB Manila was transferred to PCTC pursuant to EO # 100
 PCTC – established to formulate and implement a concerted program of action of all law
enforcement, intelligence and other agencies for the prevention and control for
transnational crimes

(5)ADVISERS

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  These are experts in a purely advisory capacity, who may be appointed by the Executive
Committee and confirmed by the General Assembly.

(6)COMMISSION FOR THE CONTROL OF INTERPOL’s Files (CCF)

The processing of personal data – such as names and fingerprints – forms a key activity at
INTERPOL. It is carried out within a clearly defined legal framework in order to protect both the
fundamental rights of individuals and cooperation among police internationally.
The Commission for the Control of INTERPOL's Files (CCF) is an independent monitoring
body. It operates in line with a number of official rules and documents and has three main
functions:
a. To ensure that the processing of personal information by INTERPOL complies with
the Organization's regulations. Monitoring the application of the Organization's data
protection rules to personal data processed by INTERPOL
b. To advise INTERPOL on any project, operation, set of rules or other matter
involving the processing of personal informatioN.
c. To process requests concerning the information contained in INTERPOL's files.
In 2008, the INTERPOL General Assembly voted to amend INTERPOL's Constitution to
integrate the CCF into its internal legal structure, thereby guaranteeing its independence as an
official body of the Organization.

Regional Bureaus
INTERPOL has seven Regional Bureaus (RBs), which are permanent departments of the
General Secretariat (see Article 25 of the Constitution) and were established to bring the
General Secretariat closer to the regions.
There are RBs in Abidjan (serving West Africa), Buenos Aires (South America), Harare
(Southern Africa), Nairobi (East Africa), San Salvador (Central America) and Yaoundé
(Cameroon). In addition, there is a Liaison office in Bangkok, serving Southeast Asia.
The duties of the RBs are the same as those of the General Secretariat, but each RB deals with
regional issues – based on its geographic proximity – since it is best placed to provide the most
appropriate response in any particular situation.

Staffing
The RB staff is generally recruited from within the region and their number and role can
vary, depending on the specific needs, goals and priorities of each region. Generally, they
comprise the following:
(1) Head of Bureau - responsible for applying the priorities of the organization and those
of regional police chiefs committees where they exist;
(2) Specialized officers - police officers
Abidjan
specialized in the different kinds of
crime prevalent in each region;  
(3) Network analyst – a technical officer Buenos Aires
responsible for providing technical
 
support not only within the RB but also
to National Central Bureaus in the Harare
region;
(4) Crime analyst – provides analytical Nairobi
work on crimes in the region, related to
work for the General Secretariat and
for the regional police chiefs San Salvador
committees;
(5) Administrative support staff Yaoundé
(secretary, driver, and security officer).

Legal status Liaison Office Bangkok

The Regional Bureaus and their staff
are subject to the same rules and provisions as
the General Secretariat – these functions and duties are defined in Article 26 of the
Constitution, in the Financial Regulations, Staff Regulations and Rules, etc. There are also

35
provisions specific to the RBs concerning, inter alia, the delegation of financial powers and the
Staff Regulations, which take account of the differences from one duty station to another.

RB activities
Select a link above for specific details of each RB and its activities.

Regional Bureaus and National Central Bureaus

The RBs should not be confused with the National Central Bureaus (NCBs), which are
INTERPOL bureaus in each member country.

RBs and Regional Police Chiefs Committees

The RBs work with regional police chiefs committees where
they exist. In Africa, the RBs act as the permanent secretariats
of the committees, as follows:
(1) Abidjan serves WAPCCO (West African Police Chiefs
Committee)
(2) Yaoundé serves CAPCCO (Central African Police Chiefs
Committee).
(3) Harare serves SARPCCO (Southern African Regional
Police Chiefs Co-operation Organization).
(4) Nairobi serves EAPCCO (East African Police Chiefs Co-operation Organization).

In other regions where police chiefs committees exist, the RBs are building closer ties where
relations have not been formally established. This is the case in:
(1) Asia, between the South-East Asia Liaison Office (LoBang) and ASEANOPOL (Association
of South-East Asian Nations Chiefs of Police);
(2) Central America, between the RB in San Salvador and the CJPCAC (Comisión de Jefes de
Policía de Centro América y el Caribe - Commission of Chiefs of Police of Central America
and the Caribbean).
Relations between the RBs and the SPCPC (South Pacific Chiefs of Police Conference) and
the ACCP (Association of Caribbean Commissioners of Police) are managed directly from the
Organization's Headquarters in Lyon.

Modernization of the RBs

INTERPOL began to modernize its RBs in 2005 with a programme that involves
standardizing working equipment, installing video-conference and IP telephone facilities, and
giving them access to INTERPOL’s Intranet and message handling system. This process has
speeded up the sharing of information and effectiveness among RBs and with NCBs and the
General Secretariat.
A. Buenos Aires Regional Bureaus

Role
The Buenos Aires Regional Bureau’s role is to represent the General Secretariat in the
South American region, and to ensure compliance with the Organization’s core functions,
including the use of its communications system, encouraging countries to use INTERPOL’s
databases, and providing operational police support.
 
Objective
The Buenos Aires Regional Bureau's objective is to assist the 12 National Central
Bureaus it serves in their day-to-day work, to strengthen and improve international police co-
operation, and to co-operate with INTERPOL's governing bodies in order to facilitate their task. 
The Bureau also seeks to foster co-operation and the exchange of information at regional level
with other international bodies.
 

Activities

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 The Bureau provides co-operation and assistance in all areas of the fight against
international crime.  Increased support for international police activities has taken various
forms, in particular:  giving assistance to IMESTs (INTERPOL Major Event Support Teams) in
the region;  carrying out operations such as Jupiter (intellectual property crime) and Andes
(traffic in chemical precursors);  developing projects such as Project White Flow
(intercontinental drug trafficking) in conjunction with the Harare and Abidjan Regional Bureaus,
Project Seven Borders (vehicle theft), and Project Amazon (terrorism).  In addition, the contact
officers network has been strengthened with the preparation of a protocol for providing support
in fugitive investigations in the South American region.
 
Countries serve by the Regional Bureaus
(1) Argentina
(2) Bolivia
(3) Brazil
(4) Chile
(5) Colombia
(6) Ecuador
(7) Guyana
(8) Paraguay
(9) Peru
(10) Suriname
(11) Uruguay
(12) Venezuela

B. Abidjan Regional Bureaus

Preamble
Between 1994 and 1 May 2009, the Regional INTERPOL Bureau in Abidjan covered
twenty-four (24) African countries, sixteen (16) of them in West Africa and eight (8) in Central
Africa.  As part of its policy of decentralization, INTERPOL opened a new Bureau in Yaoundé to
cover the Central African countries to combat crime affecting that region.

 DESCRIPTION OF THE INTERPOL REGIONAL BUREAU IN ABIDJAN

 Location:  7th floor of the AZUR building, Avenue Dr Crozet, Le Plateau, Abidjan, Côte
d’Ivoire
 Date of creation: 1994

 Staff
(1) 1 Head of Bureau
(2) 4 Regional specialized officers
(3) 1 Network administrator
(4) 1 Criminal data analyst
(5) 1 Accountant
(6) 1 Secretary

 Duties
(1) Facilitate the speedy transmission of police information to the General Secretariat.
(2) Assess and analyse the police information of relevance to the region and provide
intelligence.
(3) Study and provide information on the international crime trends in the region.
(4) Identify study and attempt to solve problems affecting the quality of international police
co-operation in the region.
 Encourage and support any initiative which will help to improve co-operation between
the Member States of the region.
 Provide the Permanent Secretariat of the regional Police Chiefs Committees, i.e. the
West African Police Chiefs Committee (WAPCCO).
 

AIMS

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  Maintain and improve day-to-day police co-operation between the countries of the
region and the General Secretariat.
 Help countries to prepare regional and international meetings.
 Monitor and implement the Organization's programmes in the region.
 Co-ordinate INTERPOL's activities with those carried out by other international or
partner organizations in the region.
 
COUNTRIES REPRESENT
Five out of the 16 West African countries - almost one third of the region's countries -
are represented at the Abidjan Regional Bureau:
(1) Ghana
(2) Côte d’Ivoire
(3) Burkina Faso
(4) Guinea
(5) Mauritania
The Regional Bureau is awaiting the arrival of new officers to replace those from Nigeria
and Côte d’Ivoire, whose contracts have expired.

THE PERMANENT SECRETARIAT

The Abidjan RB serves as the permanent secretariat of the Police Chiefs Committee and
co-ordinates the operational activities of the West African Police Chiefs Committee (WAPCCO).

BACKGROUND TO THE WAPCCO

The WAPCCO has sixteen Member States from the West African region:
(1) Republic of Benin
(2) Burkina Faso
(3) Republic of Cape Verde
(4) Republic of Côte d’Ivoire
(5) Republic of the Gambia
(6) Republic of Ghana
(7) Republic of Guinea
(8) Republic of Guinea Bissau
(9) Republic of Liberia
(10) Republic of Mali
(11) Islamic Republic of Mauritania
(12) Republic of Niger
(13) Federal Republic of Nigeria
(14) Republic of Senegal

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 (15) Republic of Sierra Leone
(16) Republic of Togo

 Countries Serves by the Regional Bureaus

(1) Benin
(2) Burkina Faso
(3) Cameroon
(4) Cape Verde
(5) Central African Republic
(6) Chad
(7) Congo
(8) Congo (Democratic Rep.)
(9) Côte D'ivoire
(10) Equatorial Guinea
(11) Gabon
(12) Gambia
(13) Ghana
(14) Guinea
(15) Guinea-Bissau
(16) Liberia
(17) Mali
(18) Mauritania
(19) Niger
(20) Nigeria
(21) Sao Tome And Principe
(22) Senegal
(23) Sierra Leone
(24) Togo
C. Harare Regional Bureaus

Mission Statement
The INTERPOL Regional Bureau for Southern Africa is
committed to facilitating the most effective international law
enforcement co-operation, for a safer Southern Africa and a safer
world.
 
AIMS
The aims of the Harare RB are to:
(1) Represent the INTERPOL General Secretariat and
promote INTERPOL's objectives in the region;

39
 (2) Ensure the implementation of INTERPOL programmes in the region and resolutions of
the General Assembly and the African Regional Conference;
(3) Serve as a link between the region and the rest of the INTERPOL community;
(4) Serve as a Secretariat for the Southern Africa Regional Police Chiefs Council
Organization (SARPCCO). 
 
Activities
Co-ordinates INTERPOL and SARPCCO joint
operations, training, meetings, workshops and conferences
and provides general secretariat services for SARPCCO.
(1) Assists in the identification of specialized regional training
needs and the delivery of relevant courses.
(2) Assists in the sourcing of funding for INTERPOL and
SARPCCO training activities, joint operations and
meetings.
(3) Facilitates the timely exchange of information and
intelligence between the national Central Bureaus in the region, other Regional Bureaus,
the INTERPOL General Secretariat and other international organizations.
(4) Collects, collates and analyses information from the region and disseminates intelligence
to the police forces/services in the region.

 Countries served by the Regional Bureau

(1) Angola
(2) Botswana
(3) Lesotho
(4) Madagascar
(5) Malawi
(6) Mauritius
(7) Mozambique
(8) Namibia
(9) South Africa
(10) Swaziland
(11) Zambia
(12) Zimbabwe

D. Nairobi Regional Bureaus

 Mission and vision

To be INTERPOL's regionally focused representative in
support of all organizations, authorities and services
whose mission is preventing, detecting and fighting
international crimes. Our aim is to bring INTERPOL support
closer to our regional INTERPOL members and help to
increase their law enforcement contributions to the global
effort against transnational crime.

 Objectives of RB Nairobi
(1) Represent the INTERPOL General Secretariat in the region;
(2) Harmonize, promote and co-ordinate INTERPOL General Secretariat activities in the
region;
(3) Harmonize, promote, strengthen and perpetuate co-operation and joint strategies for
the management of all forms of cross-border and related crimes with regional
implications; 
(4) Prepare and disseminate relevant information on criminal activities and mutual
assistance to the region’s member countries, to examine the training needs of member
police forces;
(5)  Identify training potential within the region for the benefit of member police forces; 

40
 (6) Co-ordinate training programmes;
(7) Monitor the implementation of, and consider for adoption, all resolutions made by
EAPCCO;  
(8) Harmonize legal provisions of the member states relating to extradition and legal mutual
assistance;
(9) Constitute such organs and draft legal instruments; 
(10) Carry out any such relevant and appropriate acts and strategies for purposes of
promoting regional police co-operation and collaboration as regional circumstances
dictate.

 Activities of RB Nairobi
RB Nairobi is actively involved in addressing member countries' needs through the activities
of the following priority crime desks:
(1) Terrorism
(2) Cattle rustling in the Eastern Africa Region
(3) Environmental crime
(4) Maritime  piracy off the Somali coast
(5) Trafficking in human beings and illegal migration
(6) Trafficking of narcotics
(7) Financial and hi-tech crime
(8) Trafficking of firearms
(9) Fugitives tracking

 EAPCCO Related activities

RB Nairobi, as the permanent Secretariat of the
East African Police Chiefs Committee, carries out activities
for the regional police body in the following areas:
a. Conferences and meetings: Initiates, co-
ordinates and organizes the ordinary and extraordinary
meetings of the Ministers responsible for police matters, police chiefs, operational police
units, task forces and working groups on crime matters.
b. Training: Initiates, co-ordinates and facilitates all the training activities to meet the
member countries' needs in co-ordination with the INTERPOL General Secretariat and
the EAPCCO Training Sub-committee.
c. Legal Matters: Addresses legal matters in relation to police co-operation in the region
in co-ordination with the EAPCCO legal Sub-committee.

 Countries served by the Regional Bureau are

(1) Burundi
(2) Djibouti
(3) Eritrea
(4) Ethiopia
(5) Kenya
(6) Rwanda
(7) Seychelles
(8) Somalia
(9) Sudan
(10) Tanzania
(11) Uganda
(12) Comoros (is not an EAPCCO member)
 
E. San Salvador Regional bureau

 Aims
To be a model Regional Bureau (RB) for the INTERPOL
General Secretariat in terms of providing an efficient response

41
for co-operation and co-ordination with law enforcement authorities in fighting crime in the
Central American region.

 Visions
The INTERPOL San Salvador Regional Bureau works with law enforcement bodies to
provide a unique range of essential services in order to bring the international fight against
crime to the highest level and bring a climate of security to Central America.

 Philosophy
The Regional Bureau aims to:
(1) Ensure and promote the widest possible mutual assistance between all criminal police
authorities within the limits of the laws existing in the different countries of the Central
American region and in the spirit of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights;
(2) Establish and develop all institutions likely to contribute to the fight against regional
crime.

 Values of the Regional Bureau

(1) Respect for human rights
(2) Integrity
(3) Commitment to quality
(4) Availability
(5) Team spirit
(6) Co-operation
(7) Responsibility

The RB's main working relationship is with the

Commission of Chiefs and Directors of Police in
Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean (CJPCAMC),
for which the Bureau has served as the Technical
Secretariat since 2009.  This was made possible when
the Secretary General of INTERPOL, Mr Ronald Noble,
visited Nicaragua in April 2009 to sign the agreement
between the two organizations.
The member countries of the CJPCAMC are
Belize, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico,
Nicaragua, Panama and Puerto Rico. 

 Countries served by the Regional Bureau

(1) Belice
(2) Costa Rica
(3) El Salvador
(4) Guatemala
(5) Honduras
(6) Nicaragua
(7) Panama

F. Liaison office Bangkok (LOBANG)

Mission
The mission of the INTERPOL Liaison Office in
Bangkok (LOBANG) is to facilitate, enhance and add value to
international law enforcement co- operation in the Asia and
South Pacific region. This is done in close partnership with all
the National Central Bureaus (NCBs) in the region, as well
as the INTERPOL General Secretariat, in particular, the
Asia and South Pacific (ASP) sub- directorate.  
 
Objective
Our key objectives are:

42
 (1) To work closely with member countries and relevant international organizations to
identify prevailing, as well as emerging, transnational crime issues and threats in the
Asia and South Pacific region, and to proactively initiate cross-border projects and/ or
operations with relevant member countries and international organizations to mitigate
these issues and threats;
(2) To facilitate and promote, in close liaison and co-operation with colleagues in the
INTERPOL General Secretariat, the sharing of criminal information amongst member
countries in the Asia and South Pacific region; and
(3) To provide support to member countries in the Asia and South Pacific region during
major events, crises or disasters under the aegis of an INTERPOL Major Event Support
Team (IMEST) or Incident Response Team (IRT).
 
Activities
Our activities centre around the following crime areas:
(1) Organized crime, with focus on Asian organized crime and stolen motor vehicles;
(2) Trafficking in human beings, with focus on crimes against children;
(3) Terrorism;
(4) Financial and high tech crime; with focus on cybercrime;
(5) Drugs;
(6) Wildlife crime; and
(7) Intellectual property crime, with focus on counterfeit medicines.
 
These activities are driven by project groups who share
information and facilitate communication among member
countries in the region, as well as plan and execute
transnational operations within the region.
Engaging regional police organizations is also an important
part of our workplan. We work actively with ASEANAPOL,
particularly since the signing in 2007 of a Co-operation
Agreement to create an INTERPOL – ASEANAPOL Database
Project. This will allow the sharing of criminal data between the
Electronic ASEANAPOL Database System (e-ADS) and
INTERPOL systems on a business-to-business basis. In short,
ASEANAPOL e-ADS users will be able to contribute criminal information to INTERPOL and
perform screening against INTERPOL databases within the e-ADS environment.

Countries served by the Liaison Office

(1) Brunei Darussalam
(2) Cambodia
(3) China
(4) Hong Kong (China)
(5) Indonesia
(6) Laos
(7) Macao (China)
(8) Malaysia
(9) Myanmar
(10) Philippines
(11) Singapore
(12) South Korea
(13) Thailand
(14) Vietnam

The following countries can also be supported by LOBANG:

(1) Australia
(2) Bangladesh
(3) Bhutan
(4) India
(5) Japan
(6) Maldives

43
 (7) Mongolia
(8) Nepal
(9) Pacific islands
(10) Papua New Guinea
(11) Sri Lanka

G. Yaoundé Regional Bureau

INTERPOL’s Regional Bureau for Central Africa became
operational on 11 May 2009.
The purpose of RB Yaoundé is to:
(1) Represent the INTERPOL General Secretariat in Central
Africa;
(2) Provide support to the INTERPOL National Central
Bureaus (NCBs) in their daily work so as to strengthen and
improve international police co- operation;
(3) To act as the Secretariat for CAPCCO (The Central Africa
Police Chiefs Co-operation Organization) and support the implementation of resolutions
from regional conferences and CAPCCO meetings.

Aims and activities

The activities of the Bureau will be centred on facilitating police co-operation at a regional
level. This involves:
 Producing regular reports on crime trends in the region;
 Analysing police information;
 Providing training;
 Organizing specialized meetings;
 Supporting police operations.
These combined activities will strengthen the fight against priority crimes in the region, which
have been identified as fraud of all types, maritime piracy, trafficking in human beings, armed
robbery, trafficking of stolen vehicles and drugs.
Countries served by the Regional Bureau
RB Yaoundé serves the following eight countries:
(1) Cameroon
(2) Chad
(3) Congo
(4) Central African Republic
(5) Democratic Republic of Congo
(6) Equatorial Guinea
(7) Gabon
(8) Sao Tome and Principe

IX. International partners

Transnational crime cannot be tackled in isolation;
its reach is wider than traditional law enforcement.
Partnerships with other organizations and the private and
public sectors are essential to tackle challenges in common areas.

A stronger voice on the international stage

At INTERPOL, we work with partners across the globe to share skills and knowledge and
to establish a clear basis for joint activities and operations.
We have solidly strengthened our presence on the international stage to support our
aims. We have built more partnerships and developed joint initiatives. From customs to
copyright, more than 60 cooperation agreements with other international organizations are in
force today.

United Nations
Our collaboration with the United Nations, already formalized in
1996 by a cooperation agreement that includes observer status at

44
 respective general assemblies, was further boosted by the opening of an INTERPOL special
liaison office at the UN in New York in 2004.
This facilitated the creation of the INTERPOL-United Nations Security Council Special
Notice for individuals and entities subject to UN counter-terrorism sanctions, and led to a
landmark ministerial meeting in 2009 on the role of police in UN peacekeeping missions.

European Union
To strengthen our relationship with the European Union, a special
liaison office in Brussels was opened in 2009, and our collaboration with
Europol is strengthened continually through an exchange of officers.
Generous funding from the EU has enabled us to implement many
projects, such as the expansion of access to our secure global police
communications system (I-24/7) at remote sites throughout the
Commonwealth of Independent States.

G8 and WHO
The Group of Eight (forum for the governments of eight of the
world's largest economies) has provided important backing for our
initiatives, including the development of the International Child
Sexual Exploitation image database, while we have collaborated
successfully with the World Health Organization, in particular
in leading the enforcement arm of their International Medical Products Anti-
Counterfeiting Taskforce (IMPACT).

Note: G8 - The forum originated with a 1975 summit hosted by France that brought together
representatives of six governments: France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom,
and the United States, thus leading to the name Group of Six or G6. The summit became
known as the Group of Seven or G7 the following year with the addition of Canada. In 1997,
Russia was added to group which then became known as the G8. The European Union is
represented within the G8 but cannot host or chair summits.

Private sector
Additionally, we have forged partnerships with the private sector in areas such as currency
and document security. We are working with private companies on the INTERPOL Travel
Document initiative which aims to facilitate the international travel of officials on INTERPOL
business by waiving visa requirements.

X. Interpol expertise
Forensics
Forensic expertise and the exchange of forensic data is vital to international
investigations.
At INTERPOL, we maintain databases of fingerprints and DNA profiles, allowing police
across the world to make connections between crimes and crime scenes. We also provide
training to police in our member countries, to ensure that frontline officers have the knowledge
and skills necessary to assess, preserve and share evidence in line with best practices.

Three main areas of forensic expertise are:

 Fingerprints
 DNA
 DVI

Fingerprints

Fingerprint evidence plays a crucial role in criminal investigations. Since a person’s

fingerprints are unique and do not change during the course of their life, they can be used to
quickly and efficiently confirm or disprove a person’s identity,
for example, in checking a suspect at a border crossing. 
In addition, finger marks can be collected at a
crime scene and have the potential to link a series of

45
crimes together, or to place a suspect at the scene. Fingerprints play an equally important role
in identifying victims following a disaster such as a cyclone, earthquake, bombing or other
attack. 

INTERPOL's fingerprints database

At INTERPOL, we manage a database of fingerprints, containing more than 151,000
fingerprint records and more than 5,000 crime scene marks. 
Authorized users in member countries can view, submit and cross-check records using
I-24/7, INTERPOL’s secure global police communications network, via a user-friendly automatic
fingerprint identification system (AFIS).
Law enforcement officers can take fingerprints using an electronic device or can take
them manually using ink and paper then use a special scanner to save the data electronically in
the appropriate format. They then submit the data to the INTERPOL General Secretariat to be
uploaded to the database. Records are saved and exchanged in the format set by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
We actively encourage member countries to use the database as extensively as possible,
and increase the number of relevant fingerprints in the system.
In 2011, we made around 1,800 identifications as a result of increased data sharing and
comparison by member countries.

Innovation 
Interpol implemented in 2010 a new AFIS which is capable of searching and filing palm
prints and latent palm marks. Automated ten-print verification has been introduced, along with
a high-volume search facility that allows more than 1,000 comparisons per day against the
INTERPOL fingerprint database. 

Sharing best practice

An International Fingerprint Symposium takes place every two years. Attended by the
Heads of National Fingerprint Bureaus, INTERPOL representatives and private companies, it
provides an opportunity for experts from around the world to share best practice and latest
developments. 
In addition to the Symposium, INTERPOL organizes an AFIS experts’ working group.
This takes place twice a year and is a forum for discussing new technology, identification
procedures and training needs, and for ensuring that INTERPOL’s systems comply with the
necessary standards.
The group has agreed the INTERPOL Implementation of ANSI/NIST-ITL 1-2007: access
version 5.03 here (dated 7 April 2011).

International Symposium on Fingerprints

Every two years INTERPOL organizes an International Symposium on Fingerprints.
The three-day event is attended by delegates from all INTERPOL regions while leading AFIS
vendors are also invited to present the latest developments in AFIS technology.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules contain

the information all living cells in the human body need to
function. They also control the inheritance of characteristics
from parents to offspring. 
With the exception of identical twins, each person’s
DNA is unique, which makes DNA sampling useful for solving
crimes, identifying victims of disasters, and locating missing
persons. 

The role of DNA in solving crimes

46
 DNA profiling can play a crucial role in solving crimes, as it has the potential to link a
series of crimes and/or to place a suspect at the scene of a crime. Just as importantly, DNA can
help to prove a suspect’s innocence. 
The first step in obtaining DNA profiles for comparison is the collection of samples from
crime scenes and reference samples from suspects. Samples are commonly obtained from
blood, hair or body fluids. Advances in DNA technology enable samples to be obtained from
decreasingly smaller traces of DNA found at crime scenes.
Using forensic science methods, the sample is analysed, resulting in a DNA profile that
can be compared against other DNA profiles within a database. This creates the opportunity for
‘hits’ – person-to-scene, scene-to-scene or person-to-person matches – where no previous
connection was known.

INTERPOL’s DNA database

Police in member countries can submit a DNA profile from offenders, crime scenes,
missing persons and unidentified bodies to INTERPOL’s automated DNA database.
Known as the DNA Gateway, the database was initiated in 2002 with a single DNA
profile but, by the end of 2011, it contained more than 117,000 DNA profiles contributed by 61
member countries.
Participating countries actively use the DNA Gateway as a tool in their criminal
investigations, and it regularly detects potential links between DNA profiles submitted by
member countries. Searches of the database by member countries led to 54 international hits
during 2010. 
Member countries can access the database via the organization’s I-24/7 global police
communications system and, upon request, access can be extended beyond the member
countries’ National Central Bureaus to forensic centres and laboratories. 

Data protection
INTERPOL serves only as the conduit for the sharing and comparison of information. We
do not keep any nominal data linking a DNA profile to any individual. A DNA profile is simply a
list of numbers based on the pattern of an individual’s DNA, producing a numerical code which
can be used to differentiate individuals. 
This profile does not contain information about a person’s physical or psychological
characteristics, diseases or predisposition for diseases. Member countries that use the DNA
Gateway retain ownership of their profile data and control its submission, access by other
countries and destruction in accordance with their national laws.
Promoting standards, ethics and best practice
Interpol advocate international technical standards and systems in order to enhance the
opportunities for successful cross-border collaboration. For example:
(1) The DNA Gateway is developed to its internationally recognized standard to facilitate the
electronic transfer of DNA data between INTERPOL and its member countries.
(2) The Gateway is also compatible with the EU Pruem convention (a 2005 initiative to
simplify data exchange in the EU countries), and for selected international export of DNA
profiles for countries using CODIS (the FBI-designed DNA matching software).
(3) The G8 DNA Search Request Network uses INTERPOL’s I-24/7 system and DNA
standards to communicate profiles among G8 countries.
In addition to the DNA Gateway, INTERPOL strongly supports the increased use of DNA
profiling in international police investigations through a variety of other activities:
(1) The Monitoring Expert Group is a panel of forensic experts and senior investigators
which advises INTERPOL and encourages authorities in member countries to implement
or expand national DNA databases.
(2) A DNA Users’ Conference for investigative officers, held every two years, examines
developments in DNA applications and encourages the widespread use of best practice
and DNA technology in criminal investigations.
(3) Regional and national INTERPOL DNA workshops are organized to encourage and
facilitate international DNA exchange through the INTERPOL DNA Gateway.

Disaster Victim Identification (DVI)

The process of identifying victims of major disasters such as terrorist attacks or
earthquakes is rarely possible by visual recognition.

47
 Comparison of fingerprints, dental records or DNA samples with ones stored in
databases or taken from victims’ personal effects are often required to obtain a conclusive
identification.
As people are travelling more and more, there is also a high probability that a disaster
will result in the deaths of nationals from many different countries.

International coordination
When a major disaster occurs, one country
alone may not have sufficient resources to deal with
mass casualties. In some cases, the incident may have
damaged or destroyed the country’s existing emergency-
response infrastructure, making the task of victim
identification even more difficult.
A coordinated effort by the international community
can significantly speed up the victim recovery and
identification process, enabling victims’ families to begin the healing process and societies to
rebuild, and, in the event of a terrorism incident, assisting investigators to identify possible
attackers.

A range of support
Member countries can call on INTERPOL for assistance in disaster victim identification (DVI)
immediately in the aftermath of a disaster. The services offered by INTERPOL include:
(1) A downloadable DVI guide;
(2) Assistance from the Command and Coordination Centre at the INTERPOL General
Secretariat in Lyon, France, to send messages between National Central Bureaus 24
hours a day in Arabic, English, French or Spanish;
(3) An Incident Response Team to provide further assistance upon request, such as on-site
investigative support or connection to INTERPOL’s databases. 

Multi-dimensional approach
INTERPOL's DVI activities are supported by a Steering Group and a Standing Committee on
Disaster Victim Identification, both of which are made up of forensic and police experts. The
Steering Group formulates INTERPOL DVI policy and strategic planning while the Standing
Committee meets regularly to discuss improvements to procedures and standards in DVI
matters. Policies and guidelines have been produced in the following areas and are backed up
by training programmes:
(1) Victim care and family support;
(2) Occupational care for DVI teams;
(3) Compliance with international standards and forensic quality assurance controls;
(4) Information-sharing and exchange;
(5) Operational assistance to countries which lack DVI capacity.

Intelligence analysis
Criminal intelligence analysis (also referred to as "crime analysis") is a recognized law
enforcement support tool.
In recent years, analysis techniques have become increasingly used by police forces,
international organizations and the private sector.
INTERPOL's definition of criminal intelligence analysis is as follows:
"The identification of and provision of insight into the relationship between crime data
and other potentially relevant data with a view to police and judicial practice."

The central tasks of analysis are to:

(1) Help officials – law enforcers, policy makers, and decision makers – deal more
effectively with uncertainty;
(2) Provide timely warning of threats;
(3) Support operational activity by analysing crime.

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 Operational and strategic analysis
Criminal intelligence analysis is divided into operational (or tactical) and strategic
analysis. The basic skills required are similar, and the difference lies in the level of detail and
the type of client for whom the products are produced.
Operational analysis aims to achieve a specific law enforcement outcome. This might be
arrests, seizure or forfeiture of assets or money gained from criminal activities, or the disruption
of a criminal group. Operational analysis usually has an immediate benefit.
Strategic analysis is intended to inform higher level decision making and the benefits are
realized over the longer term. It is usually aimed at managers and policy-makers rather than
individual investigators. The intention is to provide early warning of threats and to support
senior decision-makers in setting priorities to prepare their organizations to be able to deal with
emerging criminal issues. This might mean allocating resources to different areas of crime,
increased training in a crime fighting technique, or taking steps to close a loophole in a
process. 
At INTERPOL, our criminal analysts provide both operational and strategic analytical
support – to units focusing on specialized crime areas, and to our member countries – as well
as providing training and consultancy in analytical matters.

RAID Database
The Real-time Analytical Intelligence Database (RAID) application is an analytical database
created by the US National Drug Intelligence Center which we are authorized to install for
member countries free of charge.
In conjunction with its deployment, we offer training to assist users in cataloguing and
analysing information collected from seized evidence or other intelligence sources, and to
organize and share case information of criminal investigations.

XI. Crime Areas

INTERPOL'S SIX PRIORITY CRIME AREAS

Drugs and criminal
organizations
Tackling the growing
problem of drug abuse
and trafficking, often
linked to other crimes.
Public safety and
terrorism
Countering terrorism,
which threatens public
safety and world
security.

Financial and High- Trafficking in human

tech Crime beings
Combating Fighting abuse and
counterfeiting, exploitation of people,
payment card fraud, which breach human
intellectual property rights and destroy
and cyber-crime. lives.

Fugitives Corruption
Tracing fugitives, who 'Working together
threaten public safety towards a corruption-
and undermine free world by
criminal justice promoting and
systems. defending integrity,
justice and the rule of
law.’

1. DRUGS AND CRIMINAL ORGANIZATIONS

 The drug trade involves growers, producers, couriers,
suppliers, dealers and users and affects people in
almost all of INTERPOL’s 188 member
countries.

49
  INTERPOL’s criminal intelligence officers focus on the most commonly used and trafficked
narcotic drugs – cocaine, heroin, cannabis, and synthetic drugs – as well as precursor
chemicals and doping substances.
 INTERPOL’s primary drug-control role is to identify new drug trafficking trends and criminal
organizations operating at the international level and to assist all national and international
law enforcement bodies concerned with countering the illicit production, trafficking and
abuse of drugs by:
a. Collecting and analyzing data obtained from member countries for strategic and
tactical intelligence reports and disseminating these reports to the concerned
countries;
b. Responding to and supporting international drug investigations;
c. Helping to coordinate drug investigations involving at least two member countries;
d. Organizing operational working meetings between member countries where
INTERPOL has identified common links in cases being investigated in these
countries;
e. Organizing regional or global conferences on specific drug topics, the aims of which
are to assess the extent of the drug problem, exchange information on the latest
investigative techniques and strengthen cooperation within the law enforcement
community.
 INTERPOL maintains close liaison with national law enforcement agencies and with non-
governmental organizations (NGO) that have a counterdrug mandate. This constant
communication is crucial to fulfilling INTERPOL’s mission to aid the international community
in curbing illicit drug trafficking and sales.

2. FINANCIAL AND HIGH- TECH CRIME

 Financial crime, also often referred to as white-collar
crime, covers a wide range of criminal offences which
are generally international in nature.
 Closely connected to cybercrime, financial crimes are
often committed via the Internet and have a major
impact on the international banking and
financial sectors – both official and alternative.
 Financial crimes affect private individuals, companies, organizations and even nations, and
have a negative impact on the entire economic and social system through the considerable
loss of money incurred.

Financial and High-tech Crimes – Currency counterfeiting, money laundering, intellectual

property crime, payment card fraud, computer virus attacks and cyber-terrorism, for example –
can affect all levels of society.
Currency counterfeiting and money laundering have the potential to destabilize national
economies and threaten global security, as these activities are sometimes used by terrorists and
other dangerous criminals to finance their activities or conceal their profits.
Intellectual Property Crime is a serious financial concern for car manufacturers, luxury
goods makers, media firms and drug companies. Most alarmingly, counterfeiting endangers
public health, especially in developing countries, where the World Health Organization estimates
more than 60 per cent of pharmaceuticals are fake.
‘Spam’ is becoming more than just a nuisance for Internet users, as criminals are using
it in increasingly sophisticated ways to defraud consumers, cripple computer systems and
release viruses. In 2000, the so-called ‘Love Bug’ virus, which affected millions of computers
around the world within hours, exposed the vulnerability of corporate and government networks
to such attacks. New technologies open up many possibilities for criminals to carry out
traditional financial crimes in new ways. One notable example is ‘phishing’, whereby a criminal
attempts to acquire through e-mail or instant messaging sensitive information such as
passwords or credit card details by pretending to be a legitimate business representative. With
this information, the criminal can commit fraud and even money laundering.
INTERPOL has stepped up its efforts in this area, working with stakeholders such as
pharmaceutical makers, Internet service providers, software companies, central banks and
other relevant bodies to devise solutions to thwart criminals and protect consumers.
INTERPOL’s chief initiatives in the area of financial and high-tech crime focus on:

50
 1. Payment cards - Payment card fraud is a generic term used to describe a range of
offences involving theft and the fraudulent use of payment card account data. Frequent
types of payment card fraud include:
 Application fraud – a type of ID theft crime in which payment cards are obtained
through a fraudulent application process using stolen or counterfeit documents.
 Account takeover – another type of ID theft crime, this usually involves deception of a
financial institution, re-issue of a payment card and its redirection to a different address.
 Lost / stolen card – as the name suggests, this type of fraud involves misuse of actual
cards that are either lost or stolen from the genuine cardholder.
 Counterfeit card – this is fraud undertaken using plastic cards that have been
specifically produced or existing cards that have been altered. These cards are encoded
with illegally obtained payment card account data in order to pay for goods and services
or to withdraw cash.
 Card not present (CNP) – this type of fraud is committed using payment card account
data to undertake transactions where there is no face-to-face contact between the seller
and purchaser. Typically, this type of fraud is committed by Internet, mail order or
telephone. CNP fraud is currently the fastest growing payment card related type of fraud
in many areas of the world.
2. Money laundering – INTERPOL's definition of money laundering is: "any act or attempted
act to conceal or disguise the identity of illegally obtained proceeds so that they appear to
have originated from legitimate sources".
Illegally obtained funds are laundered and moved around the globe using and abusing
shell companies, intermediaries and money transmitters. In this way, the illegal funds
remain hidden and are integrated into legal business and into the legal economy.
At INTERPOL, we work to combat money laundering through the global exchange of
data, supporting operations in the field, and bringing together experts from the variety of
sectors concerned. We work closely with other international organizations to foster
international awareness of the importance of using financial investigative techniques against
organized criminal activities and to avoid duplication of effort.
3. Currency counterfeiting – The crime of counterfeiting currency is as old as the creation
of money itself. Recent developments in photographic, computer and printing technologies,
along with the availability of low-cost equipment, have made the production of counterfeit
money relatively easy.
Criminals often use stolen or fake identity documents in order to carry out financial crimes.
We are leading an international, cross-sector partnership to improve the level of security of
official documents.
4. Financial fraud – Different types of fraud include confidence tricks, lottery fraud and
advance-fee fraud (including so-called Nigerian Letters or 419 Fraud), as well as insurance
fraud, tax avoidance, offshore investment scams, marriage fraud, pyramid schemes and 
payment card fraud.
These crimes often have an international dimension and are committed through a
variety of media, for instance by the Internet, telephone, fax and post.
Sophisticated social engineering techniques are carried out on the Internet to trick
people into revealing personal data, banking details and passwords. One of these
techniques is “phishing”, in which fraudsters create fake communications – such as emails,
instant messages and pop up windows – that may appear to come from a legitimate source.
5. New technologies
6. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) Programme

3. FUGITIVES

 Fugitives pose a serious threat to public safety

worldwide. They are mobile (often travelling
between countries on stolen or fraudulent travel
documents), and opportunistic, frequently
financing their continued flight from the law through
further criminal activities.
 Fugitives also undermine the world’s criminal justice systems. They may have been
charged with a violation of the law but not been arrested. They may have been released on

51
 bail and then fled to avoid prosecution or perhaps they have escaped from prison. When
fugitives flee, cases are not adjudicated, convicted criminals fail to meet their obligations,
and crime victims are denied justice.
 INTERPOL’s activities in relation to international fugitives have been part of its core
business since the organization’s creation.
 INTERPOL circulates internationally, at the request of member countries, electronic
diffusions and notices containing identification details and judicial information about
wanted criminals.
 The INTERPOL Red Notice has been recognized in a number of countries as having the
legal value to serve as a basis for provisional arrest. The persons concerned are wanted
by national jurisdictions or International Criminal Tribunals, where appropriate, and the
Red Notice is intended to help police identify or locate these individuals with a view to
their arrest and extradition.
 INTERPOL created the Fugitive Investigative Service to offer more proactive and
systematic assistance to member countries by:
 Providing investigative support to member countries in ongoing international fugitive
investigations with a view to locating and arresting wanted persons;
 Co-ordinating and enhancing international co-operation in the field of fugitive
investigations;
 Collecting and disseminating best practice and expert knowledge;
 Conducting and co-ordinating relevant research and serve as a global point of reference
for fugitive-related information.

