Describe the process of urine formation in our body.

Answer to the Question No-1

Urea and uric acid in blood mingle to the water of plasma to form urine. The blood transport
urine to the kidneys where it eliminated from the blood through filtration process. Urine
formation takes place by the following three basic mechanism of the nephron:

a) Glomerular filtration.
b) Tubular reabsorption.
c) Tubular secretion.

Glomerular filtration: Glomerular filtration is the transfer of fluid and water solutes from the
blood of glomerular capillaries along a pressure gradient into Bowman’s capsule. This is the first
step to formation of urine. As the diameter of efferent arteriole is narrower than the afferent
arteriole, there is a high hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capillaries. The glomerular
hydrostatic pressure is the driving force to move the fluid out of the glomerulus. This filtration
under pressure is called glomerular filtration. Through two human kidneys about 1200cc of
blood flows per minute. By ultrafiltration about 125cc glomerulus filtrate deposited in the renal
capsule.

Tubular reabsorption: The glomerular filtrate contains both useful