Red notices for wanted persons

One of our most powerful tools in tracking international fugitives is the Red Notice. This
seeks the provisional arrest of a wanted person with a view to extradition and is circulated to
police in all our member countries. Red notices contain identification details and judicial
information about the wanted person.

4. PUBLIC SAFETY AND TERRORISM

 Terrorism poses a grave threat to individuals’ lives and national security around the
world. INTERPOL has therefore made available various resources to support member
countries in their efforts to protect their citizens from terrorism, including bio-terrorism;
firearms and explosives; attacks against civil aviation; maritime piracy; and weapons of
mass destruction.
 INTERPOL collects stores, analyses and exchanges
information about suspected individuals and
groups and their activities. The organization also
co-ordinates the circulation of alerts and
warnings on terrorists, dangerous criminals and
weapons threats to police in member countries.
 A chief initiative in this area is the Fusion Task
Force, which was created in the aftermath of the 11
September attacks in the United States.
 In order to help member countries report terrorist activity, INTERPOL has issued
practical guidelines on the type of information required. Member countries are also
encouraged to report on other crimes which may be linked to terrorism, such as suspicious
financial transactions, weapons trafficking, money laundering, falsified travel and identity
documents, and seizures of nuclear, chemical and biological materials.
 The growing possibility of terrorists launching attacks with biological or chemical
weapons is a particularly urgent concern. A dedicated bio-terrorism unit at the General
Secretariat works to implement various projects with the close co-operation of INTERPOL
National Central.
 INTERPOL run a number of initiatives to support member countries in their efforts to
protect their citizens from terrorism in its many forms.

CBRNe terrorism

52
 The umbrella term 'CBRNe' refers to terrorist incidents carried out with chemical,
biological, radiological, nuclear and explosives materials. Clearly, an attack of this nature would
constitute a major threat to public safety and security, both nationally and internationally. 

Counter-terrorism tools
Interpol also circulates alerts and warnings on terrorists, dangerous criminals and
weapons threats to police in member countries. These alerts are known as Orange Notices.
Additionally, the INTERPOL-United Nations Security Council Special Notice is used to alert
member countries to individuals and entities associated with Al-Qaida and the Taliban, as listed
by the 1267 Committee of the UN Security Council, and to help countries implement the
freezing of assets, travel bans and arms embargoes.
In the event of a terrorist attack, member countries may request the assistance of an
INTERPOL Incident Response Team (IRT). Experts can be quickly deployed to the site of the
incident to provide a range of investigative and analytical support services, in coordination with
the General Secretariat.

5. TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS

 "Trafficking in persons shall mean the
recruitment, transportation, transfer,
harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the
threat or use of force (…), for the purpose of
exploitation." (Protocol to the UN Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime, Palermo 2000
 Estimates have placed human trafficking and illicit
migration as a USD 28 billion enterprise, steadily
catching up with drug and arms trafficking.
 Trafficking in human beings (THB) is a crime that
amounts to modern slavery and is a complex issue, requiring a multitude of strategies at a
range of levels to reduce the problem.

FIVE FORMS OF TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEING

1. Trafficking in women for sexual exploitation

 This is a multi-billion-dollar business which involves citizens of most countries and helps
sustain organized crime. A violation of human rights, trafficking in women destroys the
lives of its victims.
 Human trafficking is distinct from people smuggling in that it involves the exploitation of
the migrant, often for purposes of forced labour and prostitution.
 This prevalent form of trafficking affects every region in the world, either as a source,
transit or destination country. Women and children from developing countries, and from
vulnerable parts of society in developed countries, are lured by promises of decent
employment into leaving their homes and travelling to what they consider will be a
better life. Victims are often provided with false travel documents and an organized
network is used to transport them to the destination country, where they find
themselves forced into sexual slavery and held in inhumane conditions and constant
fear.

2. People smuggling
 Implies the procurement, for financial or material gain, of the illegal entry into a state of
which that person is neither a citizen nor a permanent resident. Criminal networks which
smuggle and traffic in human beings for financial gain increasingly control the flow of
migrants across borders.
 A broad distinction can be made between people smuggling and human trafficking. In
general, the individuals who pay a smuggler in order to gain illegal entry to a country do
so voluntarily whereas the victims of human trafficking are often duped or forced into
entering another country.

53
  In principle, the relationship between smuggler and migrant ends once the individual
arrives in the new country. However, there is evidence that people smugglers continue
to exploit illegal migrants, through threats and demands for additional fees.

3. Child sexual exploitation

 Exploitation of children on the Internet ranges from posed photos to visual recordings of
brutal sexual crimes. One of INTERPOL’s main tools for helping police fight this type of
crime is the International Child Sexual Exploitation Image database (ICSE DB).
Containing hundreds of thousands of images of child sexual abuse submitted by member
countries, the ICSE DB facilitates the sharing of images and information thereby
assisting law enforcement agencies with the identification of new victims.
 This crime type has been apparent in Asia for many years and has now taken hold in
Africa as well as Central and South America. The phenomenon is promoted by the
growth of inexpensive air travel and the relatively low risk of prohibition and prosecution
in these destinations for engaging in sexual relations with minors

4. Trafficking for forced labour/servitude

 Victims of this equally widespread form of trafficking come primarily from developing
countries. They are recruited and trafficked using deception and coercion and find
themselves held in conditions of slavery in a variety of jobs.
 Men, women and children are engaged in agricultural and construction work, domestic
servitude and other labour-intensive jobs.
5. Trafficking in organs
 Trafficking in human beings for the purpose of using their organs, in particular
kidneys is a rapidly growing field of criminal activity. In many countries waiting lists for
transplants are very long, and criminals have seized this opportunity to exploit the
desperation of patients and potential donors.
 Victims are often misinformed about the medical aspects of the organ removal
and deceived about the sums they will receive. Their health, even life, is at risk as
operations may be carried out in clandestine conditions with no medical follow-up.
 The health of victims, even their lives, is at risk as operations may be carried out
in clandestine conditions with no medical follow-up. An ageing population and increased
incidence of diabetes in many developed countries is likely to increase the requirement
for organ transplants and make this crime even more lucrative.

INTERPOL's response
Trafficking in human beings is a crime under international law and many national and
regional legal systems. Given the complexities of the issue, a multitude of strategies are
necessary at a range of levels in order to reduce the problem.

FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION

 INTERPOL actively seeks to increase and improve international law enforcement co-
operation in order to help combat this global crime.
 The United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and the
additional Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons are key platforms
in disrupting and dismantling THB, giving guidelines for law enforcement action.
 The protocol urges an increase in the information exchange between states in order to
determine:
 Whether individuals crossing or attempting to cross an international border with
travel documents belonging to other persons or without travel documents are
perpetrators or victims of trafficking in persons;
 The types of travel document that individuals have used or attempted to use to
cross an international border for the purpose of trafficking in persons;
 The means and methods used by organized criminal groups for the purpose of
trafficking in persons, including the recruitment and transportation of victims, routes and
links between and among individuals and groups engaged in such trafficking, and
possible means for detecting them.

6. CORRUPTION

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  Corruption affects all regions of the world and all levels of society, but the impact is
greatest in developing countries. Every year, developing countries lose USD 50 million to
100 million through corrupt acts (World Bank estimate, 2004).
 Corruption undermines political, social and economic stability and damages trust in
institutions and authorities. It also fuels transnational crime. Terrorists and organized
criminals are aided in their illegal activities by the complicity of corrupt public officials.
Corruption is of particular concern for the world’s police and judicial systems, as
corruption in one country can compromise an entire international investigation.
 There is clear recognition by the international community that further work to enhance
cooperation between law enforcement authorities is needed in order to coordinate global
action against corruption.
 Corruption undermines political, social and economic stability. It threatens security and
damages trust and public confidence in systems which affect people’s daily lives.
Although corruption frequently occurs at local or national level, its consequences are
global; its hidden costs immense.

INTERPOL and corruption

 As the world’s largest international police organization, INTERPOL is taking its
place at the forefront of the fight against corruption. Corruption is one of
INTERPOL’s six priority crime areas.

What INTERPOL does?

At INTERPOL, we are involved in a growing number of projects and partnerships as we
develop our capabilities in the fight against corruption worldwide. We are focusing increasingly
on providing operational support to our member countries.

Three major projects strategy:

1. International asset recovery: We are developing initiatives to assist law enforcement
bodies in returning stolen public funds to victim countries. The Global Focal Point
Initiative, supported by INTERPOL and StAR, is a key tool in this area, allowing
designated officers around the world to exchange information and better coordinate
their investigations.
2. Corruption Response Teams (CRTs) provide targeted operational support to countries
that request it, through a rapidly deployable team of INTERPOL experts in order to
support on-going corruption-related investigations in the field.
3. The INTERPOL Group of Experts on Corruption (IGEC) develops and implements new
initiatives to strengthen the law enforcement response in the fight against corruption. A
multi-disciplinary group with members from all regions of the world, it coordinates and
harmonizes different national and regional approaches to corruption.

INTERPOL Group of Experts on Corruption (IGEC)

(1) Aims to develop and implement new initiatives to further law enforcement’s efficiency in
the fight against corruption.
(2) It is a multi-disciplinary group with members from all regions of the world, coordinating
and harmonizing different national and regional approaches.

Integrity in Sport develops and implements global anti-corruption training, education

and prevention programmes with a focus on regular and irregular betting as well as match-
fixing. The objective is to improve key individual’s awareness of the issues, the strategies used
by its perpetrators and the methods to detect and counteract them.
Partners
We recognize that the complexities of international corruption require a multi-sector and
cross-border response. As such, we work closely with a number of partners to fight corruption
globally. Activities include promoting the exchange of information, establishing best practices
and providing training to officers around the globe. The United Nations Convention against
Corruption (UNCAC) sets out an international framework invaluable in the fight against
corruption and serves as a guide to many of our initiatives.
International partners include, among others:

55
  The World Bank;
 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime;
 US Department of State;
 United Nations Development Programme;
 Basel Institute on Governance.
 
INTERPOL and the Stolen Asset Recovery (StAR) Database
 INTERPOL, in partnership with the StAR Initiative, is working towards the
recovery and return of stolen assets.
 This project allows INTERPOL to actively engage national law enforcement
bodies in co-ordinated efforts to trace, seize, confiscate and return public funds to victim
countries

Other Crime Areas

1. Crimes against children

Crimes against children tend to be local crimes
with the vast majority taking place within the home or family
circle.  There are, however, a number of areas where there is
an international angle:  
Internet crimes: crimes against children are
facilitated by the Internet, the increased use of which in recent years has led to a huge rise in
offending. Not only can offenders distribute and access child abuse material more easily, but
they can also come into direct contact with children – via chatrooms and social networking
sites. We run a project in conjunction with Internet Access Service Providers to block access to
child abuse material online. 
Travelling sex offenders: also known as “sex tourism”, this type of crime involves the
abuse of children in developing countries by people who travel there. The relative wealth of the
offender coupled with lack of understanding or effective legislation means that the abuse of
children is easier in these countries. This type of crime is linked to child trafficking, organized
crime and murder.
These types of crimes represent a huge challenge for police worldwide and require specialized
skills and increased resources. At INTERPOL, we encourage investigators around the world to
make maximum use of our tools and services.
Victim identification: we work to identify the victims of child sexual abuse depicted in
photographs and films. This involves a combination of traditional investigative methods and
image analysis. Crucial to this work is the International Child Sexual Exploitation image
database which uses sophisticated image comparison software to make connections between
victims and places.
Yellow Notices: at the request of a member country, INTERPOL can issue a yellow
notice to help locate missing persons, especially minors. These notices are circulated on an
international basis and recorded in INTERPOL's database of missing and abducted children.
We also provide training and promote best practice to police in our member countries. We bring
together experts in the INTERPOL Specialists Group on Crimes against Children. Formed in
1992, this group consists of a number of sub-groups dealing with particular issues and chaired
by investigators from around the world.
In addition, we work closely with many other agencies, both governmental and non -
governmental, in this area and are involved in many training programmes and other projects
worldwide. In particular, we work in partnership with CIRCAMP (the COSPOL Internet Related
Child Abuse Material Project) and the Virtual Global Taskforce.
It is worth noting that we avoid using the term "child pornography" when describing
images of sexual abuse of children. Other, more appropriate terminology includes the term
"child sexual abuse material".

2. Cybercrime
Cybercrime is one of the fastest growing areas of
crime. More and more criminals are exploiting the
speed, convenience and anonymity that modern

56
technologies offer in order to commit a diverse range of criminal activities. These include
attacks against computer data and systems, identity theft, the distribution of child sexual abuse
images, internet auction fraud, the penetration of online financial services, as well as the
deployment of viruses, Botnets, and various email scams such as phishing.
The global nature of the Internet has allowed criminals to commit almost any illegal
activity anywhere in the world, making it essential for all countries to adapt their domestic
offline controls to cover crimes carried out in cyberspace. The use of the Internet by terrorists,
particularly for recruitment and the incitement of radicalization, poses a serious threat to
national and international security.
In addition, the threat of terrorism forces authorities to address security vulnerabilities
related to information technology infrastructure such as power plants, electrical grids,
information systems and the computer systems of government and major companies.

The changing nature of cybercrime

In the past, cybercrime has been committed by individuals or small groups of
individuals. However, we are now seeing an emerging trend with traditional organized crime
syndicates and criminally minded technology professionals working together and pooling their
resources and expertise.
This approach has been very effective for the criminals involved. In 2007 and 2008 the
cost of cybercrime worldwide was estimated at approximately USD 8 billion. As for corporate
cyber espionage, cyber criminals have stolen intellectual property from businesses worldwide
worth up to USD 1 trillion.

INTERPOL's role
INTERPOL’s cybercrime programme is built around training and operations and works to
keep up with emerging threats. It aims to:
Promote the exchange of information among member countries through regional working
parties and conferences;
Deliver training courses to build and maintain professional standards;
Coordinate and assist international operations;
Establish a global list of contact officers available around the clock for cybercrime
investigations (the list contained 131 contacts at the end of 2011);
Assist member countries in the event of cyber-attacks or cybercrime investigations
through investigative and database services;
Develop strategic partnerships with other international organizations and private sector
bodies;
Identify emerging threats and share this intelligence with member countries;
Provide a secure web portal for accessing operational information and documents.

3. Intellectual property crime and counterfeiting

At INTERPOL, we are working to identify, disrupt
and dismantle transnational organized networks behind
intellectual property (IP) crime.
Trademark (counterfeiting) and copyright
(piracy) infringements are serious IP crimes. They
defraud consumers; threaten the health of patients; cost
society billions of dollars in lost government revenues, foreign
investments or business profits; and violate the rights
of trademark, patent, and copyright owners.

Major risks to consumers
Imitation products pose a significant safety threat to consumers worldwide.
For example, unsuspecting members of the public can put not only their health in
jeopardy but also their life when they use counterfeit products, such as substandard electrical
goods or personal care products, or when they travel in vehicles maintained with counterfeit
parts.
Also of concern is the increasing prevalence of fake and substandard food and drink and
the obvious health risks that they pose.
INTERPOL's response

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Our activities revolve around three main areas:
 Operations: we support regional and global operations to break up the networks behind
IP crime and to remove dangerous and sub-standard goods from circulation.
 Training: we deliver clear, consistent and specialized IP crime training programmes
under the umbrella of the International IP Crime Investigators College (IIPCIC). These
enable investigators to effectively combat current and emerging threats.
 Information exchange: we facilitate the sharing of intelligence on IP crime via our
secure police communications system and specialized Database on International
Intellectual Property (DIIP) Crime. The database helps us to analyse trends and better
target our on-the-ground interventions.
Additionally, we provide a central reference point on transnational organized IP crime for all
INTERPOL member countries and public and private stakeholders. We work to build
partnerships with a wide range of representatives across sectors in order to facilitate a
multidisciplinary response to this complex issue. We currently partner with more than   40
different industry sectors and a number of cross-industry associations and representative
bodies.  
As part of this, we organize and participate in a number of international and cross-sector
events and conferences. We are interested in cooperating with law enforcement authorities,
the public and private sectors in the fight against transnational organized IP crime. If you
represent one of these entities and would like to have further information about IP crime
matters please contact us.

4. Environmental crime
Environmental crime is a serious and growing
international problem, and one which takes many
different forms. Broadly speaking, wildlife crime is the
illegal exploitation of the world’s wild flora and fauna,
while pollution crime is the trading and disposal of
hazardous wastes or resources in contravention of
national and international laws.
In addition to these clear and present crimes, new types of environmental crime are emerging,
such as carbon trade and water management crime.

Organized criminal networks

Environmental crime is not restricted by borders, and can affect a nation’s economy,
security and even its existence. A significant proportion of both wildlife and pollution crime is
carried out by organized criminal networks, drawn by the low risk and high profit nature of
these types of crime.
The same routes used to smuggle wildlife across countries and continents are often
used to smuggle weapons, drugs and people. Indeed, environmental crime often occurs hand in
hand with other offences such as passport fraud, corruption, money laundering and murder.

INTERPOL's response
In today’s global economy there is a need for an international strategy to deal with this
type of crime. As the only organization with a mandate to share and process criminal
information globally, INTERPOL is uniquely qualified to lead these efforts.
The INTERPOL Environmental Crime Programme:
 Leads global and regional operations to dismantle the criminal networks behind
environmental crime using intelligence-driven policing;
 Coordinates and develops international law enforcement best practice manuals, guides
and other resources;
 Provides environmental law enforcement agencies with access to our services by
enhancing their links with INTERPOL National Central Bureaus;
 Works with the Environmental Crime Committee to shape the Programme's strategy
and direction.

The INTERPOL Wildlife Crime Working Group and the INTERPOL Pollution Crime Working
Group bring together criminal investigators from around the world to share information and
initiate targeted projects to tackle specific areas of environmental crime.

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5. Firearms (Arm Smuggling)
A threat to the safety of citizens in any country, firearms also pose a wider threat to
security, peace, stability and development.  Firearms are
easy to conceal and transport, and offer lucrative
profits to criminals trafficking in illicit small arms and light
weapons.  No country is unaffected by firearms
violence.
Each year, firearms are used in more than 245,000
homicides worldwide (excluding war-torn countries).
This statistic, however, is only a small percentage of all
crimes committed with firearms, which are widely used
to threaten and support other criminal acts.

Gathering intelligence
To support police officers responsible for investigating firearms-related crimes,
INTERPOL offers three powerful tools which can help member countries obtain firearms
intelligence – using the information on the outside of the firearms and the data that can be
gleaned from inside the weapon – to prevent and solve crime.

The three tools are:

 The INTERPOL Firearms Tracing System (formerly known as IWeTS)
This international communications tool allows an investigator to request the ownership
history for a firearm from the country of origin or legal import. Tracing firearms can provide
valuable intelligence and generate investigative leads for the police to solve crimes.
 The INTERPOL Firearms Reference Table (IFRT)
This tool enables investigators to correctly identify a firearm – its make, model, calibre
and serial number – and significantly increase their chances of identifying its ownership
history when submitting a trace request. The IFRT contains more than 250,000 firearms
references, detailed descriptions and 57,000 high quality images.
 The INTERPOL Ballistic Information Network (IBIN)
Every firearm leaves unique microscopic markings on the surface of fired bullets
and cartridges. Just as fingerprint data can link crimes and criminals across international
borders, IBIN can identify links between pairs of spent bullets and cartridge cases within
minutes, thereby helping forensic experts give police investigators timely information about
crimes, guns and suspects. IBIN is the first platform for the large-scale international
sharing and comparing of ballistics data.

Providing training
In addition, an online firearms identification course is available to authorized users via
INTERPOL's restricted website. Made up of several modules, this course is designed to give
users an understanding of the composition, assembly, function and identification of all types of
firearms: knowledge that is fundamental to any investigation involving firearms.

Centralizing data
No single global repository of information for lost and stolen firearms exists today.
Recognizing the value of such a system, and the need to share critical law enforcement
information quickly and reliably, we are creating a global database accessible by member
countries for lost, stolen, smuggled or trafficked firearms. It is known as the INTERPOL Illicit
Arms

Records and tracing Management System (iARMS)  

Authorized users will be able to query the iARMS system and instantly determine
whether the firearm they seized has been reported to INTERPOL by another member country.
The iARMS project has been funded by the European Union and will be completed in
December 2012.

Issuing warnings

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 The Orange Notice is a tool used to warn police, public entities and other international
organizations about potential threats posed by disguised firearms, weapons, parcel bombs,
other dangerous materials, and when dangerous criminals have escaped police custody.
The Orange Notice provides a warning about weapons when there is reason to believe
that it will help law enforcement and security officials identify a threat they may not detect
under normal circumstances.
Additionally, an Orange Notice may be used to provide law enforcement and security officials
with critical information about radiological, chemical and biological threats.

6. Maritime piracy
In recent years, there has been a significant increase
in the number of attacks on vessels by pirates, in particular
in the Gulf of Aden, Somali Basin and the Indian Ocean.
Vast areas of waters are affected making it a challenge
to prevent maritime piracy incidents.
Maritime piracy affects major shipping lanes,
and puts at risk the lives of seafarers and merchant
seamen from all over the world, of whom hundreds are
taken captive each year.
Millions of dollars in ransom payments are paid to pirates. It is believed that these
payments are divided between the pirates, their leaders and those who finance them.
Intelligence indicates that part of the money is reinvested abroad through Somali emigrants.
Tracing the financial flows of ransom money is one of the main challenges faced by law
enforcement agencies.

INTERPOL's response
The INTERPOL Maritime Piracy Task Force focuses on three main areas to counter
maritime piracy, working closely with the international community:

Improving evidence collection

The maritime environment poses unique difficulties for collecting evidence. We provide
advice, training and equipment to our member countries worldwide in order to improve the
quality and quantity of data collected, and to make sure it is properly preserved and analysed.
With the creation of a Global Database on Maritime Piracy currently in progress,
INTERPOL will be soon in the position to better analyse piracy networks. This will enable us to
help our member countries identify and arrest high-value individuals involved in Somali
maritime piracy – such as piracy leaders and financiers – and to identify their assets.

Facilitating data exchange

A single piracy case will often affect several different nations. Vessels may be flagged,
owned and operated by different countries and manned by multinational crews. The pirates, the
navy which captures them and the nation willing to investigate and prosecute the case are also
likely to be diverse. This makes it crucial to share information between military, law
enforcement and judicial bodies in multiple countries.
Our secure global police communications system, known as I-24/7, and our system of Notices
are key to the sharing of data and the detention of suspected pirates.

Building regional capabilities

The majority of prosecutions for maritime piracy are conducted in African or Asian
countries. We are working to develop the capabilities of police investigation units on a regional
level. By providing specialized training and equipment prior to trial we can increase the
likelihood of successful prosecutions in the future.

Working in partnership
Due to the extent and nature of maritime piracy, international and cross-sector partnerships
are vital in order to prevent, investigate and prosecute these crimes. We work with the
following international organizations. 
(1) United Nations;
(2) International Maritime Organization;

60
 (3) Baltic and International Maritime Council;
(4) European Union;
(5) Europol;
(6) Eurojust;
(7) African Union.

7. Organized crime
Definitions of what constitutes organized crime vary widely from country to country.
Organized networks are typically involved in many
different types of criminal activity spanning several
countries.
These activities may include trafficking in humans,
weapons and drugs, armed robbery, counterfeiting and
money laundering. Indeed, almost all the crimes areas that
we tackle at INTERPOL have an organized aspect.
In this section we focus on three projects that were set
up in response to very particular types of criminal
network, each of which comes with its unique set of challenges.
(1) Pink Panthers – armed jewellery robberies
(2) AOC – Asian organized crime
(3) Millennium – Eurasian criminal organizations
These projects facilitate cooperation among our member countries and stimulate the
exchange of information between all national and international enforcement bodies concerned
with countering these problems.

Aims within these projects are to:

(1) Provide professional and technical expertise;
(2) Collect, analyse and disseminate relevant police data;
(3) Coordinate international investigations;
(4) Identify, establish and maintain contact with experts in the field;
(5) Publish manuals, handbooks and reports for investigators.
Additionally, it pursue strategic partnerships with other international organizations and
institutions active in specific crime areas, and carry out joint projects on an international level.

8. Pharmaceutical crime
A major threat to public health
We are seeing a significant increase in the manufacture, trade and distribution of
counterfeit, stolen and illicit medicines and medical devices. Patients across the world put their
health, even life, at risk by unknowingly consuming fake drugs or genuine drugs that have been
doctored, badly stored or that have expired.
Illicit drugs can contain the wrong dose of active ingredient, or none at all, or a different
ingredient. They are associated with a number of dangers and, at worst, can result in heart
attack, coma or death.

The fight against counterfeit medicines is crucial

in order to ensure the quality of products in circulation and
to protect public health on a global scale.
The increasing prevalence of counterfeit and
illicit goods has been compounded by the rise in
Internet trade, where they can be bought easily, cheaply
and without a prescription. It is impossible to quantify the
extent of the problem, but in some areas of Asia, Africa and Latin America counterfeit medical
goods can form up to 30% of the market.

The problem of organized crime

Organized criminal networks are attracted by the huge profits to be made through
pharmaceutical crime. They operate across national borders in activities that include the import,
export, manufacture and distribution of counterfeit and illicit medicines. Coordinated and cross-

61
 sector action on an international level is therefore vital in order to identify, investigate and
prosecute the criminals behind these crimes.

INTERPOL's response
At INTERPOL, we are tackling this major problem in three main ways:
 Coordinating operations in the field to disrupt transnational criminal networks;
 Delivering training in order to build the skills and knowledge of all those agencies
involved in the fight against pharmaceutical crime;
 Building partnerships across a variety of sectors.

 Vehicle crime
Vehicle crime is a highly organized criminal activity
affecting all regions of the whole world and with clear links to
organized crime and terrorism. Vehicles are not only stolen for
their own sake, but are also trafficked to finance other crimes.
They can also be used as bomb carriers or in the perpetration
of other crimes.

Stolen Motor Vehicle Database

The INTERPOL Stolen Motor Vehicle (SMV) database is
a vital tool in the fight against international vehicle theft and
trafficking.
It allows police in our member countries to run a check against a suspicious vehicle and
find out instantly whether it has been reported as stolen. An international database of this
nature is crucial as vehicles are often trafficked across national borders, sometimes ending up
thousands of miles away from the location where they were stolen.
In 2011, more than 42,000 motor vehicles worldwide were identified as stolen, thanks to
the SMV database. By the end of the year, the number of database records had risen to more
than 7.1 million.

Global initiatives
INTERPOL set up a number of working groups, bringing together experts from across the
world. These working groups have developed a range of projects focusing on specific issues,
for example:
 Delivering training (Project Formatrain)
 Working with car manufacturers (Project INVEX)
 Supporting operations (SMV Task Force)

Assessing new trends in vehicle crime 

Interpol are seeing evidence of increasing trends in the theft of heavy vehicles and trailers.
Evaluations are under way to try to gain a clear picture of the situation and to decide on an
appropriate course of action.

9. Works of art
The theft of cultural objects affects developed and
developing countries alike. The illicit traffic in cultural
heritage is a transnational crime that affects the countries
of origin, transit and final destination.
The illicit trade in works of art is sustained by the
demand from the arts market, the opening of
borders, the improvement in transport systems and the
political instability of certain countries.
INTERPOL are working to raise awareness of
the problem among the relevant organizations and the general public. We encourage not only
police, but also art and antiques dealers and owners of works of art to play an active role in the

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 exchange of information. This combined action will strengthen our efforts to curb the erosion of
our cultural heritage.

International data
We published the first INTERPOL Notice on stolen works of art in 1947. Since then, we
have developed a highly efficient system for circulating information in the form of a database
accessible not only to law enforcement agencies but also to members of the public who have
been provided with specific access rights.
In addition, certain types of data can be accessed openly by the general public:
 The most recent stolen works of art reported to INTERPOL;
 Recovered works of art;
 Works of art that have been recovered but remain unclaimed by their owners;
Further resources are also available on this website:
 The latest INTERPOL posters showing the most wanted works of art.
 Object ID: the international standard for describing cultural objects, in order to facilitate
their identification;
 Frequently asked questions.
INTERPOL worked in partnership with other international organizations, such as:
 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO);
 International Council of Museums (ICOM);
 United Nations Organization for Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
 World Customs Organization (WCO).

XII. INTERPOL NOTICE SYSTEM

The ‘Notices System’ is a significant INTERPOL information tool, and its use is key for
successful international police cooperation. Notices help inform member countries of critical
crime-related information, such as the movements of known international criminals who are
either subject to arrest and extradition, or suspected of criminal involvement.
INTERPOL’s Notices are distributed electronically by INTERPOL Headquarters to the
member countries, which normally include this information in their national databases or
‘lookout’ systems in order to make the information available to police services at the local level,
such as at border-control checkpoints. For ‘wanted’ or ‘missing’ persons, they contain identity
details, physical descriptions and where possible, the photograph and fingerprints of the
individual concerned. The information pertains to individuals who are wanted for serious crimes,
who are considered to be missing, or whose bodies are unidentified.
INTERPOL’s Notices System is also a relevant tool in fighting terrorism, as it is used as
an advisory mechanism to warn of various dangerous persons alleged to be involved in terrorist
activities, as well as advise of dangerous devices and/or materials that can be used to commit
actual acts of terrorism. Certain notices also provide details about possible threats and
criminals’ modus operandi.
 It serves to alert police of fugitives, suspected terrorists, dangerous criminals, missing
persons or weapons threats.
 INTERPOL Notices are international alerts allowing police in member countries to share
critical crime-related information.
 Notices are published by INTERPOL’s General Secretariat at the request of National
Central Bureaus (NCBs) and authorized entities, and can be published in any of the
Organization’s official languages: Arabic, English, French and Spanish.
 In the case of Red Notices, the persons concerned are wanted by national jurisdictions
and the notices requested are based on an arrest warrant or court decision. INTERPOL's
role is to assist the national police forces in identifying and locating these persons with a
view to their arrest and extradition.
 In addition, Notices are used by the United Nations, International Criminal Tribunals and
the International Criminal Court to seek persons wanted for committing crimes within
their jurisdiction, notably genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Legal basis
A Notice is published only if it fulfils all conditions for processing the information. For
example, a Notice will not be published if it violates Article 3 of the INTERPOL Constitution,

63
which forbids the Organization from undertaking any intervention or activities of a political,
military, religious or racial character.
Notices are processed in line with the following rules which ensure the legality and quality of
information, and the protection of personal data:
 Rules on the processing of information for the purposes of international police
cooperation;
 Implementing Rules for the Rules on the Processing of Information for the Purposes of
International Police Cooperation.
The legal basis for a Red Notice is an arrest warrant or court order issued by the judicial
authorities in the country concerned. Many of INTERPOL’s member countries consider a Red
Notice to be a valid request for provisional arrest.
Furthermore, INTERPOL is recognized as an official channel for transmitting requests for
provisional arrest in a number of bilateral and multilateral extradition treaties, including the
European Convention on Extradition, the Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) Convention on Extradition, and the United Nations Model Treaty on Extradition.

Diffusions
Similar to the Notice is another alert mechanism known as a 'diffusion'. This is less
formal than a notice but is also used to request the arrest or location of an individual or
additional information in relation to a police investigation. A diffusion is circulated directly by an
NCB to the member countries of their choice, or to the entire INTERPOL membership.

INTERPOL NOTICE SYSTEM

Used when seeking the arrest of a

wanted person with a view to
extradition. Depending upon the
country involved, the Red Notice may
serve as a provisional arrest warrant.
RED NOTICE
Used to collect additional information
about a person’s location, identity, or to
obtain information on a person of
interest in a criminal investigation or
illegal activities in relation to a criminal
BLUE NOTICE matter. In terms of a terrorism matter,
this notice enhances the chances for
better identification of a terrorism
suspect.
To help locate missing persons, often
minors, or to help identify persons who
are unable to identify themselves.

YELLOW
NOTICE
 To seek information on
unidentified bodies

BLACK NOTICE
 Used to provide warnings and
criminal intelligence about persons who
have committed criminal offenses, and
are likely to repeat these crimes in
other countries or about a person's
GREEN criminal activities if that person is

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 NOTICE considered to be a possible threat to
public safety. They are, in essence, a
form of ‘alert’ signal for calling attention
to criminals.
 To warn of an event, a person,
an object or a process representing an
imminent threat and danger to persons
or property.
 Used to warn police, related
ORANGE security entities, and other international
NOTICE organizations of possible threats from
hidden weapons, parcel bombs, and
other dangerous items or materials,
such as those which can be used in a
terrorist attack.
 To provide information on modi
operandi, objects, devices and
concealment methods used by
criminals.

PURPLE
NOTICE
 INTERPOL–United Nations Security
Council Special Notice Issued for individuals
and entities that are subject to UN sanctions.

SPECIAL
NOTICE

INTERPOL-United Nations Security Council Special Notices

The INTERPOL-United Nations Security Council Special Notice is issued for individuals
and entities that are subject to sanctions imposed by the United Nations Security Council. Its
principal function is to alert national law enforcement agencies that sanctions measures
– namely an assets freeze, travel ban and/or arms embargo – apply to designated individuals
and entities.
The Special Notice was introduced in 2005, following individual resolutions adopted by
INTERPOL and the United Nations (UN) that called for greater cooperation between the two
organizations.

The purpose of the Special Notice

The Special Notice seeks to:
 Alert law enforcement authorities worldwide to individuals and entities that are subjects
of UN sanctions including an assets freeze, arms embargo, and/or travel ban; 
 Enhance the information available concerning sanctioned individuals and entities, the
quality of UN sanctions lists, and the narrative summaries that describe the grounds for
the sanctions;
 Provide direction on action to be taken to implement the sanctions in accordance with
national legislation.
 
Like all INTERPOL Notices, Special Notices are circulated to all INTERPOL member countries
using INTERPOL’s secure global communications system.
 
Additionally, if requested by the UN, a public extract of the Special Notice will appear on
INTERPOL public website.

The Special Notice and the Al-Qaida and the Taliban Sanctions Committees
In 1999, the UN Security Council established a committee to oversee the implementation
of sanctions against individuals and entities associated with Al-Qaida and the Taliban. Known as

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 the 1267 Committee, after the UN resolution which led to its creation, the Committee named
those individuals and entities subject to sanctions on what was known as the Consolidated List.
The sanctions required to be implemented by all UN Member States are:
 Assets freeze: to freeze the funds and other financial assets or economic resources;
 Travel ban: to prevent the entry into or transit through their territories;
 Arms embargo: to prevent the supply, sale and transfer of arms and related material.

In 2005, based on the cooperation between INTERPOL and the UN, the first Special
Notices were published for individuals on the 1267 Committee’s Consolidated List.

Changes to the sanctions regime

In 2011, the UN Security Council decided to divide what was once the 1267 Committee
sanctions regime into two distinct sanctions regimes: one for sanctions concerning Al-Qaida and
one for sanctions concerning the Taliban. 

Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1988 (2011):

Referred to as the 1988 Committee, this Committee now oversees sanctions concerning
individuals, groups, undertakings and entities associated with the Taliban that constitute a
threat to the peace, stability and security of Afghanistan. It maintains a list of the individuals
and entities subject to sanctions.

Security Council Committee pursuant to resolutions 1267 (1999) and 1989

(2011):
The sanctions list previously maintained by the 1267 Committee is now known as the
“Al-Qaida Sanctions List” and only includes names of those individuals, groups, undertakings
and entities associated with Al-Qaida. The Committee that oversees the implementation of the
Al-Qaida Sanctions List is now known as the “Security Council Committee pursuant to
resolutions 1267 (1999) and 1989 (2011) concerning Al-Qaida and associated individuals and
entities”.
INTERPOL works with the two newly designated committees and Special Notices are issued
for individuals and entities on the Al-Qaida Sanctions List and on the 1988 Committee List. 

The Special Notice and the Liberia Sanctions Committee

Through resolution 1521 (2003), the UN Security Council established a committee to
oversee the implementation of sanctions against individuals and entities who constitute a threat
to peace and security in Liberia (referred to as the Liberia Sanctions Committee). 
As is the case with the Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee and the 1988 Sanctions
Committee, the Liberia Sanctions Committee is also tasked with overseeing the implementation
of mandatory sanctions measures, including a travel ban.
In 2011, INTERPOL will start to publish Special Notices for individuals subject to the
travel ban.

Current Status of Special Notices

Some of the Special Notices that appear through this portal are in the process of being
updated to reflect the changes to the Al-Qaida Sanctions Committee and the creation of the
1988 Committee.
There are Special Notices that appear through this portal that relate to individuals who
are confirmed or believed to be dead.  Such notices remain available  in order to give
continuing effect to the relevant sanctions imposed by the UN.

XIII. Data exchange

As national boundaries become increasingly meaningless to criminals, effective and
timely police communication across borders is more important than ever before. At INTERPOL,
one of our priorities is to enable the world’s police to exchange information securely and
rapidly.

Two tools deliver this aim:

 1 I-24/7
 2 I-link

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I-24/7: a secure global police network
We developed the I-24/7 global police communications system to connect law
enforcement officers in all our member countries. It enables authorized users to share sensitive
and urgent police information with their counterparts around the globe, 24 hours a day, 365
days a year.
I-24/7 is the network that enables investigators to access INTERPOL's range of criminal
databases. Authorized users can search and cross-check data in a matter of seconds, with direct
access to databases on suspected criminals or wanted persons, stolen and lost travel
documents, stolen motor vehicles, fingerprints, DNA profiles, stolen administrative documents
and stolen works of art.

Empowering frontline officers

With I-24/7 installed at all 190 National Central Bureaus, we are now focusing on
extending access to INTERPOL services beyond the NCB and out to frontline officers such as
immigration and customs officials.
Different technical solutions are available and give officers in strategic locations direct access to
three key INTERPOL databases: those on nominal data, stolen and lost travel documents, and
stolen motor vehicles.

Supporting all operational activity

The I-24/7 network underpins all INTERPOL operational activity. From routine checks at
border crossings to targeted operations against different crime areas, and from the deployment
of specialized response teams to the search for international fugitives, I-24/7 is the foundation
of information exchange between the world's police.

INTERPOL WEAPON ELECTRONIC TRACING SYSTEM (IWETS)

 It is designed by the Interpol in order to meet its obligation on the identification and
tracking of illicit small arms and light weapons.
 a comprehensive library of most firearms in existence, facilitating the identification of
such weapons used during an alleged crime

INTERPOL’S GLOBAL POLICE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM: I-24/7

 It connects law enforcement officials in all 186 member countries and provides them
with the means to share crucial information on criminals and criminal activities.
 It also enables member countries to access each other’s’ national databases using a
business-to-business (B2B) connection.

Databases
The success of international police investigations is dependent upon the availability of
up-to-date, global data.
At INTERPOL, we provide our member countries with instant, direct access to a number of
criminal databases. These contain millions of records, contributed by countries across the world.

Maximizing the reach

All databases (except the one of child sexual exploitation images) are accessible real-
time through the I-24/7 network which connects all INTERPOL National Central Bureaus
(NCBs).
We are developing web server solutions to extend access beyond our NCBs to frontline
law enforcement officers, such as border guards, allowing them to search the databases on
wanted persons, stolen and lost travel documents and stolen motor vehicles.
I-link is a new operating system, being continually developed to improve the quality
and uniformity of data, and to enable investigators to make links between cases that would not
previously have been apparent.

Main databases
Nominal Data – contains more  
than 162,000 records on known
international criminals, missing

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persons and dead bodies, with their
criminal histories, photographs,
fingerprints, etc.
Notices – our system of notices is used to
alert police to fugitives, suspected terrorists,
dangerous criminals, missing persons or
weapons threats. In 2011 more than 26,000
Notices or diffusions (a similar but less
formal type of alert) were published.
Stolen and Lost Travel
Documents – holds information on
more than 31 million travel
documents reported lost or stolen
by 161 countries. This database
enables INTERPOL National Central
Bureaus and other authorized law
enforcement entities (such as
immigration and border control
officers) to ascertain the validity of a
suspect travel document in seconds.
Child sexual exploitation images – at the
end of 2011, nearly 2,500 victims from
more than 40 countries and 1,377 offenders
had been identified.

Fingerprints – we manage an Automated

Fingerprint Identification System which
contains more than 151,000 sets of
fingerprints contributed by 167 countries. 

DNA Profiles – contains around 117,000

DNA profiles from 61 countries. DNA
profiles are numerically coded sets of
genetic markers unique to every individual
and can be used to help solve crimes and
identify missing persons and unidentified
bodies.
Firearms – The INTERPOL Firearms
Reference Table allows investigators to
properly identify a firearm used in a crime
(its make, model, calibre, etc.). It contains
more than 250,000 firearms references and
57,000 high-quality images. The
INTERPOL Ballistic Information Network
is a platform for the large-scale international
sharing and comparison of ballistics data,
holding more than 100,000 records.
Stolen Works of Art – allows member
countries to research records of more than
38,000 pieces of artwork and cultural
heritage reported stolen all over the world.

Stolen Motor Vehicles – provides extensive

identification details on approximately 7.1
million vehicles reported stolen around the
world. In 2011, more than 42,000 stolen
motor vehicles were identified using the
database.

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 Fusion Task Force – a database of more
than 11,000 persons suspected of being
linked to terrorist activities.  Some 105
member countries currently contribute to
terrorism related matters.
Stolen Administrative
Documents – contains information
on around 440,000 official
documents which serve to identify
objects, for example, vehicle
registration documents and
clearance certificates for
import/export.

Command & Coordination Centre

The Command and Coordination Centre (CCC) is the operations room at INTERPOL,
offering a point of contact for any member country seeking urgent police information or facing
a crisis situation.
The CCC is manned 24 hours a day, 365 days a year by staff members of various
backgrounds and nationalities who are fluent in several different languages.
Based at the General Secretariat in Lyon, the CCC is reinforcing its global response with
the opening of new sites. In 2011, a second CCC site opened at the INTERPOL Regional Bureau
in Buenos Aires, Argentina, and will be followed in the future by a third site in Singapore.

Services and activities

The CCC strengthens the reactivity and operational effectiveness of the world's police
through the following functions:
 Assessing all incoming communications and determining the priority level of each
message received by the General Secretariat.
 Conducting instant checks on all INTERPOL databases; distributing and assigning
information; and replying to all urgent queries immediately.
 Monitoring open sources in order to assess threats and to ensure the full resources of
the Organization are ready and available whenever and wherever they may be needed.
 Coordinating the exchange of intelligence and information for important operations, and
involving specialist units, regional offices and external partners as necessary.
 Issuing alerts and publishing Notices where threats pose an imminent danger. These
include Red Notices for wanted persons and Orange Notices to warn police and/or the
public about potential threats posed by dangerous objects or events.
 Assuming a crisis-management role during serious incidents, such as terrorist attacks,
and coordinating specialized assistance in the form of an Incident Response Team. This
brings together experts in various fields, such as forensic science, DNA, drugs, etc.
 Deploying support teams at major events with an international implication in order to
support national police with security arrangements.

Response teams
At the request of member countries, we can provide specialized teams to assist national
police. There are two types of team, each made up of experts in the relevant fields.
 Incident Response Teams
 Major Events Support Teams

Incident Response Teams

An INTERPOL Incident Response Team (IRT) is deployed at the request of a member

country during a crisis situation. There are two types of IRT:
 Disaster – an emergency response to a manmade or natural disaster. The IRT delivers
concentrated attention to urgent issues and problems arising from the disaster or crisis,
focusing all available INTERPOL resources on the situation at hand.

69
  Crime – the deployment of specialized personnel to assist and support a member
country faced with a major or serious police issue. Crime IRTs provide specific expertise
and investigative support to police.
An IRT can be briefed, equipped and deployed anywhere in the world within 12 to 24
hours of an incident.

Expert assistance
An IRT is typically composed of expert police and support staff, and is tailored to the
specific nature of the crime or disaster and the type of assistance INTERPOL is requested to
provide.
IRTs can provide a range of investigative and analytical support at the incident site in
coordination with the General Secretariat, such as:
 Issuing international notices for fugitive terrorists whose arrests are sought by member
countries;
 Database queries of fingerprints to quickly identify suspects;
 Access to the database of lost or stolen travel documents;
 Money laundering expertise;
 Coordination of response to disaster victim identification through a wide network of
international experts and laboratories.
The first IRT was deployed in October 2002 to Indonesia following a terrorist bombing in
Bali. To date, some 60 teams have been deployed to countries across the world.

Major Event Support Teams

 
An INTERPOL Major Event Support Team (IMEST) is deployed to assist member
countries in the preparation, coordination and implementation of security arrangements for
major events. 
Major events are high profile conferences or sporting events which attract large crowds
or intense media coverage. As such, they also attract individuals or groups intent on disruption
to gain attention for their cause or for criminal gain. 

Instant and direct access to data services

IMEST team members assist the national and foreign liaison officers of participating
countries in making the most efficient use of INTERPOL’s full array of databases. They facilitate
real-time exchange of messages and vital police data among all member countries. This data
includes fingerprints, photos, wanted person notices, and data relating to stolen and lost travel
documents and stolen motor vehicles.
An IMEST can be tailored to a member country’s needs prior to and during an event and
brings all of INTERPOL services to focus on the upcoming event. The global police
communications network, known as I-24/7, can be enhanced and used for immediate outreach
to the worldwide law enforcement community, should the need arise.

Ensuring public safety

An IMEST also has the capacity and resources to become an immediate INTERPOL
Response Team if a crisis situation should happen at a major event.
The field of major event planning, preparation and support has increased significantly in
recent years. The threat of terrorism and event disruption has forced host countries to dedicate
more time and resources to these events. Increasingly, member countries are requesting
support from INTERPOL, not only in the lead up to an event but for its duration. 
The first IMEST was deployed in 2004 to Portugal for the UEFA European Football
Championship. To date, some 60 teams have been deployed to countries across the world.

XIV. Members, past president and general secretariat of ICPO

Member countries
Sub-bureaus shown in italics.
 Afghanis  Curaçao  Latvia  Rwanda
tan  Cyprus  Lebanon  St. Kitts
 Albania  Czech  Lesotho and Nevis

70
  Algeria Republic  Liberia  St. Lucia
 America  Denmar  Libya  St. Vincent
n Samoa k  Liechtenst and the Grenadines
 Andorra  Djibouti ein  Samoa
 Angola  Dominic  Lithuania  São Tomé
 Anguilla a  Luxembou and Príncipe
 Antigua  Dominic rg  Saudi
and Barbuda an Republic  Macau Arabia
 Argentin  East  Macedonia  San Marino
a Timor  Madagasca  Senegal
 Armenia  Ecuador r  Serbia
 Aruba  Egypt  Malawi  Seychelles
 Australia  El  Malaysia  Sierra
 Austria Salvador  Maldives Leone
 Azerbaija  Equatori  Mali  Singapore
n al Guinea
 Malta  Sint
 Bahamas  Eritrea Maarten
 Marshall
 Bahrain  Estonia Islands  Slovakia
 Banglade  Ethiopia  Mauritania  Slovenia
sh  Fiji  Mauritius  Somalia
 Barbados  Finland  Mexico  South
 Belarus  France  Moldova Africa
 Belgium  Gabon  South
 Monaco
 Belize  Gambia Sudan
 Mongolia
 Benin  Georgia  Spain
 Montenegr
 Bermuda  German o  Sri Lanka
 Bhutan y  Montserra  Sudan
 Bolivia  Ghana t  Suriname
 Bosnia  Gibralta  Morocco  Swaziland
and Herzegovina r  Mozambiq  Sweden
 Botswan  Greece ue  Switzerland
a  Grenada  Myanmar  Syria
 Brazil  Guatema  Namibia  Tajikistan
 British la  Nauru  Tanzania
Virgin Islands  Guinea
 Guinea-  Nepal  Thailand
 Brunei
Bissau  Netherland  Togo
 Bulgaria
 Guyana s  Tonga
 Burkina
 Haiti  New  Trinidad
Faso
Zealand and Tobago
 Burundi  Hondura
s  Nicaragua  Tunisia
 Cambodi
a  Hong  Niger  Turkey
 Cameroo Kong  Nigeria  Turks and
n  Hungary  Norway Caicos
 Canada  Iceland  Oman  Turkmenist
an
 Cape  India  Pakistan
Verde  Uganda
 Indonesi  Panama
 Cayman a  Ukraine
 Papua
Islands  Iran  United
New Guinea
 Central Arab Emirates
 Iraq  Paraguay
African Republic  United
 Ireland  Peru
 Chad Kingdom
 Israel  Philippines  United
 Chile
 Italy  Poland States
 China
 Jamaica  Portugal  Uruguay
 Colombi
 Japan  Puerto  Uzbekistan
a
 Jordan Rico
 Comoros  Vatican
 Kazakhs  Qatar
 Republic City
tan  Romania
of the Congo  Venezuela
 Kenya  Russia
 Congo  Vietnam
 Republic

71
(Democratic Rep.) of Korea  Yemen
 Costa  Kuwait  Zambia
Rica  Kyrgyzst  Zimbabwe
 Côte an
d'Ivoire
 Croatia
 Cuba

Non-member countries
 Federated States of Micronesia
 Kiribati
 North Korea
 Palau
 Solomon Islands
 Tuvalu
 Vanuatu
 Taiwan

Secretaries-general since organization's inception in 1923:

 Oskar Dressler 1923–1946
 Louis Ducloux 1946–1951
 Marcel Sicot 1951–1963
 Jean Népote 1963–1978
 André Bossard 1978–1985
 Raymond Kendall 1985–2000
 Ronald Noble 2000–present
Presidents since organization's inception in 1923:
 Johann Schober 1923–1932
 Franz Brandl 1932–1934
 Eugen Seydel 1934–1935
 Michael Skubl 1935–1938
 Otto Steinhäusl 1938–1940
 Reinhard Heydrich 1940–1942
 Arthur Nebe 1942–1943
 Ernst Kaltenbrunner 1943–1945
 Florent Louwage 1945–1956
 Agostinho Lourenço 1956–1960
 Richard Jackson 1960–1963
 Fjalar Jarva 1963–1964
 Firmin Franssen 1964–1968
 Paul Dickopf 1968–1972
 William Leonard Higgitt 1972–1976
 Carl Persson 1976–1980
 Jolly Bugarin 1980–1984
 John Simpson 1984–1988
 Ivan Barbot 1988–1992
 Norman Inkster 1992–1994
 Björn Eriksson 1994–1996
 Toshinori Kanemoto 1996–2000
 Jesús Espigares Mira 2000–2004
 Jackie Selebi 2004–2008
 Arturo Herrera Verdugo Acting president
until the General
Assembly in Saint
Petersburg in
October 2008, and
candidate for the
President on that

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 General Assembly
 Khoo Boon Hui Oct 2008–present

CHAPTER IV: ASEANAPOL

(Association of National Police Forces of the ASEAN Region)
It is known as ASEAN Chiefs of Police established in 1981.
I. Introduction
The Association of National Police Forces of the ASEAN Region (ASEANAPOL) was formed in
1980 to initiate regional police co-operation. Delegates meet annually to discuss crime-related
issues. A paper by the Assistant Director for External Relations of the ASEAN Secretariat wrote
in 1999 that:
The ASEANAPOL deals with the preventive, enforcement and operational aspects of
cooperation against transnational crime. ASEANAPOL has been actively involved in sharing of
knowledge and expertise on policing, enforcement, law, criminal justice, and transnational and
international crimes. It has established three ad-hoc commissions dealing with drug trafficking,
arms smuggling, counterfeiting, economic and financial crimes, credit card fraud, extradition
and arrangements for handing over of criminal offenders and fugitives. It has also taken
initiatives to combat new forms of transnational crime, such as fraudulent travel documents,
phantom ship frauds, product counterfeiting and piracy.
It deals with drug trafficking, arms smuggling, counterfeiting, economic and financial
crimes, credit card fraud, extradition and arrangements for handing over of criminal offenders
and fugitives.

II. A brief history of ASEANAPOL

Year Details
1981 – Manila The first formal meeting of The Chiefs of ASEAN Police
Attended by 5 original member countries (Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand)

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 1983 – Jakarta Endorsement of the model & design of ASEANAPOL logo
1984 - Kuala Lumpur Royal Brunei Police became a member and joined the
annual conference
1996 - Kuala Lumpur Vietnam joined as a new member
1998 – Brunei Laos joined ASEANAPOL
2000 - Myanmar Myanmar became the 10th country to joined as a new
member
2005 – Bali The setting up of a working group to consider the viability
of establishing a permanent ASEANAPOL Secretariat
Silver Jubilee Commemoration of ASEANAPOL
2008 – Brunei The Royal Malaysia Police was chosen as a host of
permanent ASEANAPOL Secretariat
2009 - Vietnam Adoption of Terms of Reference (TOR)
2010 On 1st January 2010 commencement of ASEANAPOL
Secretariat in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

III. ASEANAPOL Logo

Created & accepted in 1983 during the 3rd ASEANAPOL Conference in Jakarta,
Indonesia. 

IV. ASEANAPOL’S OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS

Objective
1. Ensure the effective implementation of all resolutions adopted at the ASENAPOL
Conferences;
2. Serve as a coordination and communication mechanism to allow members to establish
and to maintain all channels of interaction amongst members;
3. Foster mutual assistance and cooperation amongst members; and
4. Endeavour to increase regional cooperation efforts against transnational crimes

Function
1. Prepare and implement work plans for effective implement of all the resolutions
adopted in the annual Joint Communiqués signed at the ASEANAPOL Conference;
2. Facilitate and coordinate cross-border cooperation on intelligence and information
sharing and exchange;
3. Facilitate and coordinate joint operations and activities involving criminal investigation,
the building and maintenance of the ASEANAPOL database, training, capacity building,
the development of scientific investigative tools, technical support and forensic science;
4. Provide support and necessary assistance in organising the ASEANAPOL Conferences;

74
 5. Submit on a quarterly basis to the Chiefs of ASEAN Police Forces proposals on all
planned programmed and activities to be carried out;
6. Prepare an annual report on its activities and expenditure to be presented to the
ASEANAPOL Executive Committee immediately before the ASEANAPOL Conference, and
distributed to all members and to the ASEANAPOL Conference; and;
7. Act as a custodian of all documents and records of ASEANAPOL

GOALS
Enhancing police professionalism co-operation in the police works and promoting
lasting friendship among the police officers of ASEAN countries.

V. ASEANAPOL PERMANENT SECRETARIAT

History
 The Secretariat of ASEANAPOL was on a rotational basis with member countries
taking turn to host the ASEANAPOL Conference and automatically assume the role of the
secretariat for the current year. 
 The 25th Joint Communique signed by the ASEAN Chiefs of Police during the 25th
ASEANAPOL Conference held in Bali, Indonesia, expressly stated the need to  establish a
Permanent ASEANAPOL Secretariat.
The first formal meeting of the Chiefs of ASEAN Police was held in Manila, Philippines on the
21 to 23 October 1981.
 To discuss matters of law enforcement and crime control.
 This annual meeting was called ASEANAPOL Conference.  
 The members of ASEAN were originally Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia and
the Philippines.
 The basic requirement to become a member of ASEANAPOL is that the country of the
applicant needs to be already a member of ASEAN and needs to apply to the
conference.
 1984, Royal Brunei Police join the conference for the 1st time.
 1996, The Republic of Vietnam National Police join the conference
 1998, Laos General Department of Police and Myanmar police force join the conference
 2000, Cambodia National Police join the conference
 The current members of ASEANAPOL are Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao People
Democratic Republic,  Malaysia,  Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and
Vietnam.

Objectives of the establishment of a Permanent Secretariat

 To harmonise and standardize coordination and communication mechanisms amongst
ASEAN police institutions;
 To conduct a comprehensive and integrative study concerning the resolutions agreed in
the ASEANAPOL Joint Communiqués
 To establish a mechanism with responsibility to monitor and follow up the
implementation of resolutions in the Joint Communiqués; and
 To transform the resolutions adopted in the Joint Communiqués into ASEANAPOL Plan of
Action and its work program
The working group which was set up to consider the viability of the permanent ASEANAPOL
Secretariat finalized that:                                                               
1. The Secretariat shall be administrated based on the Terms of Reference;
2. The Head of the Secretariat is to be an Executive Director and he is to  be assisted by 2
Directors
Note: Executive Directors – 2 years and directors (3 years)
 During the 29th ASEANAPOL Conference in Hanoi, Vietnam in 2009, the Terms of
Reference on the establishment of ASEANAPOL Secretariat was finally endorsed.  Kuala
Lumpur was made the permanent seat.
 The Aseanapol Secretariat started its operation fully from the 1st January 2010.

I. ASEANAPOL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Executive Director

75
Director for Police Director for Plans
service & Programmes
 ASEANAPOL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

The ASEANAPOL Executive Committee shall

comprise of Deputy Heads of delegation attending the annual
ASEANAPOL Conference.
The ASEANAPOL Executive Committee shall meet annually, immediately before the
ASEANAPOL Conference.
The Executive Director of the ASEANAPOL Secretariat shall present a report of its
activities, including amongst others, issues on financial performance, procurement of works,
supplies and services and control and management of contracts, to the ASEANAPOL Executive
Committee.
The ASEANAPOL Executive Committee shall provide a summary report of the activities of
the Secretariat to the Head of Delegation at the ASEANAPOL Conference and at the Closing
Plenary Session of the ASEANAPOL Conference.

EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
The Executive Director of the Secretariat shall be appointed by the ASEANAPOL
Conference upon nomination on rotational basis in alphabetical order for a term of two years.
The Executive Director of the Secretariat shall be a Senior Police Officer of the rank of Colonel
and above or its equivalent. The Executive Director will be assisted by Director for Police
Services and Director for Plans and Programmes.

VI. MEMBER COUNTRIES

1. Brunei Darussalam - The Royal Brunei police Force
2. Cambodia – Cambodia national police
3. Indonesia – Indonesia national police
4. Laos – Laos General Department of Police
5. Malaysia – Royal Malaysian Police
6. Myanmar – Myanmar Police Force
7. Singapore – Singapore Police Force
8. Thailand – Royal Police Force
9. Vietnam – Republic of Vietnam National Police
10. Philippines – Philippine National Police

VI. Areas of activity and methods in which the ASEAN police associations currently or hope to
work together. Resolutions adopted by the conference included:

Relating to "Terrorism":
1. To exchange information on suspected terrorists and their organisations;
2. To share information and to facilitate access to member countries to interview arrested
terrorist subject to the agreement of member countries;
3. To provide assistance to member countries including tracing, freezing and confiscation
of assets related to terrorism subject to the agreement of member states;
4. To promote close co-operation between law enforcement authorities and financial
institutions.

Relating to "Commercial Crimes, Bank Offences and Card Frauds" :

 To promote close co-operation between law enforcement authorities and financial
institutions.

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Relating to "Fraudulent Travel Documents ":
 To work closely with the issuing authorities concerning the enforcement of security
features of travel documents and the issuance of procedures.

Relating to the "ASEANAPOL Database"

 To finalise the system and to arrange the official launch during the ASEANAPOL
conference in 2006.

Relating to "Mutual Legal Assistance":

1. To encourage ratification of the ASEAN Treaty on Mutual Legal Assistance;
2. To encourage assigning a police liaison officer where practical in all ASEA countries in
order to facilitate mutual legal assistance.
 

CHAPTER V: EUROPOL (EUROPEAN POLICE)

Europol was originally established on the basis of the Europol Convention of 1995.
In order to simplify the administration of Europol and to reform it when necessary,
a proposal was adopted in  2006 to replace the convention by this decision.
EUROPOL
Europol is the European Union’s criminal intelligence agency.

Formation 1998 (ratified)

July 1, 1999 (commence)
Location Hague, Netherlands
Director Rob Wainwright (UK)
Legal authority Treaty on EU Title VI
Council Decision 2009/371/JHA

I. Introduction

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 EUROPOL is the law enforcement agency of the European Union.  Its aim is to help
achieve a safer Europe by supporting the law enforcement agencies of European Union member
states in their fight against international serious crime and terrorism.
More than 700 staff at Europol headquarters in
The Hague, the Netherlands work closely with
law enforcement agencies in the 27 European Union
member states and in other non-EU partner states
such as Australia, Canada, the USA and Norway.
As Europol officers have no direct powers of
arrest, we support law enforcement colleagues by
gathering, analysing and disseminating information and
coordinating operations. The headquarters of Europol in The Hague,
Our partners use the input to
the Netherland
prevent, detect and investigate offences, and to
track down and prosecute those who commit them. Europol experts and analysts take part in
Joint Investigation Teams which help solve criminal cases on the spot in EU countries.
Europol personnel come from different kinds of law enforcement agencies, including
regular police, border police, customs and security services. This multi-agency approach helps
to close information gaps and minimise the space in which criminals can operate.
Some 137 Europol Liaison Officers are based at Europol headquarters. These ELOs are
seconded to Europol by the EU member states and our non-EU partners. They guarantee fast
and effective cooperation based on personal contact and mutual trust.  

Unique services
From our position at the heart of the European security architecture means we offer a
unique range of services. Europol is a support centre for law enforcement operations, a
hub for criminal information, and a centre for law enforcement expertise.
Analysis is at the core of our activities. Europol employs more than 100 criminal analysts
who are among the best trained in Europe. This gives Europol one of the largest concentrations
of analytical capability in the EU. Our analysts use state-of-the-art tools which support member
states’ investigations on a daily basis.
To give our partners a deeper insight into the criminal problems they are dealing with,
Europol produces regular assessments which offer comprehensive and forward-looking analyses
of crime and terrorism in the European Union. The European Organised Crime Threat
Assessment (OCTA) identifies and assesses emerging threats. The OCTA describes the structure
of organised crime groups and the way they operate, and the main types of crime affecting the
European Union. The EU Terrorism Situation and Trend Report (TE-SAT), published annually,
gives a detailed account of the state of terrorism in the EU.
Europol is a high-security operational centre. We deal with more than 9,000
cases a year, turning high-quality analysis into operational successes. This flexible
service centre operates non-stop: 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
Europol serves as an EU centre of expertise, providing a central platform for law
enforcement experts from the European Union countries.
Europol officers are always ready to travel at short notice and provide support with our mobile
office. Our presence is also in demand in the fight against illicit drugs and we have a fully
operational team to help dismantle synthetic drugs laboratories on-the-spot.
State-of-the-art technology
International crime and terrorist groups operate worldwide and make use of the latest
technology. To ensure an effective and coordinated response, Europol needs to be equally
flexible and innovative, and make sure its methods and tools are up to date. We have state-of-
the-art databases and communication channels, offering fast and secure capabilities for storing,
searching, visualising and linking information.
Gathering, analysing and disseminating this information entails the exchange of large
quantities of personal data. Europol sets and adheres to the highest standards of data
protection and data security.

Areas of expertise
Since Europol can offer a flexible response, we focus on different areas of criminal and
terrorist activity from year to year, depending on the demands of the situation. Our main
priorities, however, tend to remain relatively stable, reflecting those of international criminal

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and terrorist groups. Over the years we have built up substantial experience in fighting drug
trafficking, illicit immigration networks and trafficking in human beings, illicit vehicle trafficking,
cybercrime, money laundering and forgery of money. Europol is the European central office to
combat euro counterfeiting.
Europol’s main goal is to help achieve a safer Europe for the benefit of all EU
citizens

How does Europol assist member state Investigations?

Europol supports the law enforcement activities of the member States by:
Facilitating the exchange of information between EUROPOL AND Europol Liaison Officers
(ELOs). These ELOs are seconded to Europol by the Member States as representatives of their
national law enforcement agencies, thus they are not under the command of Europol and its
Director as such, and furthermore, they act in accordance with their national law.
Providing operational analysis and support to Members States Operations;
Providing expertise and technical support for investigations and operations carried out
within the EU, under the super vision and the legal responsibility of the Member States;
Generating strategic reports (e.g. threat assessment) and crime analysis on the basis of
information and intelligence supplied by Member states or gathered from other sources.

Does Europol only act on request?

Yes, Europol only acts on request at present; however, the protocol of the 28 November
2002 amending the Europol convention allows Europol to request the competent authorities of
the Member States to investigate. Article 3 b) of the protocol states that”Member States should
deal with any request from Europol to initiate, conduct or co-ordinate investigation in specific
cases and should give such request due consideration. Europol should be informed whether the
requested investigation as a European law enforcement agency?

Added value of having Europol as a European law enforcement agency

There are numerous advantages for the European law enforcement community.
Europol is unique in this field as it is a multi-disciplinary agency, comprising not only regular
police officers but staff members from the various laws enforcement agencies of the Member
States covering specialized areas such as customs, immigration services, intelligence services,
border and financial police.

II. Mission, Vision, Values, Mandate, Task and Aims

As the European Union’s law enforcement agency, Europol’s mission is to support its
Member States in preventing and combating all forms of serious international crime and
terrorism. Its role is to help achieve a safer Europe for the benefit of all EU citizens by
supporting EU law enforcement authorities through the exchange and analysis of criminal
intelligence.
Another is to make a significance contribution to the European Union’s Law enforcement
action against organized crime and terrorism with an emphasis on targeting criminal
organizations.
Large-scale criminal and terrorist networks pose a significant threat to the internal
security of the EU and to the safety and livelihood of its people. The biggest security threats
come from terrorism, international drugs trafficking, trafficking in human beings, counterfeiting
of the euro currency and payment cards, fraud, corruption and money laundering as well as
other activities related to the presence of organised crime groups in the economy. New dangers
are also accumulating, in the form of cybercrime, VAT fraud and other sophisticated crimes
which abuse modern technology and the freedoms offered by the EU internal market. All of
these have been declared priority areas by the European Union’s Council of Ministers.
Europol’s vision is to contribute to a safer Europe by providing the best possible support to
law enforcement authorities in the Member States. It will achieve this by delivering a unique set
of operational services for the European Union, developing as the principal:
 Support centre for law enforcement operations
 Criminal information hub, and
 Centre for law enforcement expertise
In line with our mission and vision, we attach importance to the following five values
which best characterise the culture of Europol and the work of its people:

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  Integrity
 Accountability
 Initiative
 Teamwork
 Effectiveness

Europol’s mandate
Europol supports the law enforcement activities of the member states mainly against:
 Illicit drug trafficking;
 Illicit immigration network;
 Terrorism
 Forgery of money(counterfeiting of the euro)and other means of payment;
 Trafficking in human beings(including child pornography);
 Illicit vehicle trafficking;
 Money laundering.

Tasks
The main tasks of Europol are to:
 Collect, store, process, analyse and exchange information;
 Notify Member States of any connections between criminal offences concerning them;
 Assist Member States in investigations and provide intelligence and analytical support;
 Request Member States to initiate, conduct or coordinate investigations in specific cases
and suggest the setting up of joint investigation teams;
 Draft threat assessments and other reports.

Aims
Europol's aim is to improve the effectiveness and co-operation between the competent
authorities of the member states primarily by sharing and pooling intelligence to prevent and
combat serious international organized crime. Its mission is to make a significant contribution to
the European Union's law enforcement efforts targeting organized crime.

III. Management

Council of the European Union and European Parliament

 Europol is accountable at EU level to the Council of Ministers for Justice and Home
Affairs. The Council is responsible for the main control and guidance of Europol. It
appoints the Director and the Deputy Directors and approves Europol’s budget (which is
part of the general budget of the EU), together with the European Parliament. It also
can adopt, together with the European Parliament, regulations related to Europol’s work.
Each year the Council forwards a special report to the European Parliament on the work
of Europol.
 The Council of Ministers consists of Justice and Home Affairs ministers from all EU
Member States. As of January 2010, the democratic control of Europol was significantly
strengthened through a greater involvement of the European Parliament, in particular
during the adoption of the annual budget, the discharge on the implementation of the
budget and the adoption of new Council Regulations concerning Europol.

Management Board
 The management board is the decision-making body of Europol. It consists of one
representative from each Member State and one representative from the Commission,
with each member having one vote. The director, who is the legal representative of
Europol, is in charge of the organisation’s daily management. S/he is appointed by the
Council for a period of four years, extendable once.
 Europol is financed from the general budget of the EU.
 Europol’s governing board, the Europol Management Board, gives strategic guidance
and oversees the implementation of Europol’s tasks. It comprises one high-ranking
representative from each Member State and the European Commission. It takes its
decisions by two–thirds majority, with each member having one vote.

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  The Management Board meets at least twice a year to discuss a wide range of Europol
issues which relate to its current activities and its future developments. Each year the
Management Board adopts Europol's final budget, work programme of future activities
and a general report on activities carried out during the previous year, which are
submitted to the Council for endorsement and by the latter to the European Parliament
for information.

Directorate
 The Head of Europol is the Director who is appointed by the Council acting unanimously,
after obtaining the opinion of the Europol Management Board. The Director is appointed
for a four–year period which may be extended once for a further period of four years.
The Director is responsible for the administration of Europol, the performance of tasks
assigned to Europol, the management of personnel and any other tasks consigned to
him by the Europol Council Decision or by the Management Board. He is assisted in this
position by three Deputy Directors who are also appointed by the Council, for a four–
year period which may be extended once.

Europol National Units (ENUs)

 Each EU Member State has a designated Europol National Unit which is the liaison body
between Europol and the competent authorities of EU Member States. The heads of
national units meet on a regular basis to assist Europol on operational matters, on their
own initiative or at the request of the Management Board or Director. Each national unit
seconds at least one liaison officer to Europol, who is hosted at Europol headquarters in
their own liaison bureau. They represent the interests of their national unit at Europol in
accordance with the national law of the seconding Member State.

Financial accountability
 The monitoring of the commitment and disbursement of expenditure, as well as the
establishment and collection of Europol’s income, follows the general rules of the EU.
Europol has to abide by the same principles as any other EU agency or institution, such
as budgetary discipline and sound financial management. The annual accounts of
Europol are subject to an audit carried out by the European Court of Auditors.

European Court of Auditors (ECA)

 The European Court of Auditors (ECA) scrutinises and reports on Europol’s financial
accounts. The ECA is an EU institution independent of Europol, as provided for in Art.
285 – 287 of the TFEU (Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union).
 The ECA provides the budgetary authority with a statement of assurance as to the
reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions.
The ECA draws up an annual report after the close of each financial year. This report,
together with the replies from the concerned bodies, including Europol, is published by
the ECA in the Official Journal of the EU. This report is the basis for the European
Parliament to take the discharge decision on the budget implementation by Europol,
based on a recommendation from the Council. The ECA may also, at any time, submit
observations, particularly in the form of special reports, on specific questions and
delivers opinions at the request of another EU institution (referred to in Art. 13 of the
TFEU).

Internal Audit Service (IAS)

 The Financial Regulation applicable to the general budget of the EU gives the IAS the
role of internal auditor for agencies such as Europol. The IAS is the internal auditor of
the European Commission’s departments and agencies. This means a wider independent
view of the accountability and possible solutions to common processes among (similar)
agencies.

Internal Audit Function (IAF)

 The IAF operates within Europol premises and is appointed by and solely accountable to
the Europol Management Board. The mission of the IAF is to provide independent and

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 objective assurance and consultancy services, by means of audits, to the organization.
The IAF also advises Europol on dealing with risks to the organization.
 
Data protection

Data Protection Officer (DPO)

 The DPO is appointed by the Europol Management Board on a proposal of the Director
and acts independently. The DPO has access to all the data processed by Europol and to
all Europol premises in the performance of his or her tasks. The main activity is the
assurance on the lawfulness and compliance with the ECD of processing of personal
data, including the processing of personal data relating to Europol staff. The DPO is also
responsible for ensuring that data subjects are informed of their rights and for preparing
an annual report which is communicated to the Management Board and Joint
Supervisory Body.

Joint Supervisory Body

 The Joint Supervisory Body is an independent entity set up to review the activities of
Europol in order to ensure that the rights of the individual are safeguarded during the
storage, processing and utilization of personal data held by Europol. This body is
composed of two representatives of each of the national Supervisory Bodies who are
appointed for a period of five years by each Member State. Each delegation is entitled to
one vote for decision-making purposes. The Joint Supervisory Body also monitors the
permissibility of the transmission of data originating from Europol. Any individual has the
right to request the Joint Supervisory Body to ensure that the manner in which his
personal data have been collected, stored, processed and utilized by Europol is lawful
and accurate.

IV. EMPLOYEMENT
Europol is a relatively young and growing organisation that uses innovative and leading-
edge technology in a unique, multi-lingual and multi-disciplinary international law enforcement
environment.
Europol seeks employees who are creative, self-reliant, energetic and willing to take up
challenges. Prospective candidates should be prepared to work in a dynamic and fast-moving
environment that requires a high level of flexibility and should have the ability to perform well
within a team.
Europol applies a policy of equal opportunity for men and women and accepts applications
without distinction on ground of sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic characteristics,
and language, religious, political or other convictions and opinions, financial situation, disability,
age, sexual orientation, marital status or family situation. Employment at Europol is open to
nationals of the EU Member States. There is no nationality quota system in operation but
Europol is required to strive for a broad range of nationalities in order to keep a well-balanced
geographical distribution among its staff members.

V. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF EUROPOL

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83
 CHAPTER VI: IACP
(International Association of Chiefs of Police)
GLOBAL LEADERSHIP IN POLICING

The International Association of Chief’s Police are the world’s oldest

and largest non-profit membership organization of police executives, with over
20,000 members in over 89 different countries. IACP‘s leadership consist s of
the operating chief executives of international, federal, state and local
agencies of all sizes.

HISTORY
Founded in 1893, the association's goals are to advance the science and art of police
services; to develop and disseminate improved administrative, technical and operational
practices and promote their use in police work; to foster police cooperation and the exchange of
information and experience among police administrators
throughout the world; to bring about recruitment and
training in the police profession of qualified persons;
and to encourage adherence of all police officers to high
professional standards of performance and conduct.
Since 1893, the International Association of
Chiefs of Police has been serving the needs of the law
enforcement community. Throughout those past 100-
plus years, we have been launching historically acclaimed
programs, conducting ground- breaking research and
providing exemplary programs and services to our membership across the globe.
Professionally recognized programs such as the FBI Identification Division and the
Uniform Crime Records system can trace their origins back to the IACP. In fact, the IACP has
been instrumental in forwarding breakthrough technologies and philosophies from the early
years of our establishment to now, as we begin the 21st century. From spearheading national
use of fingerprint identification to partnering in a consortium on community policing to
gathering top experts in criminal justice, the government and education for summits on
violence, homicide, and youth violence, IACP has realized our responsibility to positively affect
the goals of law enforcement.

Mission of IACP
The IACP shall
1. Advance professional police services;
2. Promote enhanced administrative, technical, and operational police practices; foster cooperation
and the exchange of information and experience among police leaders and police organizations
of recognized professional and technical standing throughout the world.
3. Champion the recruitment and training of qualified persons in the police profession and,
4. Encourage all police personnel worldwide to achieve and maintain the highest standards of
ethics, integrity, community interaction and professional conduct.

Membership

Section 1: Classes of Membership

The membership of the Association shall be classified as follows: Active, Associate, Life,
Distinguished Service, Honorary, and Sustaining Members.

Section 2: Active Members

(a) The following persons shall be eligible for active membership: police officers with
executive authority or its equivalent, which includes commissioners,
superintendents, chiefs, and directors having actual supervision of, and receiving

84
 salaries from, any legally constituted police agency; assistant chiefs of police, deputy chiefs
of police, executive heads, and division, district, or bureau commanding officers of such
departments, when recommended for such membership by the chief of police or other
highest commanding officers of such a prospective member's department, if such chief or
other commanding officer is an active member in good standing of this Association; chief
executive officers and command staff of railroad police systems, colleges/universities ,
sheriff departments and indigenous tribes who are qualified as law enforcement officers
within their respective nations, states, provinces, and territories, and whose officers are
officially recognized or certified by a governmental entity; and IACP professional staff.
(b) Each application for active membership shall be endorsed by an active member of this
Association in good standing within the same nation, state, province, territory or
jurisdiction as the applicant who shall certify that the member is personally acquainted with
the applicant, believes the statements contained in the application to be true, that the
applicant is eligible for active membership in this Association, and that the member
nominates the applicant therefor. If there is no such active member of this Association in
the same state, province, or territory as the applicant, the required endorsement may be
by an active member in good standing in another nation, state, province, territory or
jurisdiction.
(c) Upon receipt of the application and the payment of the proper dues, the Executive Director
shall publish notice of such application in the official monthly publication of this Association,
The Police Chief. If after 60 days following such publication no written objection to the
applicant is received, the Executive Director shall cast the ballot for this Association in favor
of the applicant who shall thereupon be duly elected. In the event any active member in
good standing shall file with the Executive Director written objection to any application
within 60 days after publication of such notice, then such application shall be submitted to
the Executive
Committee and shall require the affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members of that
committee for admission of the applicant.
(d) Upon the regular payment of dues, an active member of this Association in good standing at
the time of their retirement from a position in police service may continue their active
membership therein after retiring from regular police duties. For the purpose of this section,
retirement shall mean the honorable separation from a position in active and regular police
duties because of age, physical disability, or retirement upon pension. Active membership in
this Association of any person eligible for such only through an individual's election to public
office by popular vote of the electorate in their jurisdiction shall terminate upon the
expiration of the term of such office. Active members whose membership has lapsed
because of non-payment of dues may be re-instated to active membership upon application,
approval, and payment of dues.
(e) The provision of this section shall not have any retroactive effect upon the membership of
any members of this Association in good standing at the time of its adoption.
(f) Active members, except members of the IACP professional staff, shall have a right to
participate in and vote at business sessions of the Association.

Section 3: Associate Members

(a) Any person not eligible for active membership but qualified by training and experience in
police or other law enforcement activity, or by other professional attainments in police
science or administration, shall be eligible for associate membership in the Association.
(b) Associate members shall have the privileges of active membership except that of holding
office and voting.
(c) Each application for associate membership shall be endorsed by an active member of
this Association in good standing within the same state, province, or territory as the
applicant who shall certify that the member is personally acquainted with the applicant,
believes the statements

Section 4: Life Members

Persons retiring from the office of President of this Association, or any active
member in good standing for a period of twenty years, shall become life members.
Upon the certification of the Executive Director and with the approval of the
Executive Committee, current and future members of the IACP professional staff shall be

85
given credit for years of employment with IACP toward life membership. Any other active
member who shall have served this Association with honor and distinction may be
elected a life member upon the unanimous recommendation of the Executive Committee at the
business session of any annual conference of the Association by a two thirds vote of the
members present and voting. A life member shall have all the rights and privileges of an
active member provided otherwise herein, but shall be exempt from the payment of
dues. Unless otherwise indicated, the term active member as used in this constitution includes
life members.

Section 5: Distinguished Service Members

Persons who have rendered distinguished public service in the administration of criminal
justice or made an outstanding contribution to the science of police administration shall be
eligible for election as distinguished service members of this Association. Distinguished service
members shall be elected only upon the unanimous recommendation of the Executive
Committee and by a two-thirds vote of the members present and voting at the business session
of any annual conference of the Association. Not more than five distinguished service
members shall be elected for life and exempt from payment of dues. Active members
of this Association who are elected to distinguished service membership shall continue to enjoy
the privileges of active membership except as it is provided otherwise herein. Other persons
elected to distinguished service membership shall have all of the privileges of active
membership except that of holding office and voting

Section 6: Honorary Members

Persons who have rendered outstanding service to the government, private
sector, or mankind shall be eligible for election as Honorary Members of this Association.
Such members shall be elected at the sole discretion of the Executive Committee; they shall be
elected for life and exempt from the payment of dues. Not more than five Honorary
Members shall be elected during any one year.

Section 7: Sustaining Members

Persons who are donors of funds to the Association for the purpose of advancing and
improving the police profession may be invited by the Executive Committee to become
sustaining members of this Association under such rules as the committee may establish. If the
invitation is accepted, such membership shall be with all privileges except that of holding office
and voting.

Section 8: Limitation to One Membership

A member shall hold only one type of membership in this Association at any one time.
GOVERNANCE
History records that some fifty police chiefs accepted a meeting invitation from Omaha,
Nebraska Police Chief Webber Seavey in 1892 to explore ways in which they could join together
to fight crime and improve police services. The following year these same police officials
formally created an organization to foster those goals. The organization is known today as the
International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP).
The IACP is a leadership organization committed to advancing the profession of policing
by promoting enhanced practices, cooperative efforts and the exchange of information among
police administrators and other institutions and organizations. The association works to bring
about the recruitment and training of qualified individuals into police agencies and encourages
police officers worldwide to maintain the highest standards possible.
Governed by this Constitution and its Rules, the IACP is led by an Executive Committee
that encompasses a Board of Officers representing the full spectrum of police executives from
across the United States and around the world. The IACP maintains a professional staff at its
international headquarters who implement the plans and programs approved by the IACP
leadership.
Membership in the association is designed for individual police professionals worldwide
and the IACP refrains from engaging in political disputes between and among nations.
This document presents both the general philosophies of the IACP and the specific rules
that govern its operations. Though it is left to the Executive Committee to adjust the Rules, all

86
changes to the Articles of the Constitution can be made only with the support of IACP's ultimate
authority, the membership.

Eight (8) elective positions on the IACP Board of Officers.  These are: 
 President (1 year term)
 1st Vice President (1 year term)
 2nd Vice President (1 year term)
 3rd Vice President (1 year term)
 4th Vice President (1 year term)
 Vice President at Large #1 (3 year term)
 Vice President at Large #2 (3 year term)
 Vice President-Treasurer    (3 year term)

EXECUTIVE SERVICES

MANAGEMENT SURVEYS
The IACP offers comprehensive Management and Operations surveys to help agencies
determine their level of accountability, community satisfaction, cost-effectiveness, compliance
with professional standards, and success in crime control. 

PATROL STAFFING AND DEPLOYMENT

Ready-made, universally applicable patrol staffing standards do not exist. Ratios, such
as officers-per-thousand population, are totally inappropriate as a basis for staffing decisions.
Defining patrol staffing allocations and deployment requirements is a complex endeavor which
requires consideration of an extensive series of factors and a sizeable body of reliable, current
data.

TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE SERVICES

TA focuses on one problem/issue or a limited set of connected problems and issues.
Designed to provide immediate, low cost diagnostic and problem solving services.

TRAINING KEYS
Concise, authoritative sources of law enforcement information, these six-page, loose-leaf
monographs allow law enforcement officers to expand or sharpen their knowledge, skills and
abilities on a broad variety of law enforcement practices and procedures.

NATIONAL LAW ENFORCEMENT POLICY CENTER

Organized under the direction of a broad-based advisory board of recognized law
enforcement professionals, the center has carried out its mission through the development of a
wide variety of model law enforcement policies.

EXECUTIVE SEARCH
The IACP offers the most comprehensive police executive search service available. Our
experienced team recognizes the significance of selecting the new executive leadership and
works in partnership with the jurisdiction through all stages of the planning, selection, and
transition processes.

ASSESSMENT CENTERS
A powerful tool for making promotional decisions, an assessment center uses a series of
simulated on-the-job challenges to gauge a candidate’s ability to perform the target job.

PROMOTIONAL TESTING
The IACP recognizes the importance of selecting and advancing the right candidates into
leadership positions, understanding that each agency has its own set of challenges and
circumstances.

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 CHAPTER VII: UNITED NATION POLICE (UNPOL)

SUSTAINABLE PEACE TROUGH JUSTICE AND SECURITY

The UN Police is an integral part of the United Nations peace operations. Currently

there are over 12500 UN Police operating in over 90 countries. The UN police help to allow for a
safer environment, as well as protecting civilians from criminal activities. The UN police does
very important work throughout the world through 17 different field missions.
United Nations Police

Flag

Map of UN member states

Note that this map does not represent the view of its
members or the UN concerning the legal status of any
country,[1] nor does it accurately reflect which areas'
governments have UN representation.

Headquarter International territory

s in Manhattan, New York City
Official Arabic, Chinese,English, French,Rus
languages sian, Spanish

Membersh 193 member states

ip

Leaders

88
   Secretary-  Ban Ki-moon
- General
  General  Joseph Deiss
- Assembly
President

Establishment
  United 26 June 1945 
- Nations
Charter sig
ned
  Entry into 24 October 1945 
- force of
Charter

United Nations Peacekeeping helps countries torn by conflict create the

conditions for lasting peace. UNPOL comprised of civilian, police and military
personnel.

Timeline
 1960 - The first police officers are used in the UN Operation in Congo (ONUC)
 1964 - Marks the first time the formal police componet is used in the UN Peacekeeping
force in Cyprus
 1989 - Saw the increased use of the UN police because of the end of the Cold War.
Police are used in peacekeeping operations in Namibia, El Salvador, and Mozambique.
 1995 - The UN Police is instrumental in the UN mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Recognised as a central tool for helping countries recover from conflict
 1999 - UN Police are deployed to Kosovo
 2000 - 5840 UN Police are on peacekeeping missions
 2006 - The standing capactiy is established
 2007 - An all women unit is sent from India to Liberia. Officers are also sent to Darfur

What UN Police Do?

One of the objectives of the Philippines National Police officers being deployed in
the UN mission is for mentoring other Law Enforcement of foreign countries like East Timor and
Kosovo.
Assistance to host-state police and other law enforcement agencies
United Nations Police Officers support the reform, restructuring and rebuilding of
domestic police and other law enforcement agency through traini8ng and advertising. Direct
assistance is also provided, often through trust funds for the refurbishment of facilities and the
procurement of vehicles, communication equipment and other law enforcement materials. Such
assistance has been provided in the past, for example, by the police components of peace
operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Burundi, and cote d’lvoire, Democratic Republic of
Chicago, Haiti, Kosovo, Liberia and Sierra Leone.

UN Peacekeeping is guided by three basic principles:

1. Consent of the parties;
2. Impartiality;
3. Non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate.
Duties
1. Policy and guidance development: Creating policy and guidance and defining the
parameters of international police peacekeeping.
2. Strategic planning: Strengthening the Police Division’s resources and ability to
conduct strategic planning.
3. Selection and recruitment processes: Improving efforts to recruit, select, deploy
and rotate highly qualified staff in missions. Increasing the number of female officers in
the UN Police service.

89
 4. Operational support to missions through the Standing Police
Capacity: Increasing the effectiveness of the operational support provided by the
Standing Police Capacity.
5. Response to Sexual and Gender-based Violence (SGBV): Strengthening its
response to sexual and gender-based violence and is creating guidance to assist its
police officers.
6. Global Lead, partnerships and regional cooperation: leading the area of
international policing and developing partnerships for more effective delivery of its
mandates.

Functions
Some of the functions of the UN Police include:
1. Interim law enforcement - Responsible for policing and all law enforcement. Some
examples are the operations in Kosovo and Timor-Leste
2. Formed police units - These are used for crowd control and quelling riots.
3. Protecting UN personnel - They also work in tandem with local law enforcement

As of 31 March 2012, UNPOL workforce consisted of:

 84,186 serving troops and military observers
 14,421 police personnel;
 5,468 international civilian personnel (31 December 2011);
 12,290 local civilian staff (31 December 2011);
 2,421 UN Volunteers.
117 countries contributed military and police personnel.
The UN does not have its own military force; it depends on contributions from Member
States.
In addition to maintaining peace and security, peacekeepers are increasingly charged
with assisting in political processes; reforming judicial systems; training law enforcement and
police forces; disarming and reintegrating former combatants; supporting the return of
internally displaced persons and refugees.

How much does peacekeeping cost?

The budget for UN Peacekeeping operations for the fiscal year is about $7.84 billion.
By way of comparison, this is less than half of one per cent of world military
expenditures in 2010.
The estimated cost of all UN Peacekeeping operations from 1948 to June 2010 amounts
to about $69 billion.
The top 10 providers of assessed contributions to United Nations Peacekeeping operations
in 2011-2012 are:
1. United States (27.14%)
2. Japan (12.53%)
3. United Kingdom (8.15%)
4. Germany (8.02%)
5. France (7.55%)
6. Italy (5.00%)
7. China (3.93%)
8. Canada (3.21%)
9. Spain (3.18%)
10. Republic of Korea (2.26%)
Secretaries-General
Note: Alger Hiss was Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on
International Organization, held in April to June 1945.
UN
Secretary- Dates in Country of
Portrait Regional Reason of withdrawal
General office origin
Group

90
 24 October
Western
1945 –  United Served as Acting Secretary-
Gladwyn Jebb European
1 February Kingdom General until Lie's election
& Others
1946
After World War II, he served as Executive Secretary of the Preparatory
Commission of the United Nations in August 1945, being appointed Acting United
Nations Secretary-General from October 1945 to February 1946 until the
appointment of the first Secretary-General Trygve Lie.
1 February
1946 – Western
Trygve Lie 10  Norway European Resigned
November & Others
1952
Lie, a foreign minister and former labour leader, was recommended by the Soviet
Union to fill the post. After the UN involvement in the Korean War, the Soviet
Union vetoed Lie's reappointment in 1951. The US circumvented the Soviet
Union's veto and recommended reappointment directly to the General Assembly.
Lie was reappointed by a vote of forty-six to five, with eight abstentions. The
Soviet Union remained hostile to Lie, and he resigned in 1952. [10]
10 April Died in a plane crash
1953 – Western in Northern
Dag
18  Sweden European Rhodesia (now Zambia),
Hammarskjöld
September & Others while on a peacekeeping
1961 mission to the Congo
After a series of candidates were vetoed, Hammarskjöld emerged as an option
that was acceptable to the Security Council. Hammarskjöld was re-elected
unanimously to a second term in 1957. The Soviet Union was angered by
Hammarskjöld's leadership of the UN during theCongo Crisis, and suggested that
the position of Secretary-General be replaced by a troika, or three-man executive.
Facing great opposition from the Western nations, the Soviet Union gave up on its
suggestion. Hammarskjöld was killed in a plane crash in Northern
Rhodesia (now Zambia) in 1961. US President John F. Kennedy called
Hammarskjöld "the greatest statesman of our century."
30
November
1961 – Declined to consider a third
U Thant  Burma Asian
31 term.
December
1971
In the process of replacing Hammarskjöld, the developing world insisted on a non-
European and non-American. U Thant was nominated. However, due to opposition
from the French (Thant had chaired a committee on Algerian independence) and
the Arabs (Burma was supporting Israel), Thant was only appointed for the
remainder of Hammarskjöld's term. Thant was the first Asian Secretary-General.
The following year, Thant was unanimously re-elected to a full five-year term. He
was similarly re-elected in 1966. Thant did not seek a third term. [10]
1 January
1972 – Western
Kurt Waldheim 31  Austria European China vetoed his third term.
December & Others
1981
Waldheim launched a discreet but effective campaign to become the Secretary-
General. Despite initial vetoes from China and the United Kingdom, in the third
round Waldheim was selected to become the new Secretary-General. In 1976,

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 China initially blocked Waldheim's re-election, but it relented on the second ballot.
In 1981, Waldheim's re-election for a third term was blocked by China, which
vetoed his selection through 15 rounds. In the mid-1980s, it was revealed that a
post-World War II UN War Crimes Commission had labeled Waldheim as a
suspected war criminal – based on his involvement with the Nazi German army.
The files had been stored in the UN archive.[10]
1 January
Latin
1982 –
Javier Pérez American Refused to be considered
31  Peru
de Cuéllar & for a third term.
December
Caribbean
1991
Pérez de Cuéllar was selected after a five-week deadlock between the re-election
of Waldheim and China's candidate, Salim Ahmed Salimof Tanzania. Pérez de
Cuéllar, a Peruvian diplomat, was a compromise candidate, and the first Secretary-
General from the Americas. He was re-elected unanimously in 1986. [10]
1 January
1992 –
Boutros The United States vetoed his
31  Egypt African
Boutros-Ghali second term.
December
1996
The 102 member Non-Aligned Movement insisted that the next Secretary-General
come from Africa. With a majority in the General Assembly and the support of
China, the Non-Aligned Movement had the votes necessary to block any
unfavourable candidate. The Security Council conducted five anonymous straw
polls – a first for the council. Boutros-Ghali emerged with 11 votes on the fifth
round. In 1996 the US vetoed the re-appointment of Boutros-Ghali, claiming he
had failed in implementing necessary reforms to the UN.
1 January
1997 –
Kofi Annan 31  Ghana African Retired after two full terms
December
2006
On 13 December 1996, the United Nations Security Council recommended Annan.
He was confirmed four days later by the vote of the General Assembly, He started
his second term as Secretary-General on 1 January 2002.
1 January
 South Asia-
Ban Ki-moon 2007– Incumbent
Korea Pacific
present
Ban became the second Asian to be selected as the Secretary-General. He was
unanimously elected to a second term by the General Assembly on 21 June 2011.
His second term began on 1 January 2012. Prior to his selection, he was the
Foreign Minister of the Republic of Korea from January 2004 to November 2006.

List of presidents
Yea
Name of President UN member state Region
r
1946 Paul-Henri Spaak  Belgium WES
1947 Oswaldo Aranha  Brazil LAS
1947 Oswaldo Aranha  Brazil LAS
1948 José Arce  Argentina LAS
1948 Herbert Vere Evatt  Australia COS

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Yea
Name of President UN member state Region
r
1949 Carlos P. Romulo  Philippines EAS
1950 Nasrollah Entezam  Iran EAS
1951 Luis Padilla Nervo  Mexico LAS
1952 Lester B. Pearson  Canada COS
1953 Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit  India COS
1954 Eelco N. van Kleffens  Netherlands WES
1955 José Maza  Chile LAS
1956 Rudecindo Ortega  Chile LAS
1956 Rudecindo Ortega  Chile LAS
1956 Wan Waithayakon  Thailand EAS
1957 Leslie Munro  New Zealand COS
1958 Leslie Munro  New Zealand COS
1958 Charles Habib Malik  Lebanon MES
1959 Víctor Andrés Belaúnde  Peru LAS
1960 Víctor Andrés Belaúnde  Peru LAS
1960 Frederick Henry Boland  Ireland WES
1961 Frederick Henry Boland  Ireland WES
1961 Mongi Slim  Tunisia MES
1962 Muhammad Zafarullah Khan  Pakistan COS
1963 Muhammad Zafarullah Khan  Pakistan COS
1963 Carlos Sosa Rodriguez  Venezuela LAS
1964 Alex Quaison-Sackey  Ghana COS
1965 Amintore Fanfani  Italy WES
1966 Abdul Rahman Pazhwak  Afghanistan Asia
1967 Abdul Rahman Pazhwak  Afghanistan Asia
1967 Abdul Rahman Pazhwak  Afghanistan Asia
1967 Corneliu Mănescu  Romania EEG
1968 Emilio Arenales Catalan  Guatemala GRULAC
1969 Angie Elisabeth Brooks  Liberia Africa
1970 Edvard Hambro  Norway WEOG
1971 Adam Malik  Indonesia Asia
1972 Stanisław Trepczyński  Poland EEG
1973 Leopoldo Benites  Ecuador GRULAC
1974 Leopoldo Benites  Ecuador GRULAC
1974 Abdelaziz Bouteflika  Algeria Africa
1975 Abdelaziz Bouteflika  Algeria Africa
1975 Gaston Thorn  Luxembourg WEOG
Hamilton Shirley
1976  Sri Lanka Asia
Amerasinghe
1977 Lazar Mojsov  SFR Yugoslavia EEG

93
Yea
Name of President UN member state Region
r
1978 Lazar Mojsov  SFR Yugoslavia EEG
1978 Lazar Mojsov  SFR Yugoslavia EEG
1978 Lazar Mojsov  SFR Yugoslavia EEG
1978 Indalecio Liévano  Colombia GRULAC
1979 Salim A. Salim  Tanzania Africa
1980 Salim A. Salim  Tanzania Africa
1980 Salim A. Salim  Tanzania Africa
1980 Salim A. Salim  Tanzania Africa
 Federal Republic of Germany (West
1980 Rüdiger von Wechmar WEOG
Germany)
 Federal Republic of Germany (West
1981 Rüdiger von Wechmar WEOG
Germany)
1981 Ismat T. Kittani  Iraq Asia
1982 Ismat T. Kittani  Iraq Asia
1982 Ismat T. Kittani  Iraq Asia
1982 Ismat T. Kittani  Iraq Asia
1982 Imre Hollai  Hungary EEG
1983 Jorge E. Illueca  Panama GRULAC
1984 Paul J. F. Lusaka  Zambia Africa
1985 Jaime de Piniés  Spain WEOG
1986 Jaime de Piniés  Spain WEOG
1986 Humayun Rashid Choudhury  Bangladesh Asia
1986 Humayun Rashid Choudhury  Bangladesh Asia
 German Democratic Republic (East
1987 Peter Florin EEG
Germany)
 German Democratic Republic (East
1988 Peter Florin EEG
Germany)
1988 Dante Maria Caputo  Argentina GRULAC
1989 Joseph Nanven Garba  Nigeria Africa
1989 Joseph Nanven Garba  Nigeria Africa
1990 Joseph Nanven Garba  Nigeria Africa
1990 Joseph Nanven Garba  Nigeria Africa
1990 Guido de Marco  Malta WEOG
1991 Samir S. Shihabi  Saudi Arabia Asia
1992 Stoyan Ganev  Bulgaria EEG
1993 Samuel Insanally  Guyana GRULAC
1994 Amara Essy  Côte d'Ivoire Africa
1995 Diogo Freitas do Amaral  Portugal WEOG
1996 Razali Ismail  Malaysia Asia
1997 Razali Ismail  Malaysia Asia
1997 Razali Ismail  Malaysia Asia

94
Yea
Name of President UN member state Region
r
1997 Hennadiy Udovenko  Ukraine EEG
1998 Hennadiy Udovenko  Ukraine EEG
1998 Hennadiy Udovenko  Ukraine EEG
1998 Didier Opertti Badan  Uruguay GRULAC
1999 Didier Opertti Badan  Uruguay GRULAC
1999 Didier Opertti Badan  Uruguay GRULAC
1999 Theo-Ben Gurirab  Namibia Africa
1999 Theo-Ben Gurirab  Namibia Africa
2000 Theo-Ben Gurirab  Namibia Africa
2000 Theo-Ben Gurirab  Namibia Africa
2000 Harri Holkeri  Finland WEOG
2000 Harri Holkeri  Finland WEOG
2001 Harri Holkeri  Finland WEOG
2001 Harri Holkeri  Finland WEOG
2001 Han Seung-soo  Republic of Korea (South Korea) Asia
2002 Jan Kavan  Czech Republic EEG
2003 Julian Hunte  Saint Lucia GRULAC
2004 Jean Ping  Gabon Africa
2005 Jan Eliasson  Sweden WEOG
2006 Haya Rashed Al-Khalifa  Bahrain Asia
2007 Srgjan Asan Kerim  Macedonia EEG
2008 Miguel d'Escoto Brockmann  Nicaragua GRULAC
2009 Ali Abdussalam Treki  Libya Africa
2010 Joseph Deiss  Switzerland WEOG
2011 Nassir Al-Nasser[4]  Qatar Asia
2012 election to be decided EEG

CHAPTER VIII: TRANSNATIONAL CRIME

TRANSNATIONAL CRIME
1. Crime that takes place across national borders.
2. Crimes that are not only international but crimes that by their nature involve border
crossing as an essential part of the criminal activity.

95
 3. Crimes that take place in one country, but their consequences significantly affect
another country.

TRANSNATIONAL ORGANIZED CRIME

1. A crime committed in more than one State.
2. A crime committed in one State but a substantial part of its preparation, planning,
direction or control takes place in another State.
3. A crime committed in one State but involves a criminal group that engages in criminal
activities in more than one State.
4. A crime committed in one State but has substantial affects in another State or States.

PHILIPPINE EXPERIENCE
1. Human Trafficking and Smuggling
2. Money Laundering
3. Cyber Crime
4. Small Arms and Light Weapons
5. Terrorism
6. Drug Trafficking
7. Sexual Slavery

Human Trafficking involves the recruitment, transport, harboring, or sale of

persons, within or across national borders, for the purpose of exploiting their labor.
Trafficked persons are forced into prostitution, domestic servitude, bonded sweatshop
labor, and other kinds of work slavery-like practices.
Trafficked persons are also victims or organ removal and sale.

VARIOUS CONCEPTION OF TRAFFICKING

1. Slavery
2. Prostitution
3. Organized Crime
4. Migration

HUMAN TRAFFICKING AND HUMAN SMUGGLING

TRAFFICKING IN PERSON
 Usually involves coercion
 Characterized by subsequent exploitation after the illegal entry of a person into a foreign
country.
 Considered a human.
Trafficking in persons is a form of modern – day slavery. Trafficking organizations prey on
individuals who are poor, often women who are lured with false promises of good jobs and
better lives and, instead, are forced to work under brutal conditions. In the US, the government
estimates that approximately 50,000 women and children are trafficked annually.
According to the National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW), an
estimated 25,000 to 35,000 Filipino women are victims of trafficking, every year which already
accounts for 50% of all women victims of trafficking in Southeast Asia.

HUMAN SMUGGLING
 Usually does not involve coercion.
 Characterized by facilitating, for an illegal entry of a person into a foreign country.
 Considered a migration concern.

PHILIPPINE DOMESTIC LAWS

1. Republic Act No. 9208-“Anti-trafficking in Persons Act of 2003”.
2. Republic Act No. 7610-“Special Protection of Children Against Abuse, Exploitation and
Discrimination Act”.
3. Republic Act No. 8042-“Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipino Act”

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 4. Republic Act No. 6955-“An Act to Declare Unlawful the Practice of Matching Filipino
Women for Marriage to Foreign Nationals on a Mail-Order Basis and Other similar
Practices…
5. Republic Act No. 8239- “Philippine Passport Act of 1996”

CAUSES OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING

1. Poverty
2. Uneven economic development
3. Family orientation & values
4. Weak enforcement of laws
5. Corruption
6. Immediate benefits of working abroad
7. MODUS OPERANDI

ILLEGAL RECRUITMENT
ILLEGAL RECRUITMENT
 Agents are from bogus agency;
 Victims hail from provinces;
 Victims mostly GRO, Entertainers, Dancers & quite few innocent;
 Placement fee Php100,000-Php300,000;&
 While waiting, bogus agency will disappear

ILLEGAL MIGRATION
 Perpetrated by organized crime group;
 Victim are Filipinos who desire to live & work abroad; and
 Placement fee Php60,000-Php300,000

MAIL ORDER BRIDE

 Perpetrate by Foreigners married to Filipinos or with contact to Philippines;
 Look for young, singles & good looking ladies;
 Aggravate due to advancement of technology (pose pictures on the internet)
 Arrange group travel to Philippines for “Get to know you more”; and
 Petitions to migrate with her foreign husband.
 FOREIGN TRAING/INTERNSHIP
 Legitimate means to go abroad;
 Filipino refuse to return;
 Prolong stay to work; and
 Find a way to legitimize their stay therein.

ADOPTION METHOD
 Children to smuggle out of the country;
 Foreigners will pretend to adopt them; but the reality, they will be sold to:
1. Labor markets
2. Prostitution dens

FAMILY TOURS
 Organized by unscrupulous travel agency to have one “bogus family”;
 Somebody will pretend as parents; and
 Children will use tampered documents to complete the bogus family.
 RELIGIOUS PILGRIMAGE
 This scheme victimizes mostly women who join the religious tours;
 Traffickers will promise employment upon arrival;
 Some end up bonded labor; and
 Others were forced into prostitutions.
 CULTURAL EXCHANGE / PROMOTION
 This scheme projects a group posting as artist or singers to another country for cultural
exchange;
 After the performance, the group disbands and fielded to other job;
 The arrangement is called “exploitation of women”. (unstable/insecure jobs)

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 ROUTES OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING

Money Laundering
UN DEFINITION
Conversion or transfer of property knowing that such property is derived from a criminal
offense, for the purpose of concealing or disguising the illicit origin or the property, or assisting

98
any person who is involved in the commission of such offense, or offenses, to evade legal
consequences of his action;

Philippine Definition (AMLA Section 4, R.A. 9160)

A crime whereby the proceeds of unlawful activity are transacted, thereby making them
appear to have originated from legitimate sources.

FATF DEFINITION
“The process of converting cash, or other property, which is derived from criminal activity,
so as to give it the appearance of having been obtained from a legitimate source.”

“TURNING OF DIRTY MONEY INTO CLEAN MONEY”

Three (3) Basic Steps to Change Illicit Funds to Legitimate Funds

1. Placement– involves a changing the bulk cash derived from criminal activities into a
more portable and less suspicious form, then getting those proceeds into the
mainstream financial system.
2. Layering – involves the movement of these funds, often mixed with funds of legitimate
origins, through the world’s financial systems in numerous accounts in an attempt to
hide the funds back into the mainstream economy, where they can be invested and
spent freely.
3. Integration – is the process of reintroducing these layered funds back into the
mainstream economy, where they can be invested and spent freely.

MONEY LAUNDERING TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS

1. Smuggling - Shipping the bulk cash through the same channels used to bring drugs.
2. Hand carrying- Changing into negotiable instruments.
3. Structuring - Depositing money in smaller form.
4. The used of front companies - Jewelry stores, money-service business, travel agencies,
import/export companies, bank drafts, counterbalancing loan schemes, dollar discounting,
mirror image trading, reverse slips, inflated prices.
SMALL ARMS AND LIGHT WEAPONS
ARMS SMUGGLING
Illegal Arms Trafficking or Gunrunning involves the act of smuggling contraband weapons and
ammunitions.

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“FIREARMS- Any barreled weapon that will or is designed or may be readily converted to
expel a bullet or projectile by the action of an explosive.” ….UN Firearms Protocol

“Firearms - includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistols and all other deadly
weapons from which a bullet, ball, shot, shall or other missile maybe discharged by means of
gun powder or other explosives. The barrel of firearms shall be considered complete firearms. ”
--- PD 1866:

“SMALL ARMS - weapons designed for an individual use…”

“LIGHT WEAPONS -are designed to be deployed and used by a crew of two (2) or more...”

TERRORISM

Presidential Memorandum Order 121 dated 31 Oct 2000

“It is the premeditated use or threatened use of violence or means of destruction
perpetrated against innocent civilians or non-combatants, or against civilians and government
properties, usually intended to influence an audience.
Its purpose is to create a state of fear that will aid in extorting, coercing, intimidating, or
causing individuals and groups to alter their behavior.
Its methods, among others, are hostage taking, piracy or sabotage, assassination,
threats, hoaxes, and indiscriminate bombings or shootings.”

Terrorism additional info:

The systematic use of terror, especially as a means of coercion. It refers only to those
acts which are:
1. Intended to create fear
2. Are perpetrated for ideological goal
3. Deliberately target non-combatants

Malaysia
Terrorism does not include people’s struggle against foreign occupation, aggression,
colonialism, and hegemony aimed at liberation and self-determination in accordance with the
principles of international law.”

R.A. 9372 - THE HUMAN SECURITY ACT OF 2007

Sec 3. Any person who commits an act punishable under any of the following provisions of the
revised penal code
1. Art 122(Piracy and Mutiny)
2. Art 134 (Rebellion and Insurrection)
3. Art 134-a (Coup d etat)
4. Art 248 (Murder)
5. Art 267 (Kidnapping and serious illegal detention)
6. Art 324 (Crimes Involving Destruction)
Or under
1. PD 1613 (The Law on Arson)
2. R.A. 6969 (Toxic Substance Control Act)
3. R.A. 5207 (Atomic Energy Regulatory Act)
4. R.A. 6235 (Anti – Hijacking Law)
5. PD 532 ( Anti-Piracy and Highway Robbery)
6. PD1866 (Illegal Possession of Fire Arms)
Thereby sowing and creating a condition of widespread and extraordinary fear and panic
among populace, in order to coerce the government to give in to an unlawful demand shall be
guilty of the crime of terrorism and shall suffer the penalty of 40 years of imprisonment without
the benefit of parole as provided for under Act 4103, otherwise known as the indeterminate
sentence law, as ammended

DRUG TRAFFICKING

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 The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global black market consisting of the
cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of illegal drugs.

SEXUAL SLAVERY
It refers to the organized coercion of unwilling people into various different sexual
practices. It encompasses most if not all forms of forced prostitution.

CYBER CRIMES
 The term used to denote the use of computer technology to engage in unlawful activity.
 Various types of offending behavior directed against computer systems, networks or data.
 Crimes committed with the use of information. Technology where computer, network,
internet is the target where the internet is the place of activity.
 Punishable by RA 8792 otherwise known as the Electronic Commerce Act.

FOUR CATEGORIES OF COMPUTER CRIMES

1. The Computer as a Target – the attack seeks to deny the legitimate users or owners of
the system access to their data or computers.
2. The Computer as an Instrument of the Crime – the computer is used to gain some
other criminal objective. For example, a thief may use a computer to steal personal
information.
3. The Computer as incidental to a crime – the computer is not the primary instrument of
the crime; it simply facilitates it. Money laundering and the trading of child pornography
would be example of this category.
4. Crimes Associated with the prevalence of computers – this includes crimes against
industry, such as intellectual property theft and software piracy.

COMPUTER AS A WEAPON
1. Hacking - Refers to unauthorized access into or interference in a computer
system/server or information and communication system. It is also the gaining unauthorized
access to computer system, and as such, is conceptually analogous to real world trespassing.
2. Cracking - Which consists of gaining unauthorized access to computer system for the
purpose of committing a crime “inside” the system, is conceptually analogous to burglary.
3. Virus/ Worm Attack - A small file that attaches to emails or downloads and infects
computers.
4. Denial-of-Service (DoS) - Illegal act to bring a particular system down or to
malfunction a system.
5. Malicious Email Sending - The act of sending malicious and defamatory electronic
mails. One of the very prevalent computer crimes in the Philippines, the sending of malicious
and defamatory electronic emails has rendered obsolete the traditional “snail-threat-mail.
Dissemination of viruses, worms and other varieties of malicious code is analogous to vandalism
6. Web defacement - A form of malicious hacking in which a Web site is “vandalized.”
7. Internet Pornography - The trafficking, distribution, posting, and dissemination of
obscene material including children’s nude pictures, indecent exposure, and child sex slavery
posted into the internet, live streaming videos aired through internet under a certain fee.
8. Email bombing - Refers to sending a large numbers of email resulting to email account
crashing.
9. Data Diddling - Altering raw data just before it is processed by a computer and then
changing it back after the processing completed.
10. Salami attack - Frequently used in financial crimes.
11. Online Auction Fraud
12. Logic bombs - Program created to do something only on certain event.
13. Trojan attacks - An unauthorized program which functions from inside what seem to
be an authorized program, thereby concealing what it is actually doing.
14. Internet time theft - Usage by an unauthorized person of the internet hours paid by
another person

TECHNICAL TERMS
 ISP – Internet Service Provider

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 IP Address – Series of numbers assigned by an Internet Service Provider to an Internet
user when it connects to the internet. It is considered as the anchor of investigation of all
internet cri

TERRORISM
Short History
"Terror" comes from a Latin terrere meaning "to frighten".The term "terrorism" was
originally used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club during the "Reign of Terror" in the
French Revolution. "The word terrorism was first used in France to describe a new system of
government adopted during the French Revolution (1789-1799).
The REGIME DE LA TERREUR (Reign of Terror) was intended to promote democracy and
popular rule by ridding the revolution of its enemies and thereby purifying it. However, the
oppression and violent excesses of the terreur transformed it into a feared instrument of the
state. From that time on, terrorism has had a decidedly negative connotation.
The word, however, did not gain wider popularity until the late 19th century when it was
adopted by a group of Russian revolutionaries to describe their violent struggle against tsarist
rule. Terrorism then assumed the more familiar anti-government associations it has today.

Terrorism Definition
1. Is the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear for bringing about political change.
2. Is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion.
3. The unlawful use or threatened use of force or violence by a person or an
organized group against people or property with the intention of intimidating or coercing
societies or governments, often for ideological or political reasons.
4. Terrorism is a criminal act that influences an audience beyond the immediate
victim.
5. Defined as political violence in an asymmetrical conflict that is designed to induce
terror and psychic fear (sometimes indiscriminate) through the violent victimization and
destruction of noncombatant targets (sometimes iconic symbols).

Other Definitions
The U.S. Department of State
Defines "terrorism" to be "premeditated politically-motivated violence perpetrated
against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended
to influence an audience. 

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 The United Nations this definition (1992);
An anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine
individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in
contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets.
The most commonly accepted academic definition.
United Nation described terrorism as any act "intended to cause death or serious bodily
harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling
a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act.

British Government definition (1974)

The use of violence for political ends, and includes any use of violence for the purpose
of putting the public, or any section of the public, in fear." 

The United States Department of Defense:

Terrorism is “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to
inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of
goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological.”
Within this definition, there are three (3) key elements — violence, fear, and
intimidation and each element produces terror in its victims.

The FBI Definition:

Terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to
intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in
furtherance of political or social objectives."

Key Characteristics of Terrorism According

to Bruce Hoffman
By distinguishing terrorists from other types of criminals and terrorism from other forms
of crime, we come to appreciate that terrorism is:
1. Ineluctably political in aims and motives.
2. Use violence and threats.
3. Designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim
or target.
4. Conducted by an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial
cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia).
5. Perpetrated by a sub - national group or non-state entity.

Four (4) Categories of Approaches to Terrorism Analysis:

1. The multi-Causal Approach; This approach incorporates psychological considerations,
economic, political, religious and sociological factors as contributors to understanding the
causes of terrorism
2. The political or Structural Approach; Presupposes that the causes of terrorism can
be found in environmental factors
3. The organizational approach; This approach rests on the idea that organizations
consciously make the decision to use the instrument of terrorism as the best option to attain
certain political goals.
4. The psychological approach; This approach focuses primarily on the features and
characteristics of the individual perpetrator or terrorist group; examining the behavior,
recruitment methods, individual profiles, and ‘careers’ of terrorists.

Most Relevant Root and Trigger Causes

Based on the prevailing scholarly literature and the above-mentioned list of concrete
examples of identified root and trigger causes of terrorism, we have identified the top five
reasons for each.
The specific causes within each category – root and trigger causes – have been ranked
from the most general or broad aspects to the more specific underlying factors.

ROOT CAUSES TRIGGER CAUSES

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 1) Rapid modernization and 1) Events that call for revenge
urbanization are strongly or
correlated with the action (i.e. contested
emergence of elections,
ideological terrorism police brutality, etc.)
2) Lack of Democracy, civil 2) Lack of opportunity for
liberties political
and the rule of law is a participation
precondition to many forms of
domestic terrorism
3) Historical antecedents of 3) Concrete grievances among
political a
violence subgroup of a larger
population
4) Repression by foreign 4) Importance of belonging to
occupation a
or colonial powers strong group for development
of
identity
5) Experience of 5) Peace talks
discrimination
based on ethnic or religious
origins

Other Root Cause of Terrorism

1. Foreign domination and control of Muslim resources.
2. Hatred of the Western way of life.
3. Alienation.
4. Poverty and illiteracy
5. The moral decadence of the West
6. Imperialism
7. West's support for Israel

Aim of Terrorism:
1. Seriously intimidate populace.
2. Unduly compelling a Government or international organization to perform or abstain
from performing any act.
3. Seriously destabilize or destroy the fundamental political, constitutional, economic or
social structures of a country or an international organization.

Terrorist Acts are motivated by Two Things:

1. Social and political injustice. People choose terrorism when they are trying to right
what they perceive to be a social or political or historical wrong—when they have been
stripped of their land or rights, or denied these.
2. The belief that violence or its threat will be effective, and usher in change.
Another way of saying this is: the belief that violent means justify the ends. Many
terrorists in history said sincerely that they chose violence after long deliberation,
because they felt they had no choice.

Strategy of terrorists
The strategy of terrorists is to commit acts of violence that draws the attention of the
local populace, the government, and the world to their cause. The terrorists plan their attack to
obtain the greatest publicity, choosing targets that symbolize what they oppose. The
effectiveness of the terrorist act lies not in the act itself, but in the public’s or government’s
reaction to the act.
For example, in 1972 at the Munich Olympics, the Black September Organization killed 11
Israelis. The Israelis were the immediate victims. But the true target was the estimated 1 billion
people watching the televised event. The Black September Organization used the high visibility
of the Olympics to publicize its views on the plight of the Palestinian refugees. Similarly, in

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 October 1983, Middle Eastern terrorists bombed the Marine Battalion Landing Team
Headquarters at Beirut International Airport.
Their immediate victims were the 241 U.S. military personnel who were killed and over 100
others who were wounded. Their true target was the American people and the U.S. Congress.
Their one act of violence influenced the United States’ decision to withdraw the Marines from
Beirut and was therefore considered a terrorist success. 

Note: Such acts are meant to send a message from an illicit clandestine organization. The
purpose of terrorism is to exploit the media in order to achieve maximum attainable publicity as
an amplifying force multiplier in order to influence the targeted audience(s) in order to reach
short - and midterm political goals and/or desired long-term end states.

Three Perspectives of Terrorism Perspectives

1. The Terrorist’s Perspectives - The phrase “one man’s terrorist is another man’s
freedom fighter” is a view terrorists themselves would accept. Terrorists do not see
themselves as evil. They believe they are legitimate combatants, fighting for what they
believe in, by whatever means possible.
2. The Victim’s Perspectives - A victim of a terrorist act sees the terrorist as a criminal with
no regard for human life.
3. The General Publics Perspectives - The general public’s view is the most unstable. The
terrorists take great pains to foster a “Robin Hood” image in hope of swaying the general
public’s point of view toward their cause. This sympathetic view of terrorism has become an
integral part of their psychological warfare and needs to be countered vigorously.

Three (3) Main Weapons of Terrorism

1. Bombs (the most common terrorist tactic)

Bombs can consist of commercially produced explosives such as black powder, TNT, or
dynamite; military supplies such as plastic explosives; or commercially available materials made
into homemade explosives, such as fertilizer (ammonium nitrate) mixed with diesel fuel. Bombs
can be either explosive or incendiary (designed to cause a fire upon impact).
The most effective bombs typically employ a shaped charge (explosive) that channels the
force of the blast in a specific direction. Bombs are detonated (made to explode) by a variety of
means.
 Time-delay detonators use a clock, wristwatch, or other timing device.
 Remote-control detonators rely on radio or other electronic signals.
 Command-wire detonation a button is pressed or a plunger pushed to trigger the
explosion.

2. Firearms
Many terrorists have favored firearms, including automatic weapons such as assault
rifles, submachine guns, and pistols; revolvers; sawed-off shotguns; hunting rifles with sniper
sights, especially for assassination; and machine guns.
During the 1990s, terrorists increasingly used rocket-propelled grenades and other
armor-piercing projectiles in their attacks.
These weapons, more powerful forms of the bazookas used in World War II (1939-
1945), can penetrate successive layers of ceramic and reinforced-steel that protect vehicles
used by the police and military forces. Another favorite terrorist weapon is the hand grenade or
its homemade equivalent, the Molotov cocktail. This crude grenade is made by filling a glass
bottle with gasoline, stuffing a rag down the bottle’s neck, and igniting the rag just before
tossing the bottle at a target.

3. Chemical and Biological Weapons

Concern over terrorist use of chemical and biological weapons increased after the 1995
sarin nerve gas attack on the Tokyo subway and the discovery in 2001 of anthrax spores mailed
in the United States.

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 Chemical weapons consist of toxic chemical compounds, such as nerve gas or dioxin,
whereas biological weapons are living organisms or their toxins, such as anthrax spores.
4. Chemical weapons can be divided into five main classes:
A. Incapacitating
 The only deliberately nonlethal chemical weapon.
 They include the tear gases and pepper sprays typically used by police and other law
enforcement agencies for crowd control or to subdue a person temporarily.
B. Choking
 Choking agents attack the victim’s respiratory system and hamper breathing, leading to
death by suffocation.
C. Blistering
 Blister agents produce large blisters on exposed skin that do not heal readily and
therefore easily become infected.
D. Blood
 Blood agents, which victims absorb through breathing, enter the bloodstream and lead
to convulsions, respiratory failure, and death as they shut down the body’s functioning
E. Nerve Agents
 Nerve agents are especially effective. They can be either inhaled or absorbed through
the skin and quickly attack the central nervous system, obstructing breathing
5. Biological agents 
 Are disease-carrying organisms that infect people through inhalation, contaminated food
or water, or contact with the skin.
 They include bacterial toxins, such as anthrax, Clostridium botulinum (botulism), and
salmonella; plant toxins such as ricin; and viruses, such as tularemia, yellow fever, and
smallpox.

OTHER TERRORIST TACTICS & WEAPONS

1. AK-47 Assault Rifles - The Soviet era assault rifle began circulating among guerrilla fighters,
national liberation armies and international terrorists during the Cold War – and it still is
today.
2. Assassination - The targeted murder of a political or other well-known figure brings
attention to a terrorist's cause.
3. Car Bombing (VBIEDs) - Car Bombing, a favored terrorist tactic, turns vehicles into weapons
4. DirtyBomb - Dirty Bomb is the colloquial name for a Radiological Dispersal Device.
5. Hijacking - The illegal seizure of an aircraft, ship or vehicle is a long-established terrorist
tactic.
6. IEDs (Improvised Explosive Devices) - IEDs, or Improvised Explosive Devices, are makeshift
bombs that can cause tremendous damage.
7. Nuclear Terrorism- Terrorists might Buy, Build or Bomb using nuclear materials. The types
of nuclear terrorism are listed here.
8. Rocket Propelled Grenades - Rocket Propelled Grenades are light, cheap and easy to find on
the black market.
9. Suicide Attacks - Suicide attacks are committed by assailants who are aware they will be
killed in their attack.
10. Surface-to-Air Missiles (SAMs)- Lightweight and compact, surface-to-air missiles are ideal
weapons in an insurgent or terrorist arsenal.

PRIMARY REASON FOR TERRORISM

1. Political Ideology: The purpose of their terroristic act is to force the government to
abscond and replace it what they have in mind.
2. Religion: They want to establish a secular government on their own with only one religion.
3. Nationalism: It is a devotion to the interest or culture of a group of people or groups of
nation.
4. Special Interest Group: They do terroristic act to uphold what they are advocating.

THE INTENT OF TERRORIST GROUPS

A terrorist group commits acts of violence to -
1. Produce wide spread fear.

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 2. Obtain worldwide, national, or local recognition for their cause by attracting the
attention of the media.
3. Harass, weaken, or embarrass government security forces so that the
government overreacts and appears repressive.
4. Steal or extort money and equipment, especially weapons and ammunition vital
to the operation of their group.
5. Destroy facilities or disrupt lines of communication in order to create doubt that
the government can provide for and protect its citizens.
6. Discourage foreign investments, tourism, or assistance programs that can affect
the target country’s economy and support of the government in power.’
7. Influence government decisions, legislation, or other critical decisions.
8. Free prisoners Satisfy vengeance.
9. Turn the tide in a guerrilla war by forcing government security forces to
concentrate their efforts in urban areas. This allows the terrorist group to
establish itself among the local populace in rural areas.

Characteristic of Terrorist
1. Separatist - Separatist groups are those with the goal of separation from existing entities
through independence, political autonomy, or religious freedom or domination. The
ideologies separatists subscribe to include social justice or equity, anti-imperialism, as well
as the resistance to conquest or occupation by a foreign power. 
2. Ethnocentric - Groups of this persuasion see race as the defining characteristic of a
society, and therefore a basis of cohesion. There is usually the attitude that a particular
group is superior because of their inherent racial characteristics. 
3. Nationalistic - The loyalty and devotion to a nation, and the national consciousness
derived from placing one nation's culture and interests above those of other nations or
groups. This can find expression in the creation of a new nation or in splitting away part of
an existing state to join with another that shares the perceived "national" identity.
4. Revolutionary- Dedicated to the overthrow of an established order and replacing it with a
new political or social structure. Although often associated with communist political
ideologies, this is not always the case, and other political movements can advocate
revolutionary methods to achieve their goals. 
5. Political - Political ideologies are concerned with the structure and organization of the
forms of government and communities. While observers outside terrorist organizations may
stress differences in political ideology, the activities of groups that are diametrically opposed
on the political spectrum are similar to each other in practice.
6. Religious - Religiously inspired terrorism is on the rise, with a forty-three percent increase
of total international terror groups espousing religious motivation between 1980 and 1995.
While Islamic terrorists and organizations have been the most active, and the greatest
recent threat to the United States, all of the major world religions have extremists that have
taken up violence to further their perceived religious goals. Religiously motivated terrorists
see their objectives as holy writ, and therefore infallible and non-negotiable.
7. Social - Often particular social policies or issues will be so contentious that they will incite
extremist behavior and terrorism. Frequently this is referred to as "single issue" or "special
interest" terrorism. Some issues that have produced terrorist activities in the United States
and other countries include animal rights, abortion, ecology/environment, and minority
rights
8. Domestic- These terrorists are "home-grown" and operate within and against their home
country. They are frequently tied to extreme social or political factions within a particular
society, and focus their efforts specifically on their nation's socio-political arena. 
9. International or Transnational- Often describing the support and operational reach of a
group, these terms are often loosely defined, and can be applied to widely different
capabilities. International groups typically operate in multiple countries, but retain a
geographic focus for their activities. Hezbollah has cells worldwide, and has conducted
operations in multiple countries, but is primarily concerned with events in Lebanon and
Israel.  Transnational groups operate internationally, but are not tied to a particular country,
or even region. Al Qaeda is transnational; being made up of many nationalities, having been
based out of multiple countries simultaneously, and conducting operations throughout the

107
 world. Their objectives affect dozens of countries with differing political systems, religions,
ethnic compositions, and national

BEHAVIOR OF TERRORIST
1. Political - A terrorist act is a political act or is committed with the intention to cause a
political effect. Clausewitz' statement that "war is a continuation of policy by other means" is
taken as a truism by terrorists. They merely eliminate the intermediate step of armies and
warfare, and apply violence directly to the political contest. 
2. Psychological - The intended results of terrorist acts cause a psychological effect
("terror"). They are aimed at a target audience other than the actual victims of the act. The
intended target audience of the terrorist act may be the population as a whole, some
specific portion of a society (an ethnic minority, for example), or decision-making elites in
the society's political, social, or military populace. 
3. Coercive - Violence and destruction are used in the commission of the act to produce the
desired effect. Even if casualties or destruction are not the result of a terrorist operation,
the threat or potential of violence is what produces the intended effect. For example, a
successful hostage taking operation may result in all hostages being freed unharmed after
negotiations and bargaining. Regardless of the outcome, the terrorist bargaining chips were
nothing less than the raw threat of applying violence to maim or kill some or all of the
hostages. When the threat of violence is not credible, or the terrorists are unable to
implement violence effectively, terrorism fails. 
4. Dynamic - Terrorist groups demand change, revolution, or political movement. The radical
worldview that justifies terrorism mandates drastic action todestroy or alter the status quo.
Even if the goals of a movement are reactionary in nature, they require action to "turn back
the clock" or restore some cherished value system that is extinct. Nobody commits violent
attacks on strangers or innocents to keep things "just the way they are." 
5. Deliberate - Terrorism is an activity planned and intended to achieve particular goals. It is
a rationally employed, specifically selected tactic, and is not a random act. Since the victims
of terrorist violence are often of little import, with one being as good for the terrorists'
purposes as another, victim or target selection can appear random or unprovoked. But the
target will contain symbolic value or be capable of eliciting emotional response according to
the terrorists' goals. Remember that the actual target of terrorism is not the victim of the
violence, but the psychological balance 
6. Media Exploitation - Terrorism's effects are not necessarily aimed at the victims of
terrorist violence. Victims are usually objects to be exploited by the terrorists for their effect
on a third party. In order to produce this effect, information of the attack must reach the
target audience. So any terrorist organization plans for exploitation of available media to get
the message to the right audiences. Victims are simply the first medium that transmits the
psychological impact to the larger target audience.

Three Groups of Terrorist

1. National Terrorist - Those who operate and aspire to win political power within a single
nation. Ex. NPA, MILF and MNLF
2. International Terrorist - Those who are controlled by and whose action represents the
interest of a sovereign state. Ex. Hamas (Palestine) and Hezbollah (Lebanon).
3. Transnational Terrorist - Those who operate across international borders and whose
action and political aspirations affects individuals of various nationalities. Ex. Al Qaeda

TERRORIST ORGANIZATION
The organizational structure of a terrorist group determines its strengths and
weaknesses.

TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES

1. Hierarchical 
2. Networked
The age of an organization is one of the determinants of whether it is likely to adopt a
network or hierarchical structure. Newer groups tend towards organizing or adapting to the
possibilities inherent in the network model.

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CELL
 The smallest elements of terrorist organizations that serve as building blocks for the
terrorist organization.
 Terrorists may organize cells based on family or employment relationships, on a
geographic basis, or by specific functions such as direct action and intelligence.
 The terrorist group may also form multifunctional cells.
 The terrorist group uses the cells to control its members.
 Cell members remain in close contact with each other to provide emotional support and
to prevent desertion or breach of security procedures.
 The cell leader is normally the only person who communicates and
coordinates with higher levels and other cells. 
 A terrorist group may form only one cell or may form many cells that operate locally or
internationally.
 The number of cells and their composition depend on the size of the terrorist group.
 A terrorist group operating within one country frequently has fewer cells and specialized
teams than does an international terrorist group that may operate in several countries. 

TYPES OF TERRORISM
1975 - The Law Enforcement Assistant Administration in the United States formed the
National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes
that the committee wrote was entitled Disorders and Terrorism, produced by the Task Force
on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction of H.H.A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force
staff. The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.
1. Civil Disorder – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and
normal functioning of the community.
2. Political Terrorism – Violent criminal behavior designed primarily to generate fear in
the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
3. Non-Political terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which
exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain a high degree of fear for coercive
purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a
political objective.”
4. Quasi-terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence
that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its
essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in
the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the
modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences
and reaction. For example, the fleeing felony who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist,
whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are
quite different.
5. Limited political terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a
revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are
committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted
campaign to capture control of the state.
6. Official or state terrorism –"referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and
oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.” It may also be referred
to as Structural Terrorism defined broadly as terrorist acts carried out by
governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy.

OTHER TYPES OF TERRORISM

 Eco-Terrorism 
Usually refers to acts of violence or sabotage committed in support of ecological,
environmental, or animal rights causes against persons or their property.
 Religious Terrorism 
Is terrorism by those whose motivations and aims have a predominant religious
character or influence.
 Chemical Terrorism 
Is the form of terrorism that uses the toxic effects of chemicals to kill, injure, or
otherwise adversely affect the interests of its targets.

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 Nationalist Terrorism
Is a form of terrorism motivated by nationalism. Nationalist terrorists seek to form self-
determination in some form, which may range from gaining greater autonomy to
establishing a completely independent, sovereign state (separatism). Nationalist terrorists
often oppose what they consider to be occupying, imperial, or otherwise illegitimate powers.
 Bioterrorism
Is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological agents. These
agents are(bacteria, viruses, or toxins), and may be in a naturally occurring or a human-
modified form. For the use of this method in warfare, see biological warfare.
 Cyber Terrorism 
Is the use of Internet based attacks in terrorist activities, including acts of deliberate,
large-scale disruption of computer networks, especially of personal computers attached to
the Internet, by the means of tools such as computer viruses. Cyber terrorism is a
controversial term.
 Nuclear Terrorism 
Denotes the use, or threat of the use, of nuclear weapons or radiological weapons in
acts of terrorism, including attacks against facilities where radioactive materials are
present.
In legal terms, nuclear terrorism is an offense committed if a person unlawfully and
intentionally “uses in any way radioactive material … with the intent to cause death or
serious bodily injury; or with the intent to cause substantial damage to property or to the
environment; or with the intent to compel a natural or legal person, an international
organization or a State to do or refrain from doing an act”, according to 2005 United
Nations International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism.

TERRORIST ORGANIZATION IN THE HISTORY

TERRORIST ORGANIZATION
Name Description Activities Strength External Aid

Abu Nidal Split from the Conducted Unknown but once Once from Syria,
Group (ANG) PLO in 1974. terrorist strikes in composed of other Iraq, and Libya.
20 countries killing Palestinian groups
as many as 900. including Black
September.
Abu Sayyaf Islamic Group Kidnappings and Analysts believe aid
Group (ASG) found in the Extortion. Approximately 200 has come from al-
Southern   hardcore terrorists Qaeda and bin
Philippines.   Laden
   
Al-Fatah Chief since its Have limited Curently at Saudi Arabia,
inception is terrorist attacks approximately 6,000 Kuwait, and other
Yasir Arafat, since the to 8,000 members moderate Gulf
arm of the Declaration of States.
PLO. Principles in 1993.
Al-Gama'a al- Eygpt's Conducts attacks Unknown but Cairo believes aid
Islamiyya largest Islamic on Egyptian currently linked comes from Teheran,
terrorist security forces, to al-Qaeda and bin Ladin, and the
group led by Egypt's Coptic Osama bin Laden. former Taliban
haykh Umar Christians, and Many of the best regime in Kabul.
Abd al- foreigners, fighters have combat
Rahman, who especially those experience in Afghan
is currently in murdered in 1997 training camps.
prison in the at Luxor and an
U.S. assassination
andAyman al- attempt on
Zawahari. Mubarak in 1995.
Algerian Terrorist Islamic Attack police and The strength is Base of support may
groups that Algeria security currently uknown, come from Sudan
began a forces as well as but may run as high and Iran. Algiers
terrorist those deemed as a few thousand severed diplomatic
campaign enemies of Islam to operating in rural ties with Teheran in
following the include scholars, and urban Algeria. 1993.

110
 termination of academics, writers,
the 1991 and secularists. See
Algerian the novel, Last
election. Summer of
Those groups ReasonSince 1992
include: over 1,500 people
Armed have been killed in
Islamic Group the violence. Some
(AIG), Islamic within the last few
Salvation weeks.
Front (FIS),
Movement for
an Islamic
State (MIS),
Army of the
Prophet
Muhammad,
United
Company of
Jihad, Armed
Islamic
Movement
(AIM).
Armed Islamic Goal is to Conducts attacks Strength unknown, Iranian religious
Group(GIA) topple the on journalists and but could range fanatics and the
secular foreigners and from a few hundred Islamic government
Algerian those deemed to a few thousands. of Sudan have aided
government enemies of Islam. Some members have the GIA.
following the been recruited into
voiding of the al-Qaeda.
1991 election.
Armenian Secret Army Marxist Conducts Currently operates May receive aid
for the Liberation of Leninist bombings and in Lebanon, Western from Syria,
Armenia(ASALA) Group that selected Europe, the United especially before
Orly Group; 3rd emerged in assassinations of States, and the Assad's death and
October Group 1975 with the Turkish officials as Middle East with perhaps Libya and
goal of forcing well as bombings only a few hundred the PLFP and its off-
Turkey to in Western Europe active actions and shoot the PLFP-GC
acknowledge designed to force their fellow
the Armenian European travelers.
Genocide in governments to
1915 and pay free Americans
reparations prisoners.
for those
crimes.
Basque Fatherland and Founded in Assassinations and By 2000 over 23 Funding comes from
Liberty (ETA) 1959 with the kidnappings as individuals were Cuba and earlier
Euzkkadi Ta objective to well as bombings. killed or wounded by Nicaragua and
Askatasuna create an Kidnappings are the ETA.  The perhaps Libya.
Basque Homeland and independent used to help to strength of ETA is
Freedom Basque state fund their currently unknown;
under the activities via however, ETA has
Marxism. ranson extracted slowly moved away
from the victims from Marxism to
families. The  Basque nationalism.
attacks involve
shootings or
bombings of
Spanish
government
officials.
Democratic Front for Marxist- Conducts small- Membership ranks In the past received
the Liberation of Leninist scare border raids approximately 500 in aid and comfort
Palestine(DFLP) founded in as well as full-scale both organizations. from Syria.
1969 after it terrorist
split with the operations inside
PFLP. Israel. Opposed to
Believes only any accords

111
 armed reached with the
violence can Israeli
achieve government.
Palestinian
goals. The
hardliners,
better known
as the
"Rejectionists,
" opposes all
accommodatio
n with Israel.
Hamas Islamic Created in This is not the There is a hardcore Receive outside aid
Resistance Movement 1987 and an same old PLO but base and their from Iran, Saudi
off-shoot of conducts mass numbers continued Arabia,
the Muslim attacks on the to grow with Palestinianexpiatriat
[Egyptian] Israeli Defense thousands of es in North America.
Brotherhood. Forces and Israeli supporters and
The group civilians. Suicide fellow
operates out bombings is their travelers. Hamas mo
of Gaza and calling card. re and more violent
the West and dangerous.
Bank.
Hezballah Party of Radical Shi'ia Suicide bombings Thousands of Iran is their princile
God. terrorist and kidnappings supporters and base of support.
Islamic Jihad, group that are their hundreds of willing Syria was also an
Revolutionary Justice was formed in trademark. suicide bombers. important souce of
Organization, Lebanon and Militantly anti- military aid.
Organization for the one of the Israeli and anti-
Oppressed of the most violent. Western. They
Earth, Islamic Jihad Responsible emerged in the
for the Liberation of for the political jungle of
Palestine bombing of Lebanonese
the U.S. politics.
Marine
Barracks and
U.S. Embassy
in Beirut and
the
kidnapping of
American
officials. Also
conducted
attacks on
Jewish
business in
South
America.
Irish Republican Grew out of Bombings and A few hundred; Libya, former Soviet
Army(IRA) the situation assassinations of however untold Union and Eastern
following Protestants, sympathizers in Block, and American
the Easter informers, and Northern Ireland. sympathizers.
Risingin 1916 British Security
and the Forces
subsequent
partition,
and Civil
War in
Ireland.
Revived
periodically
throughout
Irish history,
but gained
considerable
steam during
the Civil
Right struggle

112
 in the 1960s.
Currently the
IRA operates
with Gerry
Adams, the
spokeperson
of the Sinn
Fein, serving
as their
mouthpiece.
Al-Jihad Egyptian Conducts attacks Strength is not Osama bin Laden
Islamic Jihad, Egyptian terrorist aginst high Egypt available, but Group, Iran, and
Jihad, Jihad Group group that has officials by the use perhaps in the Islamic charitable
  been on the of car bombs and hundreds, but organizations
terrorist stage selective considerable popular
since the assassinations will with the
1970s and a Egyptian masses.
close ally of Operates in Cairo,
Osama bin Yemen, Pakistan, 
Laden's Al- Afghanistan, Sudan,
Qaeda group Lebanon, and the
UK
The Party of The Khmer Attacks on Found in rural Principal source of
Democratic Rouge intellectuals and Cambodia and support came from
Kampuchea (The insurency other Cambodians numbered in the the PRC
Khmer Rouge) finally ended who were linked to thousands
in 1999 the Old Regime
following a and is depicted in
series of the film The Killing
defections by Fields and killed
key Khmer two million
Rouge Cambodians
political between 1975-1979
figures
Kurdistan Workers Another of the Primary targets Anticipated PKK While involved in
Party(PKK) Marxist- were Turkish strength is active operations,
Leninist security forces in numbered between foreign support
terrorist Turkey and 4,000 to 5,000 came from Iraq,
groups Turkish diplomats members Syria, and Iran.
founded in the in Western Europe Fearing the Turks,
1970s. The after signing an
objective was alliance with Israel,
to create an Syria expelled the
independent PKK
Kurdistan leader Ocalan in
1998
The Liberation Tigers Founded in Use of bombs and Effective strength Lobbying foreign
of Tamil 1976 and is suicide attacks on may number nearly governments and the
Eelam (LTTE) the most Sri Lankan 10,000; however, U.N. in behalf of
World Tamil violent of all officials may analysts know Tamil independence.
Association, World Tamil terror very little of this The bulk of funds
Tamil Movement, organizations group come from Tamil
Federation of in Sri Lanka. communities in the
Associations of The Tamil UK and North
Canadian Tamils, The guerrillas America
Ellalan Force, The have adopted
Sangillan Force terrorism as a
weapon since
1983
National Liberation Marxist Most typical acts of Unknown number of Minor aid from Fidel
Army(ELN) insurgent this terrorist group fellow travelers and Castro's Cuba.
  group that include perhaps as many as
was conceived kidnappings, 6,000 or so active
in 1965 and bombings, terrorists.
influenced by extortion, and
Fidel Castro guerrilla war
and Che against the
Guevara. The government.

113
 organization
was led by left
wing
Columbian
intellectuals.
Palestine Liberation Broke away Known for hand The order of battle Received aid from
Front(PLF) from the glider attacks on and current strength Iraq.
PFLP-GC in Northern Israel as of the PLF remains
the 1970s and well as the attack obscure.
then split with on the Italian
the pro-Syrian liner, AchilleLauro
and pro- have led to an
Libyan outstanding
factions. warrant for
Currently led Abbas's arrest by
by Abu U.S. authorities.
Abbas and
based in Iraq.
Palestine Liberation The PLO Sporadic groups Not Available Saudi Arabia and
Organization (PLO) suspend loosely associated most nations of the
terrorist with the PLO Middle East.
operations continue attacks on
against Israel Israel, including
following the suicide attacks in
Oslo Accords. Jerusalem and
PFLP has other cities in
refused this Israel.
move.
Palestine Islamic Developed in Since mid 2000 the Actual strength of Receives aid from
Jihad(PIJ) the Gaza Strip PIJ conducted the PIJ is unknown Iran and had
in the 1970s, Israel in the West at this time. received logistical
while not Bank, the Gaza support from Asad's
attacking U.S. Strip, and those Syria, which may
interests areas occupied by have changed with
directly in the the IDF. his death.
region, the
PIJ did
threaten to
attack the
U.S. Embassy
if it was
moved from
Tel Aviv to
Jerusalem.
Red Army Small and Active in Only a handful of Self-supporting, but
Faction (RAF) well bombings, members with a few has received aid
disciplined ambushes, fellow travelers from Middle Eastern
group robberies, and offering support. terrorist
organized in kidnappings. With the end of the organizations and
the 1960s that Cold War, the group the former East
took over has hit hard times. Germany (DDR).
following the
arrest of the
Baader-Meinh
of gang and is
a blend of
both Marx
and Mao.
Red Brigades (BR) Formed in Active in Perhaps as many as Receive support
1969 and kidnappings and fifty active members, from other terrorist
operates in assassination; which have been organizations in
Italy and especially with the reduced further over Western Europe and
throughout assassination of time. the Middle East.
Western PM Aldo Moro in
Europe. Goal 1974 was one of
is to create a their main efforts.
revolututionar
y state

114
 through
violence. Has
split into two
other
organizations
in the 1980s.
Revolutionary Armed Created in High jackings, 9,000 to 12,000 Some aid comes
Forces of 1964 as the murders, hardcore members from Cuba, but how
Columbia(FARC) militant wing assassinations, with untold numbers much is open to
of the bombings, and of supporters in debate following the
Columbia conducting a rural Columbia. collapse of the Soviet
Communist violent insurgency Union.
Party and that still continues.
remains the Recently attacked
largest and the inauguration of
most effective the Columbian
of Columbia's President on
insurgent August 8, 2002.
groups.

Radical left- Assassinations and The OB and actual Foreign links have
wing terrorist bombings of strength is unknown, not been established.
group named American, NATO, but the organization
after the and Greek officials is centered in
student starting in the Athens.
protest 1980s.
movement in
1973 of the
Greek
militiary
Junta. 17
November
was born in
1975 and only
recently have
been broken as
Greece nears
the next
Olympic
Summer
Games. Many
question why
the Greek
government
has waited so
long to arrest
the
leadership,
raising
concerns
between 17
November
and the Greek
Socialists.
SenderoLuminoso (Shi Shining Path Car bombings and 100 to 200 armed Base of operations is
ning Path, SL) was the brain assassinations as militants remain. rural Peru and
child of well as raids on receives no external
Abimael villages driving aid.
Guzman, a rural population to
former the cities.
university
professor, and
was active
since the late
1960s. By the
1980s had
become one of
the most

115
violent 
Maoist groups
in the
Western
Hemisphere.

AL-QAEDA

Al-Qaeda
‫القاعدة‬
Dates of August 11, 1988 – present
operation
Leader Usama bin Laden /Ayman al-Zawahiri
Active Worldwide
region(s)
Ideology SunniIslamism
Islamic fundamentalism
Pan-Islamism
World wide caliphate
Status Designated as Foreign Terrorist
Organization by the U.S. State
Department
Designated as Proscribed Group by the
UK Home Office
Designated as terrorist group by EU
Common Foreign and Security
Policy
Size 500–1,000 operatives (2001)[10]

116
 (Arabic: ‫دة‬fff‫القاع‬, al-qāʿidah, Arabic: [ælˈqɑːʕɪdɐ], English: /ælˈkaɪdə/ al-ky-də,
translation: "The Base" or “The Camp”—meaning the base or camp from which worldwide
Islamic revolution will be fought. Alternatively spelled al-Qaida and sometimes al-Qa'ida) is a
global Sunni Islamist militant group founded by Osama bin Laden sometime between August
1988 and late 1989. Al-Qaeda seeks to purge Muslim countries of Western—and especially
United States—influence and install fundamentalist Islamic rule.
It operates as a network comprising both a multinational, stateless army and a radical
Sunni Muslim movement calling for global Jihad. It has been designated a terrorist organization
by the United States, the United Nations Security Council, the European Union, NATO, and
various other countries.
 Group for the Preservation of the Holy Sites.
 International Islamic Front for Jihad against Jews and Crusaders.
 Islamic Army for the Liberation of the Holy Places.
 Islamic Army for the Liberation of Holy Shrines.
 Initial funds are $300M (part of the inheritance of Usama).
 Al Qaeda are composed mostly of Sunni Muslims who have declared a jihad (Holy War)
against the Jew (Israel) and the crusaders (US, England and its allies).
 Osama was bubbed as the world most wanted fugitive. (US $ 50, 000,000.00 Reward). (The
"Osama" spelling is deprecated, because there is no letter "O" in Arabic).
 Bin Laden, member of a billionaire family that owns the Bin Ladin Group construction
empire, is said to have inherited tens of millions of dollars that he uses to help finance the
group.
 Al-Qaida also maintains moneymaking front businesses, solicits donations from like-minded
supporters, and illicitly siphons funds from donations to Muslim charitable organizations.

MISSION
1. Al-Qaeda seeks to incite a global jihad (holy war) to overthrow regimes with predominantly
Arab or Muslim populations that al-Qaeda considers corrupt and anti-Islamic.
2. It wants to replace these regimes with a single Muslim nation or empire strictly governed
according to sharia (Islamic law).
 Al-Qaeda sees the United States and other Western countries as blocking this goal
because they are allied with many of the countries al-Qaeda considers corrupt.
 Al-Qaeda also considers the presence of U.S. military forces in Saudi Arabia an
affront to the Muslim people because Saudi Arabia is the location of Islam’s two holiest
shrines, Mecca and Medina.
 Bin Laden has issued two fatwas (Islamic religious edicts) calling for the expulsion of
these forces from the Arabian Peninsula and sanctioning the use of violence to achieve
this objective.
 A 1998 fatwa, issued in the name of “The World Islamic Front for Jihad Against
the Jews and Crusaders,” declared that “the ruling to kill the Americans and
their allies—civilian or military—is an individual duty for every Muslim who
can do it in any country in which it is possible to do it.”
 Bin Laden regards the U.S. military presence as a continuation of the Crusades: A
series of wars during the Middle Ages in which Western Christians sought to capture the
Holy Land from Muslims.

EXTERNAL AID
Al-Qaida has cooperated with a number of known terrorist groups worldwide including:

 Armed Islamic Group

 Salafist Group for Call and Combat and the Armed Islamic Group
 Egyptian Islamic Jihad (Egypt)
 Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya
 JamaatIslamiyya
 The Libyan Islamic Fighting Group
 Bayt al-Imam (Jordan)
 Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Muhammad (Kashmir)
 Asbat al Ansar
 Hezbollah (Lebanon)

117
  Al-Badar
 HarakatulAnsar/Mujahadeen
 Al-Hadith
 Harakatul Jihad
 Jaish Mohammed - JEM
 JamiatUlema-e-Islam
 Jamiat-ul-Ulema-e-Pakistan
 Laskar e-Toiba - LET
 Moro Islamic Liberation Front (the Philippines)
 Abu Sayyaf Group (Malaysia, Philippines)
 Al-Ittihad Al Islamiya - AIAI (Somalia)
 Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
 Islamic Army of Aden (Yemen)

HEZBOLLAH (SOLDIERS/PARTY OF GOD)

HEZBOLLAH (SOLDIERS/PARTY OF GOD)

Hezbollah
(Arabic: ‫حزباهلل‬ ḥizbu-llāh(i),
literally "Party of God") is a Shi'a
Muslim militant/military
group and political party based in
Lebanon which they control 2/3
of its territory. Committed to
promote Islamic activism in
Lebanon. Founded during
Flag of Hezbollah
the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990).
Leader Hassan Nasrallah
To be specific Hezbollah was
Founded 1982 – 1985 (officially)
first emerged in response to the
1982 Israeli
Ideology ShiaIslamism invasion of
Lebanon. It
Religion ShiaIslam receives financial
and political support from Iran and Syria, and its paramilitary wing is regarded as a resistance
movement throughout much of the Arab and Muslim worlds.
It is also engaged in transnational terrorism; the latest of which is the bombing of the
USS Cole in Yemen. Its leaders were inspired by Ayatollah Khomeini, and its forces were trained
and organized by a contingent of Iranian Revolutionary Guards. Hezbollah became a part of the
government for the first time on 13 June, 2011.

Four Main Goals:

1. Israel's final departure from Lebanon as a prelude to its final obliteration.
2. End any imperialist power in Lebanon.
3. Submission of the Phalangists to "just rule" and bring them to trial for their crimes.
4. Give the people the chance to choose "with full freedom the system of government
they want," while not hiding its commitment to the rule of Islam.

HAMAS (ISLAMIC RESISTANCE MOVEMENT)

HAMAS

118
Founder Sheikh Ahmed
Yassin&Mahmoud Zahar
Chief of the KhaledMashaal[1][2]
Political Bureau
Deputy Chief of Mousa Abu Marzouq
the Political
Bureau
Prime Minister Ismail Haniyah
Foreign Minister Mahmoud Zahar
Founded 1987
Preceded by Palestinian Muslim Brethren
Headquarters Gaza, Palestinian territories
Ideology SunniIslamism,
Islamic fundamentalism,
Palestinian nationalism,
Religious nationalism
Religion Sunni Islam
International Muslim Brotherhood
affiliation

It was founded in 1987 (First Intifada) as an offshoot of the Egyptian Muslim

brotherhood in Lebanon it is now the group that controls the Israeli occupied territories
together w/ the Fatah.
Seeking to create a single, Islamic state in historic Palestine, which is now largely
divided between Israel and the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip.
Hamas, meaning “zeal” or “fervor” in Arabic, is an acronym for Harakat al-Muqawama
al-Islamiyya, or Islamic Resistance Movement.
Hamas’s charter calls for Israel’s destruction, and Hamas has engaged in terrorist
activities.
It entered the political arena for the first time in 2005 by participating in municipal
elections in Gaza and the West Bank.

NEW PEOPLE'S ARMY

New People's Army

NPA flag
Dates of March 29, 1969
operation
Leader José MaríaSison
Motives Proletarian revolution
Active region(s) Philippines

Ideology Maoism

Notable attacks US Army Colonel James N. Rowe assassination

Status Designated as Foreign Terrorist Organization by the U.S.

State Department
Designated as terrorist group by EUCommon Foreign
and Security Policy

119
 The New People's Army (NPA) (Filipino: BagongHukbong Bayan) is the armed wing of
the Communist Party of the Philippines. It was formed on March 29, 1969. The Maoist NPA
conducts its armed guerrilla struggle based on the strategically line of 'protracted people's war'.
The NPA exacts so called "revolutionary taxes" from business owners. If not paid,
negative repercussions could happen to the person and/or business.

ACTIVITIES
The NPA primarily targets Philippine security forces, politicians, judges, and government
informers, former rebels who wish to leave the NPA, rival splinter groups, and alleged criminals.
Opposes any US military presence in the Philippines and attacked US military interests,
killing several US service personnel, before the US base closures in 1992. Press reports in 1999
and in late 2001 indicated that the NPA is again targeting US troops participating in joint
military exercises as well as US Embassy personnel.
The NPA claimed responsibility for the assassination of two congressmen from Quezon
in May 2001 and Cagayan in June 2001 and many other killings. In January 2002, the NPA
publicly expressed its intent to target US personnel if discovered in NPA operating areas.

STRENGTH
Slowly growing; estimated at more than 10,000. This number is significantly lower than
its peak strength of around 25,000 in the 1980s.

LOCATION/AREA OF OPERATIONS
(1) Operates in rural Luzon, Visayas, and parts of Mindanao.
(2) Have cells in Manila and other metropolitan centers.

MORO NATIONAL LIBERATION FRONT (MNLF)

Logo with Flag of the MNLF

Active Late 1969-present
Ideology Nationalist, Egalitarianism
Leaders NurMisuari
Headquarters Sulu
Area of Mindanao, Sulu, Palawan
operations
Allies Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Opponents Government of the Republic of the Philippines
The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) is a nationalist political organization that
was founded by NurMisuari in 1969. The MNLF struggles against the Philippine Government to

120
achieve independence of the Bangsamoro Land (or Bangsamoro Nation). As defined by the
MNLF, the territory of Bangsamoro Land covers Sulu, Mindanao and Palawan, or otherwise
known as MINSUPALA. Bangsamoro Land is also known as Southern Philippines and it has 25
Provinces.
MNLF is internationally recognized since 1977 as an observer member of the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC, formerly the Organisation of the Islamic Conference),
the 2nd largest sub-cluster in the United Nations with 56-member States. The Philippine
Government also requested for similar recognition as observer member but was denied by the
OIC.

MORO ISLAMIC LIBERATION FRONT (MILF)

Dates of 1981 (separated from Moro National

operation Liberation Front) – present
Leader MuradEbrahim
Motives Moro "substate" creation
Active Philippines
region(s)
Ideology Moro Nationalism, Islamic Socialism
Notable 2007 Basilan beheading incident and
attacks among others.

The Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) (Arabic: ‫ )جبهةتحريرمورواإلسالمية‬is an

Islamist group located in the southern Philippines. It is one of two Islamic militant groups, the
other being the Abu Sayyaf, that are fighting against Government of the Philippines. These
groups are most active in the Bangsamoro region of Mindanao, the Sulu Archipelago, Palawan,
Basilan and other neighbouring islands.

THE HUMAN SECURITY ACT OF 2007 (R.A. 9372)

BY RUFFY BIAZON ON JULY 11, 2007

“An act to secure the State and protect our people from terrorism.”

DECLARATION OF POLICY
It is declared a policy of the State to protect life, liberty, and property from acts of
terrorism, to condemn terrorism as inimical and dangerous to the national security of the
country and to the welfare of the people, and to make terrorism a crime against the Filipino
people, against humanity, and against the law of nations.

Terrorism. – Any person who commits an act punishable under any of the following provisions
of the Revised Penal Code:
(1) Article 122 (Piracy in General and Mutiny in the High Seas or in the Philippine Waters);
(2) Article 134 (Rebellion or Insurrection);

121
 (3)Article 134-a (Coup d‘Etat), including acts committed by private persons;
(4)Article 248 (Murder);
(5)Article 267 (Kidnapping and Serious Illegal Detention);
(6)Article 324 (Crimes Involving Destruction,
(7)or under
(8)Presidential Decree No. 1613 (The Law on Arson);
(9)Republic Act No. 6969 (Toxic Substances and Hazardous and Nuclear Waste Control Act
of 1990);
(10) Republic Act No. 5207, (Atomic Energy Regulatory and Liability Act of 1968);
(11) Republic Act No. 6235 (Anti-Hijacking Law);
(12) Presidential Decree No. 532 (Anti-piracy and Anti-highway Robbery Law of 1974);
and,
(13) Presidential Decree No. 1866, as amended (Decree Codifying the Laws on Illegal and
Unlawful Possession, Manufacture, Dealing in, Acquisition or Disposition of Firearms,
Ammunitions or Explosives)

Thereby sowing and creating a condition of widespread and extraordinary fear and panic
among the populace, in order to coerce the government to give in to an unlawful demand shall
be guilty of the crime of terrorism and shall suffer the penalty of forty (40) years of
imprisonment, without the benefit of parole as provided for under Act No. 4103, otherwise
known as the Indeterminate Sentence Law, as amended.

CONSPIRACY TO COMMIT TERRORISM

Persons who conspire to commit the crime of terrorism shall suffer the penalty of forty
(40) years of imprisonment.
There is conspiracy when two or more persons come to an agreement concerning the
commission of the crime of terrorism as defined in Section 3 hereof and decide to commit the
same.

ACCOMPLICE
Any person who, not being a principal under Article 17 of the Revised Penal Code or a
conspirator as defined in Section 4 hereof, cooperates in the execution of either the crime of
terrorism or conspiracy to commit terrorism by previous or simultaneous acts shall suffer the
penalty of from seventeen (17) years, four (4) months one day to twenty (20) years of
imprisonment.

ACCESSORY
Any person who, having knowledge of the commission of the crime of terrorism or
conspiracy to commit terrorism, and without having participated therein, either as principal or
accomplice under Articles 17 and 18 of the Revised Penal Code, takes part subsequent to its
commission in any of the following manner:
(1) By profiting himself or assisting the offender to profit by the effects of the crime.
(2) By concealing or destroying the body of the crime, or the effects, or instruments thereof,
in order to prevent its discovery.
(3) By harboring, concealing, or assisting in the escape of the principal or conspirator of the
crime.
Shall suffer the penalty of ten (10) years and one day to twelve (12) years of
imprisonment.

ANTI-TERRORISM COUNCIL
The members of the Council are:
(1) the Executive Secretary, who shall be its chairperson;
(2) the Secretary of Justice, who shall be its Vice Chairperson; and
(3) the Secretary of Foreign Affairs;
(4) the Secretary of National Defense;
(5) the Secretary of the Interior and Local Government;
(6) the Secretary of Finance; and
(7) the National Security Advisor, as its other members.

122
 The Council shall implement this Act and assume the responsibility for the proper and
effective implementation of the anti-terrorism policy of the country.
The Council shall keep records of its proceedings and decisions. All records of the
Council shall be subject to such security classifications as the Council may, in its judgment and
discretion, decide to adopt to safeguard the safety of the people, the security of the Republic,
and the welfare of the nation.
The National Intelligence Coordinating Agency shall be the Secretariat of the Council.
The Council shall define the powers, duties, and functions of the National Intelligence
Coordinating Agency as Secretariat of the Council. The National Bureau of Investigation, the
Bureau of Immigration, the Office of Civil Defense, the Intelligence Service of the Armed Forces
of the Philippines, the Anti-Money Laundering Council, the Philippine Center on Transnational
Crime, and the Philippine National Police intelligence and investigative elements shall serve as
support agencies for the Council.
The Council shall formulate and adopt comprehensive, adequate, efficient, and
effective anti-terrorism plans, programs, and counter-measures to suppress and eradicate
terrorism in the country and to protect the people from acts of terrorism. Nothing herein shall
be interpreted to empower the Anti-Terrorism Council to exercise any judicial or quasi-judicial
power or authority.

FUNCTIONS OF THE COUNCIL

Formulate and adopt plans, programs and counter-measures against terrorists and acts
of terrorism in the country;
(1) Coordinate all national efforts to suppress and eradicate acts of terrorism in the country
and mobilize the entire nation against terrorism proscribed in this Act;
(2) Direct the speedy investigation and prosecution of all persons accused or detained for
the crime of terrorism or conspiracy to commit terrorism and other offenses punishable
under this Act, and monitor the progress of their cases;
(3) Establish and maintain comprehensive data-base information systems on terrorism,
terrorist activities, and counter-terrorism operations;
(4) Freeze the funds property, bank deposits, placements, trust accounts, assets and
records belonging to a person suspected of or charged with the crime of terrorism or
conspiracy to commit terrorism, pursuant to Republic Act No. 9160 otherwise known as
the Anti-Money Laundering Act of 2001, as amended;
(5) Grant monetary rewards and other incentives to informers who give vital information
leading to the apprehension, arrest, detention, prosecution, and conviction of person or
persons who are liable for the crime of terrorism or conspiracy to commit terrorism;
(6) Establish and maintain coordination with and the cooperation and assistance of other
nations in the struggle against international terrorism; and
(7) Request the Supreme Court to designate specific divisions of the Court of Appeals and
regional trial courts in Manila, Cebu City and Cagayan de Oro City, as the case may be,
to handle all cases involving the crime of terrorism or conspiracy to commit terrorism
and all matters incident to said crimes. The Secretary of Justice shall assign a team of
prosecutors from: (a) Luzon to handle terrorism cases filed in the regional trial court in
Manila; (b) from the Visayas to handle cases filed in Cebu City; and (c) from Mindanao
to handle cases filed in Cagayan de Oro City.

EXTRA-TERRITORIAL APPLICATION OF THIS ACT

Subject to the provision of an existing treaty of which the Philippines is a signatory and
to any contrary provision of any law of preferential application, the provisions of this Act shall
apply:
(1) to individual persons who commit any of the crimes defined and punished in this Act
within the terrestrial domain, interior waters, maritime zone, and airspace of the
Philippines;
(2) to individual persons who, although physically outside the territorial limits of the
Philippines, commit, conspire or plot to commit any of the crimes defined and punished
in this Act inside the territorial limits of the Philippines;
(3) to individual persons who, although physically outside the territorial limits of the
Philippines, commit any of the said crimes on board Philippine ship or Philippine airship;

123
 (4) to individual persons who commit any of said crimes within any embassy, consulate, or
diplomatic premises belonging to or occupied by the Philippine government in an official
capacity;
(5) to individual persons who, although physically outside the territorial limits of the
Philippines, commit said crimes against Philippine citizens or persons of Philippine
descent, where their citizenship or ethnicity was a factor in the commission of the crime;
and
(6) to individual persons who, although physically outside the territorial limits of the
Philippines, commit said crimes directly against the Philippine government.

JOINT OVERSIGHT COMMITTEE

 There is hereby created a Joint Oversight Committee to oversee the implementation of this
Act.
 The Oversight Committee shall be composed of five (5) members each from the Senate and
the House in addition to the Chairs of the Committees of Public Order of both Houses who
shall also Chair the Oversight Committee in the order specified herein.
 The membership of the Committee for every House shall at least have two (2) opposition or
minority members. The Joint Oversight Committee shall have its own independent counsel.
 The Chair of the Committee shall rotate every six (6) months with the Senate chairing it for
the first six (6) months and the House for the next six (6) months. In every case, the
ranking opposition or minority member of the Committee shall be the Vice Chair.

SOME POLICE ORGANIZATION IN THE WORLD

A. ROYAL MALAYSIAN POLICE

The Royal Malaysia Police (Abbreviation: RMP; Malay: Polis Diraja Malaysia, PDRM; Jawi:
‫ )ڤوليس دراج مليسيا‬is a part of the security forces structure in Malaysia. The force is a
centralised organization with responsibilities ranging from traffic control to intelligence
gathering. Its headquarters is located at Bukit Aman, Kuala Lumpur. The police force is led by
an Inspector-General of Police (IGP). The post is held by Tan Sri Ismail Omar. The constitution,
control, employment, recruitment,fund, discipline, duties and powers of the police force is
specified and governed by the Police Act 1967. In carrying out its responsibilities, the regular
RMP is also assisted by a support group of Extra Police Constables, Police Volunteer Reserves,
Auxiliary Police, Police Cadets and a civilian service element.
Rakan Cop is a community outreach programme launched in 9 August 2005.
The RMP constantly co-operates closely with police forces worldwide, which include those
from the four neighbouring countries Malaysia shares border with: Indonesian National Police,
Royal Brunei Police Force, Royal Thai Police and Singapore Police Force.

Royal Malaysia Police

Polis Di-Raja Malaysia
‫ڤوليس دراج مليسيا‬
Abbreviation RMP / PDRM

Logo of the Royal Malaysia Police

Motto TEGAS, ADIL DAN BERHEMAH

124
 Firm, Fair And Prudent
Agency overview
Formed 25 March 1807
Preceding Royal Federation of Malaya
agencies Police
Federation of Malaya Police
Malayan Union Police Force
Civil Affairs Police Force
Legal Governmental: Government agency
personality
Jurisdictional structure
National agency Malaysia
(Operations
jurisdiction)
Size 329, 847 km
127, 355 sq mi
Population 27, 544, 000
Legal National
jurisdiction
Governing body Government of Malaysia
General nature Law enforcement
Civilian police
Operational structure
Headquarters Bukit Aman, Kuala Lumpur
Sworn members 102,037
Elected officer Hishammuddin Tun Hussein, Minister of
responsible Home Affairs
Agency Tan Sri Ismail Omar, Inspector-General of
executive Police
Parent agency Ministry of Home Affairs
Child agencies Management Department
Logistic Department
Criminal Investigation
Department
Commercial Crimes
Investigation Department
Narcotics Crimes Investigation
Department
Special Branch
Facilities
Police stations 1, 000
Police cars Proton Waja, Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X,
Mitsubishi Lancer 2.0 GTS, Proton Inspira,
and etc.
Police boats Marine Alutech Watercat M14
Helicopters AS 355 Twin Squirrel
Air planes Cessna 208
Planes Pilatus Porter PC-6

Insignia
The flag and insignia of the Royal Malaysia Police has a blue coloured background which
symbolises the Malaysian masses. In the centre of the flag is the PDRM symbol within silver or
white coloured. The police symbol is made up of an intersected Kris and Ilang / Klewang
machete. Above of the PDRM symbol, there is a tiger head garlaned by "Paddy Garland" and
under it, is "Polis Diraja Malaysia" scroll with the word. Arabic lettering in the Crown includes
the words Allah on the right and Muhammad on the left.

Moon and star

The Moon and Star symbolise Islam as the official religion of Malaysia.

125
Crown
The crown, depicted on the Royal Malaysia Police insignia, is a panegyric reference to
the King of Malaysia, bestowing the "Royal" title to its name. The words Allah and
Muhammad in Arabic, which respectively symbolise God The Al-Mighty and Muhammad as the
follower, signifies Islam as the official religion and faith of RMP personnel, who are willing to
uphold justice and the security of the people of Malaysia.

Kris and the Ilang Sword

The Kris is an important symbol of the Malay Peninsular. This particular weapon was
used by Malay warriors in the past. According to Frey (2003), who concluded from Sir Stamford
Raffles' (1817) study of the Candi Sukuh, the kris came into existence around AD 1361. Others
believe that early forms were inspired by the daggers of the Dong-Son in Vietnam (circa
300 BC). In the temples of Borobudur (825 CE) and Prambanan (850CE), renderings of the Kris
have been found.
The traditional machete, Ilang or Klewang is a symbolises to the states of Sarawak and
Sabah in the East Malaysia and it represents the spirit of heroism of a multitude of ethnic tribes
such as the Dayak, the Dusun, the Bajau, and the Kadazan.

Tiger head
The tiger head symbolizes courage, strength and spirits of RMP. Previously, RMP used a
lion head as the symbol of courage from 16 September 1963, after the formation of Malaysia,
until 15 May 1994, it is replaced with the tiger head as the official order of Malaysian
government. The former lion head also symbolized the states of Singapore (until 1965) and
Sabah.

Paddy flower
Paddy flower is a reference to paddy and rice, the staple food for Malaysians and it
signifies national prosperity.

Motto
The RMP motto represents team spirit and determination.

Sang Saka Biru

PDRM flag is called the Blue Perennial or (Sang Saka Biru);
each colour has its own distinctive meaning and the flag
symbolises the force pride and integrity.

Police Pledge
Section 3 (3) Police Act 1967 stipluates that the duties of the Royal Malaysia Police
personnel are as follows:
1. Apprehending all persons whom he is by law authorised to apprehend;
2. Processing security intelligence;
3. Conducting prosecutions;
4. Giving assistance in the carrying out of any law relating to revenue, excise, sanitation,
quarantine, immigration and registration;
5. Giving assistance in the preservation of order in the ports, harbours and airports of
Malaysia, and in enforcing maritime and port regulations;
6. Executing summonses, subpoenas, warrants, commitments and other process lawfully
issued by any competent authority;
7. Exhibiting information;
8. Protecting unclaimed and lost property and finding the owners thereof;
9. Seizing stray animals and placing them in a public pound;
10. Giving assistance in the protection of life and property;
11. Protecting public property from loss or injury;
12. Attending the criminal courts and, if specially ordered, the civil courts, and keeping order
therein; and
13. Escorting and guarding prisoners and other persons in the custody of the police.

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Police Uniform & Equipments
Police Constable: The new constable uniform was introduced in 2008. The headgear
is dark navy blue beret with a silver police force emblem on top of the left eye. Dark navy blue
long sleeve shirt along with their dark navy blue cargo pants are tucked into military boots.
A name tag that includes the person is worn on the right together with the police shield
above it while the word "Polis" (mean police in malay)is emblemed in the another side. Police
service number wear on the both side of their shoulder and a rank insignia on their left arm.
The Sam Browne belt was replaced by the brand new ballistic nylon police duty belt
equiped with a standard issue Walther P99 pistol, 2 extra 9 rounds magazine, a pair of Hiatt
Speedcuffs, a T-baton, a pepper spray, a LED flashlight and a radio. Sometimes they are
equiped with a Heckler & Koch MP5 during a special situation too.
Traffic: Wearing a white helmet or dark navy blue cap (while on duty), white long
sleeve shirt with a reflective yellow vests, black riding pants with a yellow strip and a riding
boot. Their equipment is the same as constables except that they have a whistle in their left
pocket.

Police rank
Senior Officers
Gazetted Commissioners Inspector-General of Police (IGP)
Officers Deputy Inspector-General of Police (DIGP)
Senior Commissioner of Police (SCP)
Commissioner of Police (CP)
Deputy Commissioner of Police (DCP)
Senior Assistant Commissioner of Police (SAC)
Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP)
Superintendent Superintendent of Police (SP)
s Deputy Superintendent of Police (DSP)
Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP)
Inspector (Insp)
Probationary Inspector (P/Insp)
Rank In File Officers
Subordinate Officers Sub-Inspector (SI)
Sergeant Major (SM)
Sergeant (Sgt)
Corporal (Cpl)
Lance Corporal (L/Cpl)
Constable (PC)
Low rank of police officers apart from sub-inspectors wear their rank insignia on the
right sleeve of their uniforms. Sub-inspectors and higher ranks wear their rank insignia on
epaulettes on both shoulders.

RMP Organizations
Apart from the 2 departments involved in the administration viz Management
Department and Logistics Department, RMP have 6 departments involved in crime prevention
viz Criminal Investigation Division, Narcotics Criminal Investigation Division, Internal Security
and Public Order Department (KDN / KA), Special Branch, Commercial Crime Investigation
Department and Counter-Terrorism Special Operations Team. All departments are led by the
directors with the rank of Commissioner of Police (Army Equivalent rank of Three Stars General
or Lieutenant-General)

Management Department
The Management Department is tasked with the routine of management and
administration affairs of the RMP. This department is also the nerve centre of the RMP and acts
as the support services platform for the rest of the force.

Functions
1. Service / Designation – Includes: Recruitment, Service Records Administration,
Confirmations, Promotions, Transfers, Salaries & Allowances Administration and
Retirements.

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 2. General Administration And Policy – Includes: General Administration, Research &
Development, Civil Affairs, Welfare, Sports And PERKEP (Persatuan Keluarga Polis or
Police's Family Association, generally social activities for the families of the policemen)
3. Training – Includes: Basic Course, Development Courses, Further Studies and
Rehabilitation Courses.
4. Discipline – Includes: Monitoring of Terms Of Reference / Filtering, Investigations /
Action / Counseling.

Branches
1. Administration
2. Welfare
3. Training
4. Research & Development
5. Services / Designation
6. Public Affairs
7. Public Relations
8. Intake
9. Ceremonies
10. Camp Commandant
11. BAKA
12. RMP Sports Council

Logistics Department
The Logistics Department provides equipment needed in the RMP.

Functions
1. Operate operating budget and RMP's development
2. Plan, manage, operate and maintain communications, information technology, transport
and weaponry
3. Manage projects and maintain buildings and properties
4. Manage turnover and supply of general equipment
5. Manage RMP's assets

Branches
1. Naziran's Branch / Administration
2. Communications Branch
3. Information Technology Branch
4. Transport Branch
5. Finance Branch
6. Technical Turnover
7. Weaponry Branch
8. General Turnover
9. Part Of The Building
10. Disposal / Stock / Verification / Write-off

Criminal Investigation Division

This department deals with the investigation, arrest and prosecution of hard crimes
(murder, robbery, rape etc) and petty crimes (theft, house-breaking etc). This department also
specialises in gambling, vice and secret societies (triads).

Functions
1. Investigations and Detective Duties
2. Arrests and Prosecutions
3. Enforcement of laws related to gambling, vice and secret societies

Branches
(1) D1 – Administrative Division
(2) D2 – Criminal Record Registration
(3) D3 – Internal Affairs

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 (4) D4 – Statistics
(5) D5 – Prosecution and Law Divisions
(6) D6 – Technical Assistance Division
(7) D7 – Gambling / Vice / Secret Societies
(8) D8 – Investigation Division / Planning
(9) D9 – Special Investigation Division
(10) D10 – Forensic Laboratory Division
(11) D11 – Sexual Investigation Division
(12) D12 – National Centre Bureau-Interpol Division

NOTE: The Criminal Investigation Division is headed by a Commissioner of Police (CP).

Narcotics Criminal Investigation Division

Recruits of Royal Malaysia Police with senior police officers in a shooting course, armed
with MP5 sub-machineguns at PULAPOL Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
This department's function is to fight against dangerous drugs by enforcing the law to
stop and reduce the demand and supply of dangerous drugs.
Functions
1. Enforce drug abuse and drug trafficking laws
2. Collect, study, assess and spread drug-related information
3. Investigate distributors activities and drug trafficking syndicates
4. Fight drug smuggling activities including chemicals used to process drugs
5. Implement prevention of drug abuse programmes
6. Exchange data/information with domestic and international agencies
7. Keep records and statistics related to drug distribution and other drug-related matters
8. Surveillance activity for former drug offenders or members formerly associated with
drug trafficking syndicates
9. Provide training locally/overseas for officers / members of narcotics department
10. Attend the meetings, seminars related to drugs, locally/oveseas

Branches
1. Special Investigation Divisions
2. Coordinator Part / International-relations
3. Administrative Divisions
4. Detention Divisions
5. Estate Stripping
6. Interrogate
7. Expert / Technical Assistance
8. Record / Statistics
9. Registration
10. Logistics Divisions
11. Airport Customs Staff

NOTE: Narcotics Criminal Investigation Division lead by Police Commissioner (CP).

INTERNAL SECURITY AND PUBLIC ORDER DEPARTMENT (KDN / KA)

This department is tasked with the maintenance of public security and order. It is
responsible for traffic control and search & rescue (SAR) operations.
In this role, this department cooperates with other agencies, such as the Malaysian Armed
Forces and Army / Navy Maritime Patrol to prevent piracy and to secure the national borders.
In addition, it assists the Transport Ministry and the Public Enterprises Ministry in the
enforcement of the Traffic Act.

MAIN BRANCH OF INTERNAL SECURITY AND PUBLIC ORDER DEPARTMENT

1. Royal Malaysian Police Air Wing Unit
2. Malaysian Control Centre
3. Marine Operations Force
4. Traffic Branch
5. Mounted Police Unit

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 6. C4-i Implementations System
7. Federal Reserve Unit
8. Police Counter-Terrorism Unit
9. General Operations Force

SPECIAL BRANCH
This department is responsible for collecting intelligence for national security.
Its role is to collect security intelligence related to both domestic and external threats,
intercept subversive activities by extremist groups and individuals which could threaten the
nation's stability.
Also, it is in charge of obtaining, processing, evaluating and disseminating information to
other departments and organizations.
This department is divided into several branches: Technical Intelligence, Social Intelligence,
External Intelligence, Political Intelligence, Economic Intelligence and Security Intelligence.

COMMERCIAL CRIMES INVESTIGATION DEPARTMENT

This department's main function is to investigate, arrest, and prosecute offenders
committing white collar crimes such as fraud, breach of trust, cyber-crimes, forgery,
counterfeiting etc.
The Commercial Crimes Investigation Department is headed by a Commissioner of Police
(CP).

B. The Indonesian National Police

The Indonesian National Police (Indonesian: Kepolisian Negara Republik
Indonesia) is the official police force for Indonesia. It had formerly been a part of the Tentara
Nasional Indonesia. The police were formally separated from the military in April 1999, a
process which was formally completed in July 2000. With 150,000 personnel, the police form a
much smaller portion of the population than in most nations. The total number of national and
local police in 2006 was approximately 470,000.
The strength of the Indonesian National Police stood at approximately 285,000 in 2004. The
national police force was formally separated as a branch of the armed forces and placed under
the Office of the President in 1999. It also includes 12,000 marine police and an estimated
40,000 People’s Security (Kamra) trainees who serve as a police auxiliary and report for three
weeks of basic training each year.
The Headquarter, known as Markas Besar/Mabes in Indonesian, is located in Kebayoran
Baru, South Jakarta, Indonesia.

Indonesian National Police

Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia
Abbreviation POLRI

Logo of Indonesian National Police

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Motto Rastra Sewakottama
People's Main Servant
Agency overview
Legal personality Governmental: Government agency
Jurisdictional structure
National agency Indonesia
(Operations
jurisdiction)
Legal jurisdiction National
General nature Law enforcement
Local civilian police
Operational structure
Headquarters Jakarta, Indonesia
Agency General Timur Pradopo, Chief of Indonesian
executive National Police

History
When large parts of Indonesia were under Dutch colonial occupation until 1940s, police
duties were performed by either military establishments or colonial police known as the
veldpolitie or the field police. Japanese occupation during WW II brought changes when the
Japanese formed various armed organizations to support their war. This had led to the
distribution of weapons to military trained youths, which were largely confiscated from the
Dutch armory.
After the Japanese occupation, the national police became an armed organization. The
Indonesian police was established in 1946, and its units fought in the Indonesian National
Revolution against the invading Dutch forces. The police also participated in suppressing the
1948 communist revolt in Madiun. In 1966, the police was brought under the control of Armed
Forces Chief. Following the proclamation of independence, the police played a vital role when
they actively supported the people’s movement to dismantle the Japanese army, and to
strengthen the defense of the newly created Republic of Indonesia. The police were not
combatants who were required to surrender their weapons to the Allied Forces. During the
revolution of independence, the police gradually formed into what is now known as Kepolisian
Negara Republik Indonesia (Polri) or the Indonesian National Police. In 2000, the police force
officially regained its independence and now is separate from the military.

Ranks of Indonesian National Police

In the early years, the Polri used European police style ranks like inspector and
commissioner. When the police were amalgamated with the military structure during the 1960s,
the ranks changed to a military style such as Captain, Major and Colonel. In the year 2000,
when the Polri conducted the transition to a fully independent force out of the armed forces
2000, they use British style police ranks like Inspector and Superintendent. The Polri have
returned to Dutch style ranks just like in the early years.

(1) High ranking officers

a) Police General / Jenderal Polisi (Jend. Pol.) - equivalent General in the army
b) Police Commissioner General / Komisaris Jenderal Polisi (Komjen Pol.) - equivalent
Lieutenant General
c) Police Inspector General / Inspektur Jenderal Polisi (Irjen Pol.) - equivalent Major
General
d) Police Brigadier General / Brigadir Jenderal Polisi (Brigjen Pol.) - equivalent Brigadier
General
(2) Mid rank officers
a) Police Grand Commissioner / Komisaris Besar Polisi (Kombespol) - equivalent Colonel
b) Police Grand CommissioPolice Commissioner / Komisaris Polisi (Kompol) -
equivalent Major
(3) Low rank officers
a) Police Commissioner Adjutant / Ajun Komisaris Polisi (AKP) - equivalent Captain
b) ner Adjutant / Ajun Komisaris Besar Polisi (AKBP) - equivalent Lieutenant Colonel
c) First Police Inspector / Inspektur Polisi Satu (Iptu) - equivalent First Lieutenant

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 d) Second Police Inspector / Inspektur Polisi Dua (Ipda) - equivalent Second
Lieutenant
(4) Warrant officers
a) First Police Inspector Adjutant / Ajun Inspektur Polisi Satu (Aiptu) - equivalent
Chief Warrant Officer
b) Second Police Inspector Adjutant / Ajun Inspektur Polisi Dua (Aipda) - equivalent
Warrant Officer
(5) Non-commissioned officers
a) Chief Police Brigadier / Brigadir Polisi Kepala (Bripka) - equivalent Sergeant Major
b) Police Brigadier / Brigadir Polisi (Brigadir) - equivalent Chief Sergeant
c) First Police Brigadier / Brigadir Polisi Satu (Briptu) - equivalent First Sergeant
d) Second Police Brigadier / Brigadir Polisi Dua (Bripda) - equivalent Second
Sergeant
(6) Enlisted
a) Police Brigadier Adjutant / Ajun Brigadir Polisi (Abrip) - equivalent Chief Corporal
b) First Police Brigadier Adjutant / Ajun Brigadir Polisi Satu (Abriptu) - equivalent
First Corporal
c) Second Police Brigadier Adjutant / Ajun Brigadir Polisi Dua (Abripda) - equivalent
Second Corporal
d) Chief Bhayangkara / Bhayangkara Kepala (Bharaka) - equivalent Chief Private
e) First Bhayangkara / Bhayangkara Satu (Bharatu) - equivalent Private First Class
f) Second Bhayangkara / Bhayangkara Dua (Bharada) - equivalent Private
C. The Singapore Police Force
The Singapore Police Force (Abbreviation: SPF; Chinese: 新 加 坡 警 察 部 队 ; Malay:
Pasukan Polis Singapura; Tamil: சிங்கப்பூர் காவல் துறை) is the main agency tasked with
maintaining law and order in the city-state. Formerly known as the Republic of Singapore
Police (Abbreviation: RSP; Malay: Polis Republik Singapura), it has grown from an 11-man
organisation to a 38,587 strong force. It enjoys a relatively positive public image, and is
credited for helping to arrest Singapore's civic unrests and lawlessness in its early years, and
maintaining the low crime rate today despite having a smaller police-citizen ratio compared to
other major cities. Singapore has been ranked consistently in the top five positions in the Global
Competitiveness Report in terms of its reliability of police services.The organisation structure of
the SPF is split between the staff and line functions, roughly modelled after the military. There
are currently 15 staff departments and 13 line units.
The headquarters is located in a block at New Phoenix Park in Novena, adjacent to a twin
block occupied by the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Singapore Police Force

Pasukan Polis Singapura
新加坡警察部队
சிங்கப்பூர் காவல் துறை
Abbreviation SPF

Logo of the Singapore Police Force.

Agency overview
Legal personality Governmental: Government agency
Jurisdictional structure
National agency Singapore
General nature Law enforcement
Civilian police
Operational structure
Sworn members 37,341

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Agency executive Ng Joo Hee, Commissioner of Police
Parent agency Ministry of Home Affairs
Departments 16[show]
Line units 12[show]
Facilities
NPC/NPPs 97
Police boats 61

Police Pledge
We pledge to be loyal and true to the Police service and the Republic of Singapore.
We pledge to uphold the law, to protect life and property, to prevent and detect crime.
We pledge to discharge our responsibilities without fear or favour, regardless of race,
language or religion.
We pledge to strive for excellence, to be proactive and to exercise initiative in our
duties.
We pledge to serve our community and our country and to be courteous and humane in
our dealings with every fellowman

Organization structure

Ranks
A standard rank structure is used throughout the police force, although some ranks may
be unique to specific organisations. These ranks are denoted where applicable in the following
list, which lists them in ascending seniority:

Police officers
The rank of Corporal was abolished in 1972, but reinstated in 1976. In 1997, all ranks
were shifted from the sleeves to the epaulettes, except for the Gurkha Contingent. Also in the
same year, the Station Inspector rank was changed from collar pips to epaulettes with a new
design similar to that of the SAF Warrant Officers, and the rank of Senior Station Inspector was
introduced. In 1998, the rank was introduced, and changes were made to the SI, SSI, and SSI
rank designs. The rank of Lance Corporal was abolished in 2002. The 2006, the Gurkha
Contingent adopted embroidered ranks as part of an overhaul of its combat dress, but are worn
on the right front pocket.

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 Rank Abbreviation Trainee Regular NSF NSmen VSC Gurkha
Constable PC T/PC - - PC - PC
Special SC T/SC - SC - - -
Constable
Corporal CPL T/CPL CPL SC/CPL CPL CPL (V) CPL
(NS)
Sergeant SGT T/SGT SGT SC/SGT SGT SGT (V) SGT
(NS)
Staff Sergeant SSGT - SSGT SC/SSG SSGT SSGT (V) SSGT
T (NS)
Senior Staff SSSGT - SSSGT - SSSGT SSSGT SSSGT
Sergeant (NS) (V)
Station SI - SI - SI (NS) SI (V) SI
Inspector
Senior Station SSI - SSI - SSI (NS) SSI (V) -
Inspector
Senior Station SSI (2) - SSI (2) - SSI(2) SSI(2)(V) -
Inspector (2) (NS)

Senior police officers

Rank Abbreviation Trainee Regular NSF NSmen VSC Gurkha
Inspector INSP OCT(NSF INSP NSP INSP INSP INSP
) I (NS) (V)
P/INSP NSI
Chief Inspector - - - - - - C/INSP
Assistant ASP P/ASP ASP ASP ASP (V) ASP
Superintendent (NS)
Deputy DSP - DSP - DSP DSP (V) DSP
Superintendent (NS)
Superintendent SUPT - SUPT - SUPT SUPT(V) SUPT
(NS)
Deputy Assistant DAC - DAC - - DAC (V) DAC
Commissioner
Assistant AC - AC - - AC(V) AC
Commissioner
Senior Assistant SAC - SAC - - - -
Commissioner
Deputy DCP/DC - DCP - - - -
Commissioner of
Police
Commissioner of CP - CP - - - -
Police

D. United States law Enforcement

Law Enforcement in U.S.

Law enforcement in the United States is one of three major components of the criminal
justice system, along with courts and corrections. Although there exists an inherent
interrelatedness between the different groups that make up the criminal justice system based
on their crime deterrence purpose, each component operates independently from one another.
However, the judiciary is vested with the power to make legal determinations regarding the
conduct of the other two components.
Apart from maintaining order and service functions, the purpose of policing is the
investigation of suspected criminal activity and the referral of the results of investigations and
of suspected criminals to the courts. Law enforcement, to varying degrees at different levels of
government and in different agencies, is also commonly charged with the responsibilities of
deterring criminal activity and of preventing the successful commission of crimes in progress;
the service and enforcement of warrants, writs and other orders of the courts.

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 Law enforcement agencies are also involved in:
1. Providing first response to emergencies and other threats to public safety;
2. The protection of certain public facilities and infrastructure;
3. The maintenance of public order; the protection of public officials; and
4. The operation of some correctional facilities (usually at the local level).

History
The advent of the police car, two-way radio, and telephone in the early 20th century
transformed policing into a reactive strategy that focused on responding to calls for service. In
the 1920s, led by Berkeley, California police chief, August Vollmer, police began to
professionalize, adopt new technologies, and place emphasis on training. With this
transformation, police command and control became more centralized.
O.W. Wilson, a student of Vollmer, helped reduce corruption and introduce professionalism in
Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department. Strategies employed by O.W.
Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to
corruption, establishing of a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict
merit system for promotions within the department, and an aggressive, recruiting drive with
higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers. Despite such reforms, police
agencies were led by highly autocratic leaders, and there remained a lack of respect between
police and minority communities. During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement
agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime
Following urban unrest in the 1960s, police placed more emphasis on community
relations, and enacted reforms such as increased diversity in hiring. The Kansas City Preventive
Patrol study in the 1970s found the reactive approach to policing to be ineffective. In the
1990s, many law enforcement agencies began to adopt community policing strategies, and
others adopted problem-oriented policing. In the 1990s, Comp Stat was developed by the New
York Police Department as an information-based system for tracking and mapping crime
patterns and trends, and holding police accountable for dealing with crime problems. Comp
Stat, and other forms of information-led policing, have since been replicated in police
departments across the United States and around the world.
In 1905, the Pennsylvania State Police became the first state police agency established, as
recommended by Theodore Roosevelt's Anthracite Strike Commission and Governor Samuel
Penny packer.
California municipalities were among the first to hire women and minorities as officers.
The first female police officer was Alice Stebbins Wells, who was hired by the Los Angeles Police
Department in 1910. The LAPD also hired its first two African American police officers, Robert
William Stewart and Roy Green, in 1886. The first female deputy sheriff, Margaret Q. Adams,
was hired by the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department in 1912.

Different types of U.S. police and their function

Policing in the United States is conducted by numerous types of agency at many
different levels.

Every state has their own nomenclature for agencies, and their powers, responsibilities and
funding varies from state to state.
1. Federal Police
Federal Police Possess full federal authority as given to them under United States Code
(U.S.C.)
Federal Law Enforcement Officers are authorized to enforce various laws not only at
the federal level, but also state, county, and local in many circumstances.
Operate at the highest level and are endowed with police roles and may maintain a small
component of the other (for example, the FBI police).
The agencies have nationwide jurisdiction for enforcement of federal law.
All federal agencies are limited by the U.S. Code to investigate only matters that are
explicitly within the power of the federal government.
However, federal investigative powers have become very broad in practice, especially
since the passage of the USA Patriot Act.

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 The Department of Justice (DOJ) is responsible for most law enforcement
duties at the federal level.
(1) Federal Bureau Of Investigation (FBI)
(2) Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
(3) Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco , Firearms And Explosives (ATF)
(4) United States Marshals Services and others.
The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is another branch with
numerous federal law enforcement agencies reporting to it.
(1) U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP)
(2) U. S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE)
(3) United states secret service (USSS)
(4) United States Coast Guards (USCG)
(5) Transportation security administration (TSA) and others.
2. State Police
Most all states operate state wide government agencies that provide law enforcement
duties, including investigations and state patrols. They may be called State Police, State Patrol
or Highway Patrol, and are normally part of the state Department of Public Safety.
In addition, the Attorney General's office of each state has their own state bureaus of
investigation.
Various departments of State Governments may have their own enforcement division such
as capitol police, State Hospitals, Departments of Correction, Water police, environmental (fish
and game/wildlife) Game Wardens or Conservation Officers (who have full police powers and
state wide jurisdiction). In Colorado, for instance, the Department of Revenue has its own
investigative branch, as do many of the state funded universities.

3. County Police
Also known as parishes and boroughs, county law enforcement is provided by Sheriffs'
Departments or Offices and County police. County police tend to exist only in metropolitan
counties and have countywide jurisdiction.
In some areas, there is a sheriff's department which only handles minor issues such as
service of papers such as a constable in other areas, along with security for the local
courthouse.
In other areas, there are no county police and the local sheriff is the exclusive law
enforcement agency and acts as both sheriff and county police, which is much more common
than there being a separate county police force.

County Police Three (3) Broad Categories:

(1)Full-service - Provide the full spectrum of police services to the entire county,
irrespective of local communities, and may provide contractual security police services to
special districts within the county.
Note: Hawaii - Hawaii has only county police, there are no local police.
(2)Limited service - Provide services to unincorporated areas of the county (and may
provide services to some incorporated areas by contract), and usually provide
contractual security police services to special districts within the county.
(3)Restricted service - Provide security police to county owned and operated facilities
and parks. Some may also perform some road patrol duties on county built and
maintained roads, and provide support to municipal police departments in the county.
Some north-eastern states maintain county detectives in their county attorneys' offices.
Sheriffs' Departments three (3) Categories
(1)Full service - The most common type, provide all traditional law-enforcement
functions, including countywide patrol and investigations irrespective of municipal
boundaries.
(2)Limited service - Along with the above, perform some type of traditional law-
enforcement function such as investigations and patrol. This may be limited to security
police duties on county properties (and others by contract) to the performance of these
duties in unincorporated areas of the county, and some incorporated areas by contract.
(3)Restricted service - Provide basic court related services such as keeping the county
jail, transporting prisoners, providing courthouse security and other duties with regard
to service of process and summonses that are issued by county and state courts.

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 Note: The sheriff also often conducts auction sales of real property in foreclosure in
many jurisdictions, and is often also empowered to conduct seizures of chattel property
to satisfy a judgment. In other jurisdictions, these civil process duties are performed by
other officers, such as a marshal or constable.

4. Municipal Police
Are law enforcement agencies that are under the control of local government, including the
municipal government, where it is the smallest administrative subdivision. They receive pay
from the city budget, and usually have fewer rights than the "state paid" police. They are
generally preventive police, but their powers are often limited and they may be restricted as to
the equipment they can carry.
Municipal police range from one-officer agencies (sometimes still called the town marshal)
to the 40,000 men and women of the New York City Police Department.
Most municipal agencies take the form (Municipality Name) Police Department. Many
individual cities and towns will have their own police department, with larger communities
typically having larger departments with greater budgets, resources, and responsibilities.
Metropolitan departments, such as the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department, have
jurisdiction covering multiple communities and municipalities, often over a wide area typically
coterminous with one or more cities or counties.
Metropolitan departments have usually have been formed by a merger between local
agencies, typically several local police departments and often the local sheriff's department or
office, in efforts to provide greater efficiency by centralizing command and resources and to
resolve jurisdictional problems, often in communities experiencing rapid population growth and
urban sprawl, or in neighboring communities too small to afford individual police departments.
Some county sheriff's departments, such as the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department,
are contracted to provide full police services to local cities within their counties.

Other U.S. police

There are other types of specialist police department with varying jurisdictions. Most of
these serve special-purpose districts and are Special district police.
In some states, they serve as little more than security police, but in states such as
California, special district forces are composed of fully-sworn peace officers with state wide
authority.
These agencies can be:
(1) Transit Police
(2) Campus Police
(3) Airport Police
(4) Park Police
Police departments responsible for protecting government property such as the Los
Angeles General Services Police. Some agencies that have multi-state powers, such as the
Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department. Some private (non-
governmental) agencies, such as the Co-op City Department of Public Safety.

POLICE FUNCTIONS
(1)Order maintenance - This is the broad mandate to keep the peace or otherwise
prevent behaviors which might disturb others. This can deal with things ranging from a
barking dog to a fist-fight. By way of description, Cole and Smith note that police are
usually called-on to "handle" these situations with discretion, rather than deal with them
as strict violations of law, though of course their authority to deal with these situations
are based in violations of law.
(2)Law enforcement - Those powers are typically used only in cases where the law has
been violated and a suspect must be identified and apprehended. Most obvious
instances include robbery, murder, or burglary. This is the popular notion of the main
police function, but the frequency of such activity is dependent on geography and
season.
(3)Service - Services may include rendering first aid, providing tourist information, guiding
the disoriented, or acting as educators (on topics such as preventing drug use).
Cole and Smith cited one study which showed 80% of all calls for police
assistance did not involve crimes, but this may not be the case in all parts of the

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 country. Because police agencies are traditionally available year-round, 24 hours a day,
citizens call upon police departments not only in times of trouble, but also when just
inconvenienced. As a result, police services may include roadside auto assistance,
providing referrals to other agencies, finding lost pets or property, or checking locks on
vacationers' homes.

The styles of policing in U.S.

Three styles of policing develop from a jurisdiction’s socioeconomic characteristics,
government organization, and choice of police administrators
(1) Watchman - Emphasizes maintaining order, usually found in communities with a
declining industrial base, and a blue-collar, mixed ethnic/racial population. This form of
policing is implicitly less pro-active than other styles, and certain offenses may be
“overlooked” on a variety of social, legal, and cultural grounds, as long as the public
order is maintained
(2) Legalistic - Emphasizes law enforcement and professionalism. This is usually found in
reform-minded cities, with mixed socioeconomic composition. Officers are expected to
generate a large number of arrests and citations, and act as if there were a single
community standard for conduct, rather than different standards for different groups

(3) Service - Emphasizes the service functions of police work, usually found in suburban,
middle-class communities where residents demand individual treatment. Police in
homogeneous communities can view their work as protecting their citizens against
“outsiders”, with frequent but often-informal interventions against community members

Note: Wilson’s study applies to police behavior for the entire department, over time. At any
given time, police officers may be acting in a watchman, service, or legalistic function by nature
of what they’re doing at the time, or temperament, or mood. Individual officers may also be
inclined to one style or another, regardless of supervisor or citizen demands.

Qualifications for U.S. Police

Nearly all U.S. states and the federal government have by law adopted minimum-standard
standardized training requirements for all officers with powers of arrest within the state. Many
standards apply to in-service training as well as entry-level training, particularly in the use of
firearms, with periodic re-certification required. These standards often comply with standards
promoted by the US Department of Justice. These standards typically require a thorough
background check that potential police recruits:
 Be a United States citizen.
 Must have a high school diploma or a G.E.D. and if necessary a college degree or served
in the United States military without a dishonorable discharge;
 Be in good physical and psychological condition;
 Maintain a clean criminal record without either serious or repeated misdemeanor or any
felony convictions;
 Must have a valid driver's license with a clean driving record and that is not currently or
has a history of being suspended or revoked;
 Be of high moral character;
 Not have a history of prior narcotic or repeated marijuana use or alcoholism;
 Not have a history of ethical, professional, prior employment, motor vehicle, or financial
improprieties;
 Not have a history of domestic violence or mental illness;
 Not to pose a safety and security risk;
 Be legally eligible to own and carry a firearm.

Process of screening for U.S. police entrance.

Repeated interviews, written tests, medical examinations, physical fitness tests,
comprehensive background investigations, fingerprinting, drug testing, a polygraph examination
and consultation with a psychologist are common practices used to review the suitability of
candidates. Recruiting in most departments is competitive, with more suitable and desirable
candidates accepted over lesser ones, and failure to meet some minimum standards

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disqualifying a candidate entirely. Departments maintain records of past applicants under
review, and refer to them in the case of either reapplication or requests from other agencies

Salary
Salary varies widely for police officers, with most being among the top third of wage-
earners, age 25 or older, nationwide. In May 2008, the overall median was $51,410. The
median salary for those at the federal level was $46,620, compared to $57,270 for those at the
state level and $51,020 for those employed by local law enforcement agencies. The top 10%
earned more than $79,680 and bottom 10% less than $30,070.

Rank Minimum Salary Maximum Salary

Police Chief $90,570 $113,930
Deputy Chief $74,834 $96,209
Police Captain $72,761 $91,178
Police $65,688 $79,268
Lieutenant
Police Sergeant $58,739 $70,349
Police Corporal $49,421 $61,173
Reserve Officer $0.00 $0.00

Police weapons
(1) Handguns - Police in the United States usually carry a handgun on duty. Many are
required to be armed on-duty and off-duty. Among the most common sidearm, are
models produced by: Glock, Smith & Wesson, Sig-Sauer, and Beretta. One of
these brands in either a 9mm, .40 S&W, or .45 ACP. Until the 1980s, most US police
carried revolvers, typically in .38 Special or .357 Magnum calibers, as their primary
duty weapons. Since then, most have switched to semiautomatic pistols. Two key
events influencing many US police forces to upgrade their primary duty weapons to
weapons with greater stopping power were the 1980 Norco shootout and the 1986
FBI Miami shootout.
Some police departments allow qualified officers to carry shotguns and/or
semiautomatic rifles in their vehicles for additional firepower.
(2) Less lethal weapons - SP 21" tactical baton in expandable and collapsed states. Police
also often carry an impact weapon - a baton, also known as a nightstick. The
common nightstick and the side handle baton, have been replaced in many locations by
expandable batons such as the Monadnock Auto-Lock Expandable Baton or ASP baton.
One advantage of the collapsible baton is that the wearer can comfortably sit in a patrol
vehicle while still wearing the baton on their duty belt. The side handle night stick
usually has to be removed before entering the vehicle. Many departments also use less-
lethal weapons like mace, pepper spray, electroshock guns, and beanbag
shotgun rounds.
(3) Specialized weapons - Most large police departments have elite SWAT units which
are called in to handle situations, such as barricaded suspects, hostage situations and
high-risk warrant service that require greater force, specialized equipment, and special
tactics. These units usually have submachine guns, automatic carbines or rifles,
semiautomatic combat shotguns, sniper rifles, gas, smoke and flashbang
grenades, and other specialized weapons and equipment at their disposal. A few
departments have an armored vehicle for especially dangerous work.
(4) Body armor - Uniformed police officers are often issued body armor, typically in the
form of a lightweight Level IIA, II or IIIA vest that can be worn under service shirts.
SWAT teams typically wear heavier Level III or IV tactical armored vests, often with
steel or ceramic trauma plates, comparable to those worn by US military personnel
engaged in ground operations. Officers trained in bomb disposal wear specialized
heavy protective armor designed to protect them from the effects of an explosion when
working around live ordnance.
(5) Police communications - Most American police departments are dispatched from a
centralized communications center, using VHF, UHF or, more recently, digitally
trunked radio transceivers mounted in their vehicles, with individual officers carrying

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 portable handsets or ear-worn headsets for communication when away from their
vehicles. American police cars are also increasingly equipped with portable computers
linked by radio to a network allowing them access to state department of motor
vehicles information, criminal records, and other important information.
Most police communications are now conducted within a regional pool of area
911 operators using 911 and 911 telephone taxation. A large number of police agencies
have pooled their 911 tax resources for Computer Aided Dispatching (CAD) to streamline
dispatching and reporting

Duties of a U.S. police

Maintaining order and service functions, the purpose of policing is the investigation of
suspected criminal activity and the referral of the results of investigations and of suspected
criminals to the courts. Law enforcement, to varying degrees at different levels of government
and in different agencies, is also commonly charged with the responsibilities of deterring
criminal activity and of preventing the successful commission of crimes in progress; the service
and enforcement of warrants, writs and other orders of the courts.
Law enforcement agencies are also involved in providing first response to emergencies
and other threats to public safety; the protection of certain public facilities and infrastructure;
the maintenance of public order; the protection of public officials; and the operation of some
correctional facilities

Comparison of U.S. police and P.N.P

The U.S police and the P.N.P. were almost likely the same in functions. They were also
both part of the Criminal Justice System. The U.S. police prosecute criminal cases but the PNP
cannot.

E. Law enforcement in the United Kingdom

Law enforcement in the United Kingdom is organized separately in each of the
legal systems of the United Kingdom: England & Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland
(administration of police matters is not generally affected by the Government of Wales Act
2006).

Jurisdictions and territories

In the United Kingdom, every person has limited powers of arrest if they see an
indictable crime being committed – these are called "every person powers", commonly referred
to as a "citizen's arrest". In England and Wales, the vast majority of attested constables enjoy
full powers of arrest and search as granted by the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984. All
police officers are "constables" in law, irrespective of rank. Although police officers have wide
ranging powers, they are still civilians and subject to the same laws as members of the public.
However there are certain legal restrictions on police officers such as the illegality of taking
industrial action and the ban on taking part in active politics.

Types of law enforcement agency

There are four general types of agency, the first mostly concerned with policing the general
public and their activities and the rest concerned with policing of other, usually localised,
matters:
(1) Territorial police forces, who carry out the majority of policing. These are police forces
that cover a 'police area' (a particular region) and have an independent Police Authority.
The Police Act 1996, the Police (Scotland) Act 1967 and the Police (Northern Ireland)
Act 2000, prescribe a number of issues such as appointment of a Chief Constable,
jurisdiction and responsibilities, for police forces in England and Wales, Scotland and
Northern Ireland respectively.
(2) Special police forces, which are national police forces that have a specific, non-regional
jurisdiction, such as the British Transport Police. The Serious Organised Crime and Police
Act 2005 refers to these as 'special police forces'.
(3) Non-police law enforcement agencies, whose officers are not police constables, but
still enforce laws.
(4) Miscellaneous police forces, mostly having their foundations in older legislation or
Common Law. These have a responsibility to police specific local areas or activities, such

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 as ports and parks and before the passing of recent legislation such as the Serious
Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 were often referred to as 'special police forces';
care must therefore be taken in interpreting historical use of that phrase. These
constabularies are not within the scope of the legislation applicable to the previously-
mentioned organisations but can still be the subject of statutes applicable to e.g. docks,
harbours or railways. Until the passing of Railways and Transport Safety Act 2003, the
British Transport Police was such a force.
Cross-border powers
Territorial police constables have certain powers of arrest in countries other than the
one they were attested in. There are four main provisions for them to do so  – arrest with a
warrant, arrest without a warrant for an offence committed in their country, arrest without a
warrant for an offence committed in another country and mutual aid. Note: this section applies
to territorial police constables only, and not to others – except the British Transport Police,
whose also have certain cross-border powers in addition to their natural powers.

Arrest with warrant

Certain warrants can be executed by constables even though they are outside their
jurisdiction: arrest warrants, warrants of commitment and a warrant to arrest a witness
(England, Wales or Northern Ireland) a warrant for committal, a warrant to imprison (or to
apprehend and imprison) and a warrant to arrest a witness (Scotland). A warrant issued in one
country may be executed in either of the other two countries by a constable from:
 The country in which it was issued, or
 The country in which it is being executed.
When executing a warrant issued in Scotland, the constable executing it shall have the
same powers and duties, and the person arrested the same rights, as they would have had if
execution had been in Scotland by a constable of a police force in Scotland. When executing a
warrant issued in England & Wales or Northern Ireland, a constable may use reasonable force
and has specified search powers provided by section 139 of the Criminal Justice and Public
Order Act 1994.

Arrest without warrant: offences committed in home country

If a constable suspects that a person has committed or attempted to commit an offence
in his country, and that person is now in another country, he may arrest (and in the case of a
constable from Scotland, detain) them in that other country.
A constable from England & Wales is subject to the same necessity tests for arrest (as
under section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984) as he would be in England &
Wales, a constable from Scotland may arrest/detain if it would have been lawful to do so in
Scotland and a constable from Northern Ireland is subject to the same necessity tests for arrest
(as under Article 26 of the Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1989) as he
would be in Northern Ireland.
A person arrested under the above powers:
 in Scotland, shall be taken to the nearest convenient designated police station or to a
designated police station in a police area in which the offence is being investigated
(England & Wales or Northern Ireland),
 in England or Wales, shall be taken to the nearest convenient police station
(Scotland) or to a police station within a sheriffdom in which the offence is being
investigated (Scotland), to the nearest convenient designated police station (Northern
Ireland) or to a designated police station in which the offence is being investigated
(Northern Ireland), or
 in Northern Ireland, shall be taken either to the nearest convenient designated police
station (England & Wales) or to a designated police station in a police area in which the
offence is being investigated (England & Wales) or to the nearest convenient police
station (Scotland) or to a police station within a sheriffdom in which the offence is being
investigated (Scotland).
A person detained under the above powers:
 In England or Wales, shall be taken to the nearest convenient police station (Scotland)
or to a police station within a sheriffdom in which the offence is being investigated
(Scotland), or to the nearest convenient designated police station (England or Wales), or

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  In Northern Ireland, shall be taken to the nearest convenient police station (Scotland) or
to a police station within a sheriffdom in which the offence is being investigated
(Scotland), or to the nearest convenient designated police station (Northern Ireland), as
soon as reasonably practicable.
Detention under these powers, which in Scotland normally lasts for six hours, is limited to four
hours.

Arrest without warrant: offences committed in other countries

A constable from one country has, in the other countries, the same powers of arrest as
a constable of that country would have.
A constable from England & Wales has:
 in Scotland, the same power of arrest as a constable from Scotland
 in Northern Ireland, the same power of arrest as a constable from Northern Ireland
would have under Article 26 of the Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland)
Order 1989 (necessity test).
A constable from Scotland has:
 in England and Wales, the same power of arrest as a constable from England & Wales
would have under section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (necessity
test).
 in Northern Ireland, the same power of arrest as a constable from Northern Ireland
would have under Article 26 of the Police and Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland)
Order 1989 (necessity test).
A constable from Northern Ireland has:
 in Scotland, the same power of arrest as a constable from Scotland
 in England and Wales, the same power of arrest as a constable from England & Wales
would have under section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 (necessity
test).
When a constable arrests a person in England & Wales, the constable is subject to the
requirements of section 28 (informing of arrest), section 30 (taking to a designated police
station) and section 32 (search on arrest). When a constable arrests a person in Scotland, the
arrested person shall have the same rights and the constable the same powers and duties as
they would have were the constable a constable of a police force in Scotland. When a constable
arrests a person in Northern Ireland, the constable is subject to the requirements of Article 30
(informing of arrest), Article 32 (taking to a designated police station) and Article 34 (search on
arrest).

Other situations
Police forces often support each other with large-scale operations, such as those which
require specialist skills or expertise and those which require policing levels that the host forces
cannot provide. Referred to as mutual aid, constables 'on loan' from one force have all the
powers and privileges of a constable of the host force. Constables from the Metropolitan Police
who are on protection duties in Scotland or Northern Ireland have all the powers and privileges
of a constable of the local territorial police force. A constable who is taking a person to or from
a prison retains all the powers, authority, protection and privileges of his office regardless of his
location. Regardless of where they are in the United Kingdom, a constable may arrest under
section 41 and may stop and search under section 43 of the Terrorism Act 2000 on suspicion of
terrorism (defined by section 40).

Powers of officers
Territorial police constables
Most police officers are members of territorial police forces. Upon taking an oath for one
of these forces, they have all the powers and privileges, duties and responsibilities of a
constable in one of the three distinct legal systems - either England and Wales, Scotland or
Northern Ireland, and the territorial waters of that country. The limited circumstances where
their powers extend across the border are described below.

Other constables

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 There are many constables who are not members of territorial police forces. The most
notable are members of the three forces referred to as 'special police forces': the British
Transport Police, Ministry of Defence Police and Civil Nuclear Constabulary. These officers have
the 'powers and privileges of a constable' on land relating to their work and in matters relating
to their work. BTP and MDP officers have additional jurisdiction where requested by a constable
of another force, in which case they take on that constables jurisdiction. Upon request from the
chief police officer of a police force, members of one of the above three forces can be give the
full powers of constables in the police area of the requesting force. This was used to
supplement police numbers in the areas surrounding the 2005 G8 summit at Gleneagles.
There are also many acts which allow companies or councils to employ constables for a
specific purpose. Firstly, there are 10 companies whose employees are sworn in as constables
under section 79 of the Harbours, Docks, and Piers Clauses Act 1847. As a result, they have the
full powers of a constable on any land owned by the harbour, dock, or port and at any place
within one mile of any owned land. Secondly, there are also some forces created by specific
legislation such as the Port of Tilbury Police (Port of London Act 1968), Mersey Tunnels Police
(County of Merseyside Act 1989) and the Epping Forest Keepers (Epping Forest Act 1878).
Thirdly, under Article 18 of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government Provisional Order
Confirmation (Greater London Parks and Open Spaces) Act 1967, London Borough Councils are
allowed to swear in council officers as constables for "securing the observance of the provisions
of all enactments relating to open spaces under their control or management and of bye-laws
and regulations made thereunder". These constables are not legally police constables and have
no powers to enforce criminal law other than those afforded to every citizen.

Police civilians
In England & Wales, the chief police officer of a territorial police force may designate any
person who is employed by the police authority maintaining that force, and is under the
direction and control of that chief police officer, as one or more of the following:
 community support officer (commonly referred to as a Police Community Support
Officer),
 investigating officer,
 detention officer, or
 escort officer.
They have a range of powers given by the Police Reform Act 2002,[20] and their chief police
officer decides which of these powers they may use. Unlike a police constable, a PCSO only has
powers when on duty and in uniform, and within the area policed by their respective force.
Until 1991, most parking enforcement was carried out by police-employed traffic wardens.
Since the passage of the Road Traffic Act 1991, decriminalised parking enforcement has meant
that most local authorities have taken on this role and now only the Metropolitan Police employs
Traffic Wardens, combining the role with PCSOs as "Traffic Police Community Support Officers".
In Scotland, Police Custody and Security Officers have powers similar to those of detention
officers and escort officers in England and Wales. Similar powers are available in Northern
Ireland.

Accredited Persons
Chief police officers of territorial police forces (and the British Transport Police) can also
give limited power to people not employed by the police authority, under Community Safety
Accreditation Schemes. A notable example are officers of the Vehicle and Operator Services
Agency, who have been given powers to stop vehicles. However, this practice has been
criticised by the Police Federation who described it as 'half-baked'.

Members of the armed forces

In Northern Ireland only, members of Her Majesty's Armed Forces have powers to stop
peopleor vehicles, arrest and detain people for three hours and enter buildings to keep the
peaceor search for people who have been kidnapped. Additionally, commissioned officers may
close roads. They may use reasonable force when exercising these powers.
Under the Customs Management Act 1979, members of Her Majesty's Armed Forces may detain
people if they believe they have committed an offence under the Customs & Excise acts, and
may seize goods if they believe they are liable to forfeiture under the same acts. [35]
Other civilians

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 Many employees of local authorities have powers of entry relating to inspection of
businesses, such as under the Sunday Trading Act 1994 and powers to give Fixed Penalty
Notices for offences such as littering, graffiti or one of the wide ranging offences in the Clean
Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005. Further such powers may be given under local
bylaws or local acts of parliament.
When carrying out an investigation, staff of the Independent Police Complaints
Commission have all the powers and privileges of constables throughout England and Wales
and the territorial waters. Similarly, staff of the Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland have
certain powers under the Police and Criminal Evidence (Application to the Police Ombudsman)
Order (Northern Ireland) 2009
Employees of the Serious Organised Crime Agency can be designated with the powers of
a constable, Revenue and Customs officer and immigration officer. These designations can be
unconditional or conditional: time limited or limited to a specific operation.
Employees of the UK Border Agency may be Immigration Officers and/or customs
officers. They hold certain powers of arrest, detention and search.
In England & Wales, water bailiffs employed by the Environment Agency have certain
powers in relation to enforcement of fishing regulations. Scottish water bailiffs have similar
powers. There are also seven types of court officer - two in Scotland and five in England &
Wales, commonly referred to as 'bailiffs', who can enforce court orders and in some cases
arrest people.
Traffic officers are employed by the Highways Agency and maintain traffic flows on
trunk roads and some bridges and tunnels. There are different types of traffic officer, and they
are appointed under separate Acts. They have limited powers to direct traffic and place road
signs.
Wildlife inspector have certain powers of entry and inspection in relation to wildlife and
licenses relating to wildlife.
Employees of public fire and rescue services have extensive powers in the event of an
emergency, and more limited ones in certain other circumstances, such as investigations into
fires.
Prison officers have all the powers, authority, protection and privileges of a constable
when acting as prison officers.

History
Accountability
In England and Wales a Police Authority, normally consisting of three magistrates, nine
local councillors and five independent members, is responsible for overseeing each local force.
They also have a duty under law to ensure that their community gets best value from their
police force.
In Northern Ireland the Police Service of Northern Ireland is supervised by the Northern
Ireland Policing Board.
In Scotland each police force is overseen either by the local authority (for Fife Constabulary and
Dumfries and Galloway Constabulary) or by a joint board of the relevant authority for all other
forces.
Two of the three special police forces in Great Britain, (the British Transport Police and
the Civil Nuclear Constabulary) had their own police authorities set up in 2004. These forces
operate across national jurisdictions but their normal responsibility is to the activities they
police, i.e. the railways and the civil nuclear industry.

Her Majesty's Inspectorates of Constabulary

Her Majesty's Inspectorates of Constabulary (HMIC) are the official bodies responsible
for the examination and assessment of police forces to ensure their requirements are met as
intended.
There are two similarly-named organisations:
 Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary (HMIC) - this organisation is
responsible to the Home Office for police forces in England and Wales. It also inspects,
by invitation, various UK special police forces. Since 2004, HMIC has also had
responsibility for examining HM Revenue and Customs and the Serious Organised Crime
Agency. Inspection services have been provided on a non-statutory basis for the Police
Service of Northern Ireland.

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  Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Constabulary for Scotland (commonly known as
HMIC) - this organisation is responsible to the Scottish Government and examines
Scotland's territorial police forces, the Scottish Crime and Drug Enforcement Agency, the
Scottish Criminal Record Office, the Scottish Police College and the Scottish Police
Information Strategy.

Crown dependencies and overseas territories

The Crown dependencies and British overseas territories have their own police forces,
the majority of which utilise the British model. Because they are not part of the United
Kingdom, they are not answerable to the British Government; instead they are organised by
and are responsible to their own governments (an exception to this is the Sovereign Base Areas
Police - because the SBAs existence is purely for the benefit of the British armed forces and do
not have full overseas territory status, the SBA Police are responsible to the Ministry of
Defence). However, because they are based on the British model of policing, these police forces
conform to the standards set out by the British government, which includes voluntarily
submitting themselves to inspection by the HMIC.

Ranks
Throughout the United Kingdom, the rank structure of police forces is identical up to the
rank of Chief Superintendent. At higher ranks, structures are distinct within London where the
Metropolitan Police Service and the City of London Police have a series of Commander and
Commissioner ranks as their top ranks whereas other UK police forces have assistants, deputies
and a Chief Constable as their top ranks. All Commissioners and Chief Constables are equal in
rank to each other.

Uniform and equipment

Uniforms, the issuing of firearms, type of patrol cars and other equipment varies by
force. Unlike police in other developed countries, the vast majority of British police officers do
not carry firearms on standard patrol; they do however carry Extendable "Asp" or fixed
Monadnock PR-24 batons and CS/PAVA spray.
There are, however, exceptions. Every territorial force has a specialist Firearms Unit
which maintains Armed Response Vehicles to respond to firearms related emergency calls, while
one territorial force (the Police Service of Northern Ireland) and two of the special police forces,
(the Civil Nuclear Constabulary and the Ministry of Defence Police) are routinely armed. The
British Transport Police is the only police force in the country without firearms officers, relying
on the local territorial force should an armed incident occur on the railways.
The Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) firearms unit is called CO19 (formerly SO19), but
every force in the United Kingdom apart from the British Transport Police has firearms trained
officers available should the need arise. Metropolitan and City of London Police operate with
three officers per Armed Response Vehicle (ARV). Each unit comprises a driver, a navigator,
and an observer who gathers information about the incident and liaises with other units. Other
police forces carry two Authorised Firearms Officers instead of three. Armed Police carry a
combination of weapons, ranging from German Heckler & Koch MP5 carbines, Heckler & Koch
MSG901 Sniper rifles, Heckler & Koch Baton Guns (which fire baton rounds) and Heckler & Koch
G36Cs to a number of specialist weapons such as the Remington pump-action shotgun.
Former Home Secretary Jacqui Smith recently unveiled new plans, for England and
Wales, to train and arm response officers with Tasers, rather than just specialist firearms
teams. Several forces underwent a trial period with Tasers issued to members of response
teams, and it was subsequently unveiled across the country.

Height
In the 19th and early 20th centuries most forces required their recruits to be at least 5
feet 10 inches (178 cm) in height. By 1960 many forces had reduced this to 5 feet 8 inches
(173 cm), and 5 feet 4 inches (163 cm) for women. Many senior officers deplored this, believing
that height was a vital requirement for a uniformed constable. Some forces retained the height
standard at 5 feet 10 inches (178 cm) or 5 feet 9 inches (175 cm) until the early 1990s, when
the height standard was gradually removed. This is due to the MacPherson report of 1999, as
the height restriction was seen to possibly discriminate against those of ethnic backgrounds
who are genetically predisposed to be shorter. No British force now requires its recruits to be of

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any minimum height. The shortest officer in the UK, PC Sue Day of Swindon Police, is 4 feet
10 inches tall.

Organisation of police forces

As all police forces are autonomous organisations there is much variation in organisation
and nomenclature, however outlined below are the main strands of policing that makes up
police forces:
 All police forces have teams of officers who are responsible for general beat duties and
response to emergency and non emergency calls from the public. These officers are
generally the most visible and will invariably be the first interface a member of the
public has with police. In general terms these officers will normally patrol by vehicle
(though also on foot or bicycle in urban areas). They will generally patrol a sub-division
or whole division of a police force area or in the case of the Metropolitan Police Service,
a borough. Nearly all police officers begin their careers in this area of policing, with
some moving on to more specialist roles. The Metropolitan Police Service calls this area
of policing 'Response Teams', whilst other forces use terms such as 'patrol', 'section' and
other variations.
 Most local areas or wards in the country have at least one police officer who is involved
in trying to build links with the local community and resolve long term problems. In
London, the Metropolitan Police Service addresses this area of policing with Safer
Neighbourhood Teams. This entails each political ward in London having a Police
Sergeant, two police constables and a few PCSOs who are ring fenced to address
problems and build community links in their respective wards. Other police forces have
similar systems but can be named 'Area officers', 'Neighbourhood officers', 'Beat
Constables' and a number of other variations.
 Criminal Investigation Departments (CID) can be found in all police forces. Generally
these officers deal with investigations of a more complex, serious nature, however this
again can differ from force to force. Most officers within this area are detectives.
Depending on the force in question this area of policing can be further divided into a
myriad of other specialist areas such as fraud. Smaller forces tend to have detectives
who deal with a wide range of varied investigations whereas detectives in larger forces
can have a very specialist remit.
 All police forces have specialist departments that deal with certain aspects of policing.
Larger forces such as Greater Manchester Police, Strathclyde Police and West Midlands
Police have many and varied departments and units such as traffic, firearms, marine,
horse, tactical support all named differently depending on the force. Smaller forces such
Dyfed Powys Police and Warwickshire Police will have fewer specialists and will rely on
cross training, such as firearms officers also being traffic trained officers. The
Metropolitan Police, the largest force in the country, has a large number of specialist
departments, some of which are unique to the Metropolitan Police due to policing the
capital and its national responsibilities. For example, the Diplomatic Protection Group
and Counter Terrorism Command.

Issues

Deaths after contact with the police

The police service in the UK is sometimes criticised for incidents that result in deaths due to
police firearms usage or in police custody, as well as the lack of competence and impartiality in
investigations by the Independent Police Complaints Commission after these events.[ The
Economist stated in 2009:
“ Bad apples ... are seldom brought to justice: no policeman has ever been convicted of
murder or manslaughter for a death following police contact, though there have been
more than 400 such deaths in the past ten years alone. The IPCC is at best overworked
and at worst does not deserve the “I” in its name. ”

—The Economist
Controversial shootings
Main article: Police use of firearms in the United Kingdom#Controversial shootings

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The policy under which police officers in England and Wales use firearms has resulted in
controversy. Notorious recent examples include the Stephen Waldorf shooting in 1983, the
shooting of James Ashley in 1998, Harry Stanley in 1999, Jean Charles de Menezes in 2005 and
Abdul Kahar in 2006.

Deaths in police custody

In 1997/98, 69 people died in police custody or following contact with the police across England
and Wales; 26 resulted from deliberate self harm.
There are two defined categories of death in custody issued by the Home Office:
Category A: This category also encompasses deaths of those under arrest who are held in
temporary police accommodation or have been taken to hospital following arrest. It also
includes those who die, following arrest, whilst in a police vehicle.
 s/he has been taken to a police station after being arrested for an offence, or
 s/he is arrested at a police station after attending voluntarily at the station or
accompanying a Constable to it, and is detained there or is detained elsewhere in the
charge of a constable, except that a person who is at a court after being charged is not
in police detention for those purposes.
Category B: Where the deceased was otherwise in the hands of the police or death resulted
from the actions of a police officer in the purported execution of his duty.
 when suspects are being interviewed by the police but have not been detained;
 when persons are actively attempting to evade arrest;
 when persons are stopped and searched or questioned by the police; and
 when persons are in police vehicles (other than whilst in police detention).

Recent issues
Evidence of corruption in the 1970s, serious urban riots and the police role in controlling
industrial disorder in the 1980s, and the changing nature of police procedure made police
accountability and control a major political football from the 1990s onwards.
 The coal miners' strike (1984–1985) saw thousands of police from various forces
deployed against miners, frequently resulting in violent confrontation.
 The presence of Freemasons in the police caused disquiet in the early 1990s.
 The Fettesgate scandal in the early 1990s concerned the theft (and allegedly the
subsequent recovery) of sensitive documents from the Edinburgh headquarters of
Lothian and Borders Police. Nobody has ever been charged, and, at least publicly, no
officer was disciplined.
 The perceived absence of a visible police presence on the streets also frequently causes
concern. This is partially being addressed by the introduction of uniformed Police
Community Support Officers (PCSOs), following the passing of the Police Reform Act
2002, although some have criticised these as for being a cheap alternative to fully-
trained police officers.
 Recent undercover TV programmes BBC's The Secret Policeman and the Channel 4
Dispatches programme Undercover Copper raised questions of standards within UK
police forces.

Racism
Despite attempts to end racism and what the Macpherson Report described as
"institutionalised racism" in the police since the 1993 murder of Stephen Lawrence, there have
been ongoing problems. At the same time, some commentators and academics have claimed
that political correctness and excessive sensitivity to issues of race and class have reduced the
effectiveness of the police force, not least for people living in deprived areas or members of
minority groups themselves.
In 2003, ten police officers from Greater Manchester Police, North Wales Police and Cheshire
Constabulary were forced to resign after a BBC documentary, The Secret Policeman, shown on
21 October, revealed racism among recruits at Bruche Police National Training Centre at
Warrington. On 4 March 2005 the BBC noted that minor disciplinary action would be taken
against twelve other officers (eleven from Greater Manchester Police and one from Lancashire
Constabulary) in connection with the programme, but that they would not lose their jobs. In
November 2003, allegations were made that some police officers were members of the far-right
British National Party.

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Privacy
At the beginning of 2005 it was announced that the Police Information Technology
Organisation (PITO) had signed an eight-year £122 m contract to introduce biometric
identification technology.[56] PITO are also planning to use CCTV facial recognition systems to
identify known suspects; a future link to the proposed National Identity Register has been
suggested by some.

Freedom of speech
A number of recent cases in which the police have intervened in matters of free speech
have also given rise to allegations that the police are in danger of becoming thought police. In
December 2005, author Lynette Burrows was interviewed by police after expressing her opinion
on BBC Radio 5 Live that homosexuals should not be allowed to adopt children. The following
month, Sir Iqbal Sacranie was investigated by police for stating the Islamic view that
homosexuality is a sin.

Photography of police
Section 76 of the Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 came into force on 15 February 2009
making it an offence to elicit, attempt to elicit, or publish information "of a kind likely to be
useful to a person committing or preparing an act of terrorism" about; a member of Her
Majesty's Armed Forces; a constable, the Security Service, the Secret Intelligence Service, or
Government Communications Headquarters. Any person found guilty faces 10 years
imprisonment and an unlimited fine. It is a defence for a person charged with this offence to
prove that they had a reasonable excuse for their action. Outside of such circumstances,
however, it is perfectly legal to photograph or video a police officer in a public place.

Policing of protests
In April 2009, a total of 145 complaints were made following clashes between police and
protesters at the G20 summitIncidents including the death of 47 year old Ian Tomlinson,
minutes after an alleged assault by a police officer, and a separate alleged assault on a woman
by a police officer, has led to criticism of police tactics during protests. In response,
Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Paul Stephenson asked Her Majesty's Chief Inspector of
Constabulary (HMIC) to review policing tactics, including the practice of kettling.

Fixated Threat Assessment Centre

In the United Kingdom, the Fixated Threat Assessment Centre is a joint police/mental
health unit set up in October 2006 by the Home Office, the Department of Health and
Metropolitan Police Service to identify and address those individuals considered to pose a threat
to VIPs or the Royal Family. [69][70] They may then referred to local health services for further
assessment and potential involuntary commitment. In some cases, they may be detained by
police under the section 136 powers of the Mental Health Act 1983 prior to referral.

Proposed mergers for England and Wales

In 1981, James Anderton, the then Chief Constable of Greater Manchester Police called
for 10 regional police forces for England and Wales, one for each of the regions which would be
adopted as Government Office Regions in England, and Wales.
A 2004 proposal by the Police Superintendents' Association for the creation of a single
national police force, similar to Garda Síochána na hÉireann was rejected by the Association of
Chief Police Officers, and the government has thus far agreed.
In September 2005, in a report delivered to the then Home Secretary, Charles Clarke, HM
Inspectorate of Constabulary suggested that the forty-three force structure in England and
Wales was "no longer fit for purpose" and smaller forces should be forcibly merged. As of 2005,
nineteen forces had fewer than 2,000 regular officers, and the report suggested that forces with
4,000 or more officers performed better and could deliver cost savings. Forces were asked to
produce proposals for mergers, within Wales and the English Government Office Regions.
Nearly all the existing forces were under the 4,000 limit, with only the Metropolitan Police,
Greater Manchester Police, Merseyside Police, Northumbria Police, Thames Valley Police, West
Midlands Police and West Yorkshire Police over the limit - see Table of police forces in the
United Kingdom for a full list.

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 Draft options were announced in November 2005. [75] The Home Office offered money to
police authorities that decided to voluntarily merge ahead of schedule, and was consequently
accused of attempting to "bribe" unwilling Chief Constables into compliance. The proposals
were debated in the House of Commons on 19 December 2005. Most Chief Constables and
police authorities did not back the measure, and some suggested that cross-regional mergers
would make more sense (for example, Hampshire Constabulary in the South East suggested it
could merge with Dorset Police in the South West, whilst there was also a suggestion of North
Wales Police increasing co-operation with Cheshire Police)
On 6 February 2006, preferred options for several regions were announced by the Home
Secretary in a written ministerial statement, and set a deadline of 24 February for forces to
agree to the mergers. By this dead-line the only merger to have the agreement of all forces
involved was the Cumbria/Lancashire merger. Cheshire was opposed to a merger with
Merseyside, and West Mercia and Cleveland were holdouts in their regions, whilst all the Welsh
forces opposed the creation of a single Welsh force. The Home Secretary had the power to
order the Cumbria/Lancashire merger to proceed by statutory instrument under the Police Act
1996, and also to force through the contested mergers, given a four-month consultation period.
In a Written Statement made on 3 March 2006, he announced that the Lancashire/Cumbria
merger could be ordered in May, and that the consultation period on the others was starting,
and would end on 2 July 2006. The new forces would come into being on 1 April 2007.
A second batch of merger proposals were made on 20 March 2006, with the Eastern, East
Midlands and South East regions covered. A deadline of 7 April 2006 was set for responses,
after which it was expected that the process above would be followed. The following day, the
Home Secretary proposed a merger of all four forces in the Yorkshire and the Humber region.
The consultation period on this second batch of mergers started on 11 April 2006, and would
have finished on 11 August, with a target of 1 April 2008 for the mergers coming into effect.

Greater London
Upon the publication of the proposals, the Greater London area was not included. This
was due to two separate reviews of policing in the capital - the first was a review by the
Department of Transport into the future role and function of the British Transport Police. The
second was a review by the Attorney-General into national measures for combating fraud (the
City of London Police is one of the major organisations for combating economic crime). Both the
Metropolitan Police Commissioner, Sir Ian Blair, and the Mayor, Ken Livingstone, stated that
they would like to see a single police force in London, with the Metropolitan Police absorbing
the City of London Police and the functions of the British Transport Police in London. However,
this met with criticism from several areas; the House of Commons Transport Select Committee
severely criticised the idea of the Metropolitan Police taking over policing of the rail network in a
report published on 16 May 2006, while the City of London Corporation and several major
financial institutions in The City made public their opposition to the City Police merging with the
Met. In a statement on 20 July 2006, the Transport Secretary announced that there would be
no structural or operational changes to the British Transport Police, effectively ruling out any
merger. The interim report by the Attorney General's fraud review recognised the role taken by
the City Police as the lead force in London and the South-East for tackling fraud, and made a
recommendation that, should a national lead force be required, the City Police, with its
expertise, would be an ideal candidate to take this role. This view was confirmed on the
publication of the final report, which recommended that the City of London Police's Fraud Squad
should be the national lead force in combatting fraud, to "act as a centre of excellence,
disseminate best practice, give advice on complex inquiries in other regions, and assist with or
direct the most complex of such investigations"

Merger abandonment
On 20 June 2006 the new Home Secretary, John Reid, announced that the contested
mergers would be delayed for further discussion, and no mergers would be ordered before
Parliament's summer recess on 25 July other than the agreed Lancashire/Cumbria one.
On 11 July 2006, it then emerged that the entire proposal for police mergers might be
ended, following the decision by the only two forces to have agreed to amalgamation, Cumbria
and Lancashire, not to proceed. The announcement of this was followed by the head of the
ACPO stating that "The necessary financial support has not materialised and mergers, including

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voluntary ones, will not take place".On 12 July 2006, the Home Office confirmed that the
mergers were to be abandoned, with the entire proposal taken back for consultation.

Other police forces

Policing in Scotland and Northern Ireland does not come under the purview of the Home
Office, and so would have remained unaffected by these proposals. Likewise, the major non-
territorial forces (British Transport Police, Civil Nuclear Constabulary, Ministry of Defence Police)
are responsible to other government departments, and so would not have been affected by this
review.

List of proposed mergers

Note: these mergers have all been suspended in the long term while a further review
and consultation into policing in England and Wales takes place
Region Proposed force
Eastern Merge Bedfordshire Police, Essex Police and Hertfordshire Constabulary
Merge Cambridgeshire Constabulary, Norfolk Constabulary and Suffolk Constabulary
East Midlands Merge Derbyshire Constabulary, Leicestershire Constabulary, Lincolnshire Police,
Northamptonshire Police and Nottinghamshire Police
London London not included in the review of policing, so City of London Police and Metropolitan
Police unaffected.
North-East Merge Cleveland Police, Durham Constabulary and Northumbria Police
North-West Merge Cumbria Constabulary and Lancashire Constabulary
Merge Cheshire Constabulary and Merseyside Police
Greater Manchester Police unchanged
South-East Kent Police unchanged
Merge Surrey Police and Sussex Police
Hampshire Constabulary unchanged
Thames Valley Police unchanged
South-West[102] Option 1: Merge Avon and Somerset Constabulary, Devon and Cornwall Constabulary,
Gloucestershire Constabulary, Dorset Police and Wiltshire Constabulary
Option 2: Merge Avon and Somerset Constabulary, Gloucestershire
Constabulary, Wiltshire Constabulary and Dorset Police
Devon and Cornwall Constabulary unchanged
Wales Merge Dyfed-Powys Police, Gwent Police, North Wales Police and South Wales Police
West Midlands Merge Staffordshire Police, Warwickshire Police, West Mercia Constabulary, West
Midlands Police
Yorkshire and Merge Humberside Police, North Yorkshire Police, South Yorkshire Police, West Yorkshire
Humberside Police

Border and Immigration Agency/UK Border Agency

As part of the wide ranging review of the Home Office, the then Home Secretary, John
Reid, announced in July 2006 that all British immigration officers would be uniformed. On April
1, 2007, the Border and Immigration Agency (BIA) was created and commenced operation.
However, there were no police officers in the Agency, a matter that attracted considerable
criticism when the Agency was established - agency officers have limited powers of arrest.
Further powers for designated officers within the Agency, including powers of detention
pending the arrival of a police officer, were introduced by the UK Borders Act 2007.
The Government has effectively admitted the shortcomings of the Agency by making a
number fundamental changes within a year of its commencement. On 1 April 2008 the BIA
became the UK Border Agency following a merger with UKvisas, the port of entry functions of
HM Revenue and Customs. The Home Secretary, Jacqui Smith, announced that the UK Border
Agency (UKBA) "...will bring together the work of the Border and Immigration Agency, UK Visas
and parts of HM Revenue and Customs at the border, [and] will work closely with the police
and other law enforcement agencies to improve border controls and security.”
Within months of this, the Home Secretary revealed (in a 16-page response to a report by Lord
Carlile, the independent reviewer of UK terrorism legislation) that the Home Office will issue a
Green Paper proposing to take forward proposals by the Association of Chief Police Officers
(England & Wales) for the establishment of a new 3,000-strong national border police force to
work alongside the Agency.

National Crime Force (England and Wales)

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 In April 2007, the Leader of the Opposition, David Cameron announced the Conservative
Party's proposals for reform of policing. These included:
 Replacing police authorities with directly elected police commissioners. These
individuals would have control over budgets and target setting, with the Chief Constable
retaining operational control of policing.
 Giving the public the right to discuss local policing issues with their local police officers
at regular meetings.
In addition, the proposals made clear that on the issue of serious crime the 43 police forces in
England and Wales would either have to have greater cooperation, or that the serious crime
elements of their function would be invested in a National Serious Crime Force.

Police pay
The decision by the Home Secretary to refuse to implement, in England and Wales, the
recommendation of the Police Arbitration Tribunal of a 2.5% increase in pay has caused
widespread anger, especially as this decision stood in sharp contrast to the decision of the
Scottish Government to fully implement the award for police officers in Scotland by backdating
it to 1 September 2007.[108] By instead implementing the award with effect from 1 December
2007, the Home Secretary effectively reduced it to 1.9%, claiming that this was necessary in
order to control inflation, despite the fact that police authorities had already made provision for
the full 2.5% increase from their revenue budgets. There were marches on Westminster by off-
duty officers as a result.

Proposed mergers for Scotland

In 2010, the Justice Secretary in Scotland, Kenny MacAskill, outlined plans for reform of
policing in Scotland. Under a consultation, three proposals would be discussed in light of the
financial situation and the need for some level of budget cuts:
1. The eight existing police forces are retained, but with "increased collaboration"
2. Policing in Scotland moves towards a more regional structure, with the number of
individual forces reduced
3. All eight Scottish police forces are merged to form a single Scottish police service
According to the Scottish Government, approximately 25% of the total police budget in
Scotland is spent on Headquarters costs. The Scottish National Party has made a commitment
to increasing numbers of police officers by up to 1,000. Both Labour and the Conservatives
have come out in favour of a single force, while the Liberal Democrats are against this proposal.

Overseas police forces in the UK

There are certain instances where police forces of other nations operate in a limited degree
in the United Kingdom:
 The Police aux Frontières or PAF (French Border Police), a division of the Police
Nationale, is permitted to operate in regard to Eurostar rail services through the Channel
Tunnel. This includes on Eurostar trains to London, within the international terminal at
St Pancras Station, at Ebbsfleet and Ashford International railway stations, and at the
Cheriton Parc Le Shuttle terminal (alongside French Customs officials). The PAF also
operate at Dover Ferry terminals. This arrangement is reciprocated to the British
Transport Police, UK Border Agency, and UK Customs Officers on Paris bound trains and
within the terminal at Paris Gare du Nord, Coquelles (Le Shuttle), Gare de Lille-Europe,
Bruxelles-Midi/Brussel-Zuid and the Calais, Dunkerque, and Boulogne ferry terminals. [110]
The French police officers are not permitted to carry their firearms in the London
Terminal; the firearms must be left on the train.
 An Garda Síochána na hÉireann (Irish Police), under a recent agreement between the
United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, have the right, alongside the Radiological
Protection Institute of Ireland, to carry out inspections of the Sellafield nuclear facility in
Cumbria.
 In 2006 a small number of officers from the Policja (Polish Police) were seconded to the
North Wales Police to assist with the supervision of foreign (largely eastern European)
truck traffic largely on European route E22 (the A55 road). The Chief Constable of North
Wales has publicly stated (November 2006) that he is considering directly recruiting a
small number of officers from Poland to assist with policing the substantial population of
Polish people that have migrated to his area since Poland's accession to the EU in 2004.

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  Military Police of forces present in the UK within the terms of the Visiting Forces Act
1952 are permitted to travel to/from relevant premises in uniform and their (usually
distinctive) vehicles will occasionally be seen. Their powers (including the carrying of
firearms) are generally limited by that and other legislation to those necessary for the
performance of duties related to their own forces and to those possessed by the General
Public.

F. JAPAN POLICING SYSTEM

HISTORY
In 1874 the Japanese government established a European-style civil police system under
the centralized control of the Police Bureau within the Home Ministry, to put down internal
disturbances and maintain order during the Meiji Restoration. In 1880s the police had
developed into a nationwide instrument of government control, providing support for local
leaders and enforcing public morality. They acted as general civil administrators, implementing
official policies and thereby facilitating unification and modernization.
Note: The centralized police system steadily acquired responsibilities, until it controlled
almost all aspects of daily life, including fire prevention and mediation of labor disputes. The
system regulated public health, business, factories, and construction, and it issued permits and
licenses.
The Peace Preservation Law of 1925 – Gave police the authority to arrest people
for "wrong thoughts".
Special Higher Police (Tokko) - Created to regulate the content of motion pictures,
political meetings, and election campaigns.
Kempeitai(Imperial Japanese Army's military police) and Tokeitai(Imperial Japanese
Navy's) - Operating under their respective services and the justice and home ministries aided
the civilian police in limiting proscribed political activity.
1931 - After the Manchurian Incident, military police assumed greater authority, leading
to friction with their civilian counterparts.
After 1937 - Police directed business activities for the war effort, mobilized labor, and
controlled transportation.
1945 - (Japan's surrender) authorities retained the prewar police structure until a new
system was implemented and the Diet passed the 1947 Police Law. Contrary to Japanese
proposals for a strong, centralized force to deal with postwar unrest, the police system was
decentralized.
About 1,600 independent municipal forces were established in cities, towns, and villages
with 5,000 inhabitants or more, and a National Rural Police was organized by prefecture.
Civilian control was to be ensured by placing the police under the jurisdiction of public safety
commissions controlled by the National Public Safety Commission in the Office of the Prime
Minister. The Home Ministry was abolished and replaced by the less powerful Ministry of Home
Affairs, and the police were stripped of their responsibility for fire protection, public health, and
other administrative duties.
When most of the occupation forces were transferred to Korea in 1950–51, the 75,000
strong National Police Reserve was formed to back up the ordinary police during civil
disturbances, and pressure mounted for a centralized system more compatible with Japanese
political preferences.
1951 - The 1947 Police Law was amended in to allow the municipal police of smaller
communities to merge with the National Rural Police.
1954 - Only about 400 cities, towns, and villages still had their own police forces. Under
the 1954 amended Police Law, a final restructuring created an even more centralized system in
which local forces were organized by prefectures under a National Police Agency.
The revised Police Law of 1954 - Still in effect in the 1990s, preserves some strong
points of the postwar system, particularly measures ensuring civilian control and political
neutrality, while allowing for increased centralization. The National Public Safety Commission
system has been retained.
State responsibility for maintaining public order has been clarified to include
coordination of national and local efforts; centralization of police information, communications,
and record keeping facilities; and national standards for training, uniforms, pay, rank, and
promotion. Rural and municipal forces were abolished and integrated into prefectural forces,

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which handled basic police matters. Officials and inspectors in various ministries and agencies
continue to exercise special police functions assigned to them in the 1947 Police Law.

Law Enforcement in Japan

Is provided by the Prefectural Police under the oversight of the National Police Agency
or NPA.
The NPA is headed by the National Public Safety Commission thus ensuring that Japan's
police are an apolitical body and free of direct central government executive control.
They are checked by an independent judiciary and monitored by a free and active press.

National Police Agency

The National Police Agency - Is an agency administered by the National Public Safety
Commission of the Cabinet Office in the cabinet of Japan, and is the central coordinating
agency of the Japanese police system.
NPA does not have any police officers of its own. Instead, its role is to determine
general standards and policies, although in national emergencies or large-scale disasters the
agency is authorized to take command of prefectural police forces.
The agency is headed by a commissioner general who is appointed by the National
Public Safety Commission with the approval of the prime minister.
Policy for the NPA in turn is set by the National Public Safety Commission.
As the central coordinating body for the entire police system, it determines general
standards and policies; detailed direction of operations is left to the lower echelons.
In a national emergency or large-scale disaster, the agency is authorized to take
command of prefectural police forces.
1989 - The agency was composed of about 1,100 national civil servants, empowered to
collect information and to formulate and execute national policies.
The Central Office includes the Secretariat, with divisions for general operations,
planning, information finance, management, and procurement and distribution of police
equipment, and five bureaus.

BODIES SUPERVISED BY THE NPA

47 Prefectural Police Departments with the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department.

FIVE (5) BUREAUS

1. Police Administration Bureau: Concerned with police personnel, education, welfare,
training, and unit inspections.
2. Criminal Investigation Bureau
 In charge of research statistics and the investigation of nationally important and
international cases.
 Responsible for crime prevention, combating juvenile delinquency, and pollution control.
 In addition, the Criminal Investigation Bureau surveys, formulates, and recommends
legislation on firearms, explosives, food, drugs, and narcotics.
3. Traffic Bureau
 It has the function to licenses drivers, enforces traffic safety laws, and regulates traffic.
 Formulate and Conduct Intensive traffic safety and driver education campaigns both
national and prefectural levels.
 The bureau's Expressway Division addresses special conditions of the nation's growing
system of express highways.
4. Security Bureau
 It formulates and supervises the execution of security policies.
 It conducts research on equipment and tactics for suppressing riots and oversaw and
coordinates activities of the riot police.
 Responsible for security intelligence on foreigners and radical political groups, including
investigation of violations of the Alien Registration Law and administration of the Entry
and Exit Control Law.
 The bureau also implements security policies during national emergencies and natural
disasters.
5. Regional Public Safety Bureaus

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  The National Police Agency has seven regional police bureaus, each responsible for a
number of prefectures. Each is headed by a Director and they are organized similar to
the Central Office.
 Located in major cities of each geographic region.
 The Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department and Hokkaido Prefectural Police Headquarters
are excluded from the jurisdiction of RPBs.
 Headed by a Director General, each RPB exercises necessary control and supervision over
and provides support services to prefectural police within its jurisdiction, under the
authority and orders of NPA's Commissioner General.
 Attached to each Regional Police Bureaus is a Regional Police School which provides
police personnel with education and training required of staff officers as well as other
necessary education and training.

SEVEN (7) REGIONAL POLICE BUREAUS

(1) Tohoku - Aomori, Iwate, Miyagi, Akita, Yamagata, and Fukushima Prefectures
(2) Kinki - Shiga, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyogo, Nara, and Wakayama Prefectures
(3) Shikoku - Tokushima, Kagawa, Ehime, Kochi Prefectures
(4) Kanto - Ibaraki, Tochigi, Gunma, Saitama, Chiba, Kanagawa, Niigata, Yamanashi,
Nagano, and Shizuoka Prefectures
(5) Chubu - Toyama, Ishikawa, Fukui, Gifu, Aichi, Mie, Prefectures
(6) Kyushu - Fukuoka, Saga, Nagasaki, Kumamoto, Oita, Miyazaki, Kagoshima, and
Okinawa Prefectures
(7) Chugoku - Tottori, Shimane, Okayama, Hiroshima, and Yamaguchi Prefectures .

Police Communications Divisions

Metropolitan Tokyo and the island of Hokkaidō are excluded from the regional
jurisdictions and are run more autonomously than other local forces, in the case of Tokyo,
because of its special urban situation, and of Hokkaidō, because of its distinctive geography.
The National Police Agency maintains police communications divisions in these two
areas to handle any coordination needed between national and local forces.

NATIONAL POLICE AGENCY

IMPERIAL GUARD
In 1947 the Imperial Police Headquarters was created under the control of the Home
Ministry from the Imperial Household Ministry. It came under the aegis of the National Police
Agency of Japan in 1957.

STRENGTH
 As of 2008 - The total strength reached approximately 289,800 personnel.
 The NPA total - is about 7,600 with 1,800 police officers, 900 Imperial guards and 4,900
civilians.
 The Prefectural police total - is about 282,200 with 253,400 police officers and 28,800
civilians.
o 13,500 - Female police officers
o 11,800 - Female civilians.
 At present, it consists of over 900 security police personnel who provide personal security
for the Emperor, Crown Prince and other members of the Imperial Family of Japan, as well
as protection of imperial properties includes:
o Tokyo Imperial Palace
o Kyoto Imperial Palace
o Katsura Imperial Villa
o Shugakuin Imperial Villa (both in Kyoto),
o Shosoin Imperial Repository in Nara
o The imperial villas as Hayama, Kanagawa and Nasu, Tochigi.
 The Imperial Guard also maintains a 14 horse mounted police unit for use by guards of
honor at state ceremonies.

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 Dark Blue or a Blue-Grey Police- The modern Imperial Guards uniform when on duty.
They also wear white pistol belts, lanyards, helmets, boot laces or leggings. The gloves are
white.
 Imperial Guard - Responsible for fire-fighting within the grounds of the Palace, and
maintains fire engines and trained staff of this purpose.

"KOBAN"
 A small neighborhood police station found in Japan.
 Refers to the smallest organizational unit in today's Japanese police system. In addition to
central police stations, Japanese uniformed police work is done from small buildings located
within the community, a form of community policing.
 As of 2007, there are about 6,000 kōban all over Japan . Since the 1990s, many of them are
found with signs in all-capital letter alphabets,
 Typically a two-storied housing with a couple of rooms (although there is wide variation),
with from one to more than ten police officers.
 The officers in these buildings can keep watch, respond to emergencies, give directions, and
otherwise interact with citizens on a more intimate basis than they could from a more
distant station. Although often translated to English as "police box" .

SERVICES PROVIDED
 Police officers stationed at kōban serve several roles:
(1) Maps and directions -- Providing maps & directions to local addresses, in some cases
even personally guiding those unfamiliar with local street layouts and addressing
schemes. Additionally, officers can refer people to local hotels, restaurants, and other
businesses.
(2) Lost and found -- Accepting reports of lost items and accepting found items from
members of the public. If a matching lost item is turned in, notifying the owner of the
item to come pick up the item.
(3) Crime reports -- Taking police reports, typically for property crimes such as theft and
burglary.
(4) Emergency services -- As well as dialing the emergency telephone number "110" in
case of police, fire, or medical emergency, direct contact can be made with the koban
and assistance will be dispatched.

National Public Safety Commission

Its mission is to guarantee the neutrality of the police by insulating the force from
political pressure and to ensure the maintenance of democratic methods in police
administration.

PRIMARY FUNCTION
(1) To supervise the National Police Agency.
(2) It has the authority to appoint or dismiss senior police officers.

COMPOSITION
Chairman - who holds the rank of minister of state
Five Members - appointed by the prime minister with the consent of both houses of the Diet.
 The commission operates independently of the cabinetbut liaison and coordination with
it are facilitated by the chairman's being a member of that body.

Organization
Commissioner - General of the National Police Agency - the highest ranking police officer
Deputy Commissioner-General
Commissioner-General's Secretariat
Community Safety Bureau
Criminal Investigation Bureau
 Organized Crime Department
 Safety Department
Traffic Bureau
Security Bureau

155
  Foreign Affairs and Intelligence Department
Info-Communications Bureau
National Police Academy
National Research Institute of Police Science
Imperial Guard Headquarters
 Regional Bureaus
Tohoku Regional Police Bureau
Kanto Regional Police Bureau
Chubu Regional Police Bureau
Kinki Regional Police Bureau
Chugoku Regional Police Bureau
Shikoku Regional Police Bureau
Kyushu Regional Police Bureau
Communications Departments
 Tokyo Metropolitan Police Info-Communications Department
 Hokkaido Police Info-Communications Department

RANK COMPARISON
Japan Philippines
Superintendent General Director General
Superintendent Supervisor Deputy Director General
Chief Superintendent Director
Sr. Superintendent Chief Superintendent
Superintendent Sr. Superintendent
Police Inspector Superintendent
Assistant Police Inspector Chief Inspector
Police Sergeant Sr. Inspector
Policeman Inspector
SPOIV
SPOIII
SPOII
SPOI

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

156
 Annex A
Comparative Police Matrix
Country Police Force Department Highest Rank Lowest Rank
Afghanistan Afghanistan Ministry of the Police General 2nd
National Interior Patrolman
Police(ANP)
Armenia Police of the Ministry of the Police Colonel Junior
Republic of Defense General Seargeant
Armenia
Azerbaijan National Minis Unavailable Unavailable
Police of the try of Affairs
Republic of
Azerbaijan
Bahrain Bahrain Ministry of Unavailable Unavailable
National Interior
Police
Bangladesh Bangladesh Ministry of Home Inspector Constable
Police affairs General of
Police(IGP)
Bhutan Royal Bhutan Ministry of Home Gagpoen Gagpa
Police(RBP) and Cultural (Chief of
Affairs Police)
Brunei Royal Brunei Home Affairs Unavailable Constable
Police Force Ministry
Burma Burma Ministry of Homen Unavailable Unavailable
National Affairs
Police
Cambodia Cambodian Ministry of Internal Brigadier Officer
Police Force Affairs General Cadet
Peoples Peoples Ministry of Public Commissioner Constable
Republic of Armed Police Security General 2 Class
nd

China Force
Cyprus Cyprus Police Ministry of Justice Chief of Police Constable
Force
East Timor National Ministry of Internal Unavailable Unavailable
Police of East Affairs
Timor
Georgia Georgian Department of Constable
National Public Safety Commissioner
Police of Police
Hongkong Hongkong Operations and Commissioner Constable
Police Force Support of Police
Department
India Indian Police Ministry of Internal Police
Service Affairs Commissioner
Indonesia Indonesian Ministry of Internal Police General Second
National Affairs Bhayangkara
Police
Iran Iranian Ministry of Interior Unavailable Unavailable

157
 National and Justice
Police
Iraq Iraqi Police Monistry of Chief of Police Patrolman
Service Interior
Israel Israeli Police Ministry of Internal Constable
Force Security Commissioner
Japan National National Public Commissioner
Police Agency Safety Commission General Police
Officer
Jordan Public Public Security Unavailable Unavailable
Security Force Directorate of the
Ministry of Interior
Jordan Public Public Security Unavailable Unavailable
Security Force Directorate of the
Ministry of Interior
Jordan Public Public Security Unavailable Unavailable
Security Force Directorate of the
Ministry of Interior
North Korea National Ministry of Public DaeWonsu Chonsa
Police Agency Security (Grand (Private)
Marshal)
South Korea Korea Ministry of Commissioner Police
National Government General Officer
Police Administration
Agency(KNPA and Home Affairs
)
Kuwait Kuwait Ministry of Internal Lieutenant Constable
National Affairs General
Police
Kyrgystan Kyrgystan Ministry of Interior General Police
Police Officer
Laos Laos National Ministry of Public Constable
Police Security General

Lebanon International Ministry of Interior

Security Director Gendarme
Forces General
Macau Macau Ministry of Internal Superintendent Guard
National Affairs
Police Force
Malaysia Royal Ministry of Home Inspector Constable
Malaysian Affairs General of
Police Police(IGP)
Maldives Maldives National Security Commissioner Lance
Police Service and Defense of Police Constable
Branch
Mongolia Mongolia Ministry of Justice General Private
Public and Home Affairs
Security Force
Myanmar Myanmar Ministry of Home Police Major Private
Police Force Affairs General
Nepal Nepal Police Ministry of Home Inspector Constable
Force Affairs General
Oman Royal Oman Ministry Of Interior Lieutenant Conscript
Police General
Pakistan Pakistan Ministry Of Interior Inspector Constable
Police Force General
Philippines Philippine Department of Director Police

158
 National Interior and local General Officer 1
Police Government(DILG)
Qatar Qatar Ministry of Interior Unavailable Shurti
National
Police
Russia Militsiya Ministry of Internal Police Colonel Police Cadet
Affairs
Saudi Arabia Department Unavailable Unavailable Unavailable
of Security
Singapore Singapore Ministry of Internal Commissioner Police
Police Force Affairs of Police Constable
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka Defense Ministry Inspector Police
Police Service General police Constable
Syria Syria Public Ministry of Interior Director Police
Security General Private
Police
Republic of National Ministry of interior Police Police Rank
china(taiwan) police agency supervisor 4
general
Thailand Royal Thai Ministry of Interior Police General Constable
Police Force
Turkey Turkish Ministry of Internal Director Police
Police(General Affairs General Officer
Directorate of
Security
Turkmenista Turkmenistan Ministry of State Unavailable Unavailable
n National Security
Police Force
Dubai(UAE National Ministry of General Unavailable
Police Forces Interior(VP Pres., Commander
and Prime minister
of UAE)
Uzbekistan Uzbekistan Ministry of Interior Director Constable
Police Force General
(Militia)
Vietnam People’s Ministry of Public General Unavailable
Police of Security
Vietnam
Yemen Yemen Ministry of Interior Unavailable Unavailable
National
Police Force

Annex B
Police rank
This chapter contains and presents the list of police ranks from highest to lowest. This
was included to gain appreciation on the structures of police ranks in various countries. To view
the complete list please refer to
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Police_rank
Australia Belgium

Commissioned Ranks Highest commissioned rank

Deputy Commissioner Hoofdcommissaris/
Assistant Commissioner commisaire
Commander Dividionaire(chief

159
Superintendent Commissioner)
Inspector Commissioned rank
Senior non-commissioned Commissaris/Commisaire
ranks (Commissioner)
Senior Sergeant Senior non-commissioned
Sergeant rank
Non-Commissioned Ranks Hoofdinspecteur/Inspecteur
Senior Constable Principal (Chief
Probationary Constable Inspector/Superintendent)
Recruit Non commissioned rank
Each state has their own Inspecteur/Inspecteur
distinct (Inspector,equivalent to
Rank structure Constable of Officer)
Auxiliary rank
Agent van Police/ Agent de
Police
(Auxiliary Officer)
Brazil Canada

Coronel(colonel) Ranks of the Royal

Tenente0coronel(lieutenant- Canadian
colonel) Mounted Police
Major(najor) Commissioner
Capitão(captain) Deputy Commissioner
1⁰ tenente (1st lieutenant) Assistant Commissioner
2⁰ tenente (2nd lieutenant) Chief Superintendent
Aspirante-a- Superintendent
oficial(cadet,student rank) Inspector
Corps Sergeant Major

Subtente(under-lietenant) Sergeant Major

1⁰ sargento (1st sergeant)
2⁰ sargento (2nd sergeant)
3⁰sargento (3rd sergeant)
Cabo (corporal)
Soldado de 1⁰ classe (1st class
soldier)
Soldado de 2⁰ classe (2nd class
soldier, student rank)
Staff Sergeant Major
Staff Sergeant
Sergeant
Corporal
Police Constable 1st class
(Gendarme)
Police Constable 2nd class
(Gendarme)
Police Constable 3rd class
(Gendarme)
Police Constable 4th class
(Gendarme)
Cadet
Police Ranks for
Provincial(With the exception
of the Sûreté du Québec and
Alberta Sheriffs) and the
majority of Municipal Police
Services are disrinct from one
another

Chile China

POLICIA DE Commissioner General

INVESTIGACIONES DE CHILE Deputy Commissioner General
(PDI) Commissioner 1st class
Director General Commissioner 3rd class
Prefecto General Supervisor 1st class

160
Prefecto Inspector Supervisor 2nd class
Prefecto Supervisor 3rd class
Subprefecto Superintendent 1st class
Comisario Superintendent 2nd class
Subcomisario Superintendent 3rd class
Inspector Constable 1st class
Subinspector Constable 2nd class
Detective
CARAVINEROS DE CHILE Hongkong
General Director
General Inspector Commissioner(CP)
General Deputy Commissioner(DCP)
Coronel Senior Assistant
Teniente Coronel Commissioner[SACP]
Mayor Assistant Commissioner[ACP
Capitan
Teniente Chief Superintendent of Police
Subteniente Senior Superintendent of
Sub-Oficiales Police
Suboficial Mayor [SSP]
Suboficial Superintendent of Police [SP]
Sargento 1⁰ Chief Inspector of Police [CIP]
Sargento 2⁰ Senior Inspector of Police
Cabo 1⁰ [SIP]
Cabo 2⁰ Inspector of Police [IP]
Carabinero Probationary Inspector of
Police [PI]
Station Sergeant [SSGT]
Sergeant [SGT]
Senior Police Constable [SPC]
Constable [PC]

France Iceland

CORPS DE CONCEPTION ET 1.National Commissioner

DE DIRECTION
Services Director
Inspector General
Controller General
Divisional Commissioner
Commissioner
CORPS DE COMMANDEMENT
Major(Commandant de Police)
Captain
CORPS D’ENCADREMENT ET
D’APPLICATION
Major
Brigadier-chef de Police
Brigadier de Police
Sous-Brigadier de Police
Peace Guard
First year Peace Guard
Studying Peace Guard
EMPLOI JEUNE
Adjoint de Sécurité
2.Vice National Commissioner,
Police
Chief, Headmaster of the
National Police School
3.Vice Police Chief of
Reykjavik,Deputy Police Chief
4.Chief Constable
5.Vice Chief Constable
6.Chief Sergeant,Assistance
Chief Constable
7.Sergeant, Inquisitor
8.Policeman
9.Police Intern, Temporary
Replacement Officer, District
Police Officer

161
India
Ranks of Gazetted Officers
Director of Intelligence
Bureau
Additional Commissioner of
Police or Deputy Inspector
General of Police
Joint Commissioner of Police
or Inspector General of Police
Commissioner of Police
Special Commissioner of
Police
Deputy Commissioner of
Police
Deputy Commissioner of
Police
Additional Deputy
Commssioner of Police
Assistant Commissioner of
Police
Assistant Superintendent of
Police
Assistant Superintendent of
Police
Ranks of Non-Gazetted
Officers
Inspector of Police
Sub-Inspector of Police
Assistant sub-Inspector of
Police
Police Head Constable
Senior Police Constable
Police Constable
Iraq
Chief of Police
Chief Superintendent
Superintendent
Chief Inspector
Inspector
Captain
Lieutenant
Sergeant
Patrolman
Japan
1.Commissioner General
2.Superintendent General
3.Superintendent
Supervisor (Keishi-kan)
4.Deputy Superintendent
General
Indonesia
Police Commissioner General
Police Inspector General
Police Brigadier General
Mid rank officers
Police Great Commissioner
Police Great Commissioner
Adjutant
Police Commissioner
Low rank officers
Police Commissioner Adjutant
First Police Inspector
Second Police Inspector
Warrant Officers
First Police Inspector Adjutant
Second Police Inspector
Adjutant
Non-commissioned officers
Chief Police Brigadier
Police Brigadier
First Police Brigadier
Second Police Brigadier
Enlisted
Police Brigadier Adjutant
First Police Brigadier Adjutant
Second Police Brigadier
Adjutant
Chief Bhayangkara
First Bhayangkara
Second Bhayangkara
Ireland
Commissioner
Deputy Commissioner
Assistant Commissioner
Chief Superintendent
Superintendent
Inspector
Sergeant
Garda
Student Garda
Reserve Garda
South Korea
Commissioner General
Chief Superintendent General
Senior Superintendent General
Superintendent General
Senior Superintendent
Superintendent
162
The Chief of Regional Police Senior Inspector
Bureau, The Chief of Inspector
Prefectural Police Assistant Inspector
Headquarters, others, 38 Senior Police Officer
capacity Police Officer
5. Chief Superintendent
(Keishi-cho) Latvia
: The Chief of Prefectural Lowest to highest
Police Headquarters. Ierindnieks/Private
6.Senior Superintendent Kursants
(Keishi-sei) : Kapralis/Corporal
The Chief of Police Station. Serzants/Sergeant
7.Superintendent (Keishi) : Virsserzants/First sergeant
The Chief of Police Station Virsnieka vietniks/Warrant
8.Police Inspector or Captain Officer
(Keib) Leitnant/Lieutenant
9. Assistant Police Virsleitnant/First Lieutenant
Inspector or LIeutenat Kapteins/ Captain
(Keibu-ho) Majors/Major
10. Police Sergeant (Junsa- Pilkvezleitnants/Lieutenant
bucho) Colonel
11.Senior Police Pulkvedis/Colonel
Officer or Corporal (Junsa- Generalis/ police General
cho)
Honorary rank.
12.Police Officer, old
Patrolman (Junsa)
Lithuania Macau
Superintendent General
A class officers Superintendent
Intendent
Commissioner Sub-Intendent
Senior Commissioner Commissioner
The Chief Commissioner Sub-Commissioner
Commissioner General Chief
Sub-Chief
B Class officers 1st Class Guard
Inspector 2nd Class Guard
The chief Inspector Guard
Commissioner Inspector
C class officers
Junior police Officer
Police Officer
Senior police officer
Sergeant

Malaysia Netherlands

Inspector General Grade Chief Constable

Inspector General of (Hoofdcommissaris)
police[IGP] Commissioner (commissaris)
Deputy Inspector General of Superintendent
Police [DIG] (Hoofdinspecteur)
Commissioner of Police [CP] Inspector(inspecteur)
Deputy Commissioner of Sergeant (Brigadier)
Police [DCP] Constable First Class
Senior Assistant (Hoofdagent)
Commissioner of Constable (Agent)
Police I[SAC I] Police Patrol Oficer (Surveillant)

163
Senior Assistant Police Trainee (Aspirant)
Commissioner of
Police II [SAC II]
Assistant Commissioner of
Police [ACP]

Superintendent Grade
Superintendent of Police
[SUPT]
Deputy Superintendent of
Police [DSP]
Assistant Superintendent of
Police [ASP]
Inspector Grade
Chief Inspector [C/INSP]
Inspector [INSP]
Probationary Inspector
[P/INSP]
Enlisted Grade
Sub-Inspector [S/INSP]
Sergeant Major [SM]
Sergeant [SGT]
Corporal [CPL]
Lance Corporal [L/CPL]
constable

Philippines Singapore

Commissioned officers Senior police officers

Director General (DGen.) –
General
Deputy Director General
(DDG)-
Lieutenant General
Director (Dir.) – Major
General
Chief Superintendent
(C/Supt.)-
Brigadier General
Senior Superintendent
(S/Supt.)-
Colonel
Superintendent (Supt.) –
Lieutenant
Colonel
Chief Inspector (C/Insp.) –
Major
Senior Inspector (S/Insp.) –
Captain
Inspector (Insp.) – Lieutenant
Note : Rank in Italics is the
army equivalent. There is no
Second Lieutenant rank-
equivalent in the PNP.
Non-commissioned officers
Senior Police Officer IV
(SP04)
Senior Master Sergeant /
Commissioner of Police (CP)
Police [DCP]
Senior Assistant Commissioner
[SAC]
Assistant Commissioner [AC]
Deputy Assistant
Commissioner [DAC]
Superintendent of Police
[SUPT]
Deputy Superintendent of
Police [DSP]
Assistant Superintendent of
Police [ASP]
Inspector of Police [INSP]
Police Officers
Senior Station Inspector (2) of
Police
[SSI2]
Senior Station Inspector of
Police
[SSI]
Station Inspector of Police [SI]
Senior Staff Sergeant [SSSGT]
Staff Sergeant [SSGT]
Sergeant [SGT]
Corporal [CPL]
Lance Corporal [LC] : Gurkha
rank
Special constable [SC] : non
regulars.

164
Chief Master Sergeant
Senior Police Officer
III(SP03)-
Master Sergeant
Senior Police Officer II (SP02)
–
Technical Sergeant
Senior Police Officer I (SP01)
-
Staff Sergeant
Police Officer III (P03) –
Sergeant
Police Officer II (P02) –
Corporal
Police Officer I (PO1) –
Private First Class
Sri Lanka
Gazetted Officers
Inspector General of Police
(IGP)
Senior Deputy inspector
General of Police (SDIG)
Deputy Inspector General of
Police (DIG)
Senior Superintendent of
Police
(SSP)
Superintendent of Police (SP)
Assistant Superintendent of
Police
(ASP)
Chief Inspector of Police (CIP)
Inspector of PoLice (IP)
Sub Inspector of Police (SI)
Non-gazetted Officers
Police Sergeant Major (PSM)
Police Sergeant Class 1 (PS)
Police Sergeant Class 2 (PS)
Police Sergeant Class 1 (PC)
Police Sergeant Class 2 (PC)
Police Sergeant Class 3 (PC)
Police Sergeant Class 4 (PC)
Taiwan (The Republic of
China)
National Police Agency
(Republic of China)
Police Constable [PC]:
Spain
Cuerpo Nacional de Policia
Chief
Superintendent (Comisario)
Chief Inspector (Inspector Jefe)
Inspector
Sergeant (Sub-inspector)
Corporal (Official)
Constable (Agente)
Guardia Civil – Civil Guard
Lieutenant General (Teniente
General)
Division General (General De
Division)
Brigade General (General de
Brigada)
Colonel (Coronel)
Lieutenant Colonel (Teniente
Coronel)
Major (Comandante)
Captain (Capitan)
Lieutenant (Teniente)
Second Lieutenant (Alferez)
Senior Warrant Officer
(Suboficial Mayor)
Junior Warrant Officer
(Subteiente)
Sergeant First Class(Brigada)
Staff Sergeant (Sargento
Primero)
Sergeant (Sargento)
Master Corporal (Cabo Mayor)
Corporal (Cabo Primero)
Lance Corporal (Cabo)
Constable first class (Agente
de 1 @)
Constable (Agente)
Thailand
Royal Thai Police
Commissioned officers
165
 Police General (phon tamruat
Police Supervisor General ek)
Police Supervisor Rank One Police Lieutenant General (phon
Police Supervisor Rank Two tamruat tho)
Police Supervisor Rank Three Police Major General(phon
Police Supervisor Rank Four tamurat tri)
Police Officer Rank One Police Brigadier General (not in
Police Officer Rank two use now ) (phon tamruat
Police Officer Rank Three jattawa)
Police Officer Rank Four Police Senior Colonel (phan
Police Rank One tamruat ek phiset)
Police Rank Two Police Colonel(phan tamruat
Police Rank Three ek)
Police Rank four Police Lieutenant colonel (phan
tamruat ek)
Police Major(phan tamruat tri)
Police captain (roi tamruat ek)
Police Lieutenant (roi tamruat
tho)
Police Sub-Lieutenant (roi
tamruat tri)
Non-commissioned officers
Police Senior Sergeant Major
(dap tamruat)
Police Sergeant Major (ja sip
tamruat)
Police Sergeant (sip tamruat
ek)
Police Corporal (sip tamruat
tho)
Police Lance Corporal (sip
tamruat tri)
Policeman/Constable (phon
tamruat)
Turkey United Kingdom

Turkish Police Police Ranks of the United

Director General (Emniyet
Genel Muduru)
1st Degree Police Chief (1.Sinif
Emniyet Muduru)
2nd Degree Police Chief
(2.Sinif Emniyet Muduru)
3rd Degree Police Chief (3.
Sinif Emniyet Muduru)
4th Degree Police Chief (4.
Sinif Emniyet Muduru)
Superintendent (Emniyet
Amiri)
Chief Inspector (Baskomiser)
Inspector (Komiser)
Sub-Inspector (Komiser
Yardimcisi)
Police Officer (Turkish: Polis
Memuru)
Kingdom
For Territorial Police
(Detective/Uniformed)
Constable
(Detective/Uniformed) Sergeant
(Detective/Uniformed)
Inspector
(Detective/Uniformed) Chief
Inspector
(Detective/Uniformed)
Superintendent
(Detective/Uniformed) Chief
Superintendent
Assistant Chief Constable
Deputy Chief Constable
Chief Constable
Ranks up to Chief
Superintendent
Can be held in either a
uniformed or detective
capacity, whereas after that the
“Chief Officer” ranks are

166
 concerned with the overall
management and effective
running of the force.
Within London’s Metropolitan
Police
Service the ranks are identical
to those outside London, until
Chief Superintendent. In
London, the chief officer ranks
are :
Commander
Deputy Assistant Commissioner
Assistant Commissioner
Deputy Commissioner
Commissioner
The Special Constabulary,
which is made up of volunteer
police officers, maintains its
own ranking structure (varies,
but most common) :
Chief Officer
Assistant Chief Inspector
Special Chief Inspector
District Officer (Similar in role
to an District Officer (Similar in
role to an Inspector)
Section Officer (Similar in role
to a Sergeant)
Doctor Special Constable
The Special Constabulary in
Scottish police forces does not
maintain any rank structure and
all members of the Special
Constabulary are Special
Constables regardless of length
of service/experience,etc.
Special Constables are always
subordinate to regular
Constables.
Traffic wardens and Police
Community Support Officers do
not have a rank structure.
Vietnam

Đąi tuÓng Công an- Police

General
Thuóng tuong Công an- Police
Senior Lieutenant General
Trung tuong Cong an – Police
Lieutenant General
Thieu tuong cong an – Police
Major
General
Middle Rank
Dai ta Cong an- Police Colonel
Thuong ta Cong an- Police
Lieutenant Colonel
Thieu ta Cong an – Police
Major

167
Low Rank
Dai uy Cong an – Police
Captain
Thuong uy Cong an- Police
Senior Lieutenant
Trung uy Cong an- Police
Lieutenant
Thieu uy Cong an- Police Sub-
Lieutenant

Annex C
Summarizes the different types of police of various countries

Afghanistan
1. Afghan Border Police ABP
2. Afghan National Civil Order Police (ANCOP)
3. Afghan National Police – ANP
4. Afghan Special Narcotics Force (ASNF)
5. Counter Narcotics Police of Afghanistan (CNPA)
6. Khadamat-e Etela’at-e Dawlati
7. National Directorate of Security (NDS)
8. Ring of Steel
9. The Sarandoy
10. Vice and Virtue Ministry

Australia
2 Major Types of Police in Australia
1. Australian Federal Police (AFP) is responsible for the investigation
Of crimes against Commonwealth law which occurs throughout the nation. The AFP also
has responsibility for a community policing role(similar to the state police) in
Commonwealth territories such as the Australian Capital Territory.
2. Various State Police
The state police forces are responsible for enforcing state law within their own states
(including cities within the states)

China

1. Public Security Police. It makes up of 86% of all police personnel in China. It provides not
only basic uniformed patrol but also twelve other specialized functions including criminal
investigations, fire control, border patrol, and monitoring of all modes of transportation.
2. State Security Police. Established in 1983, it is responsible for preventing espionage,
sabotage, and conspiracies.
3. Prison Police. It is responsible for supervision of convicted offenders
In prison
4. Judicial Procuratorates Police. They escort suspects in cases investigated by the
procuratorates (prosecutors in Phil’s.)
5. Judicial People’s Court Police. They maintain security and order in the various courts and
also may carryout death sentence.

Japan
1. Koban
2. Chuzaisho
3. Kidotai
4. Kempetai
5. Prefectural

Germany
1. Bundespolizie/Federal police

168
 2. Landespolizie/State Police
2.1 Schutzpolizei. This is the equivalent of municipal police particularly patrol officers in the
Philippines, they are the first to arrive at the scene of most crimes and handle all
general aspects of law enforcement and simple investigations.
2.2 kriminalpolizie. This is also called kripo. They are plainclothes police who handle serious
crime investigations and situations that require developing case against the suspect.
2.3 Bereitschaftspolizei. These are officers- in training living in barracks, but theyserve as
civil police when the situation arises

3. Kommune/local
The Verkehrspolizei (traffic police) was the traffic-law enforcement agency and road safety
administration of Germany.
The Wasserschutzpolizei (“water protection” police) was the coast guard of the Third Reich.
Tasked with the safety and security of Germany’s rivers, harbors, and inland waterways.

The Bahnschutzpolizei (railway police) was made up of part-time police officers who were
also employees of the Reichsbahn (state railway). The Bahnschutzpolizei was tasked with
railway safety and also preventing espionage and sabotage of railway property.
Postal Police (Postschutz) was tasked with security at Germany’s post offices and ensuring the
security of other communications media such as telephone and telegraphlines.
The Feuerschutzpolizei (fire protection police) thus consisted of all professional fire
departments under a national command structure.
The Orpo Hauptamt also had authority over the Freiwillige Feuerwehren, the local volunteer
civilian fire brigades.
The Security and Assistance Service (Sicherheits and Hilfsdienst or SHD) was created in 1935 as
air protection police. It was the civil protection service in charge of air raid defence and rescue
victims of bombings in connection with the Technische Nothlife (Technical Emergency Service)
and the Feuerschutzpolizei (Fire Brigades).

United Kingdom
1. Territorial police forces
2. Special police forces
3. Non-police law enforcement agencies
4. Miscellaneous police forces
USA
1. Federal
2. State Police, State Patrol of Highway Patrol
3. Country Police
4. Sheriff’s departments
5. Municipal
6. Special district police

169
170
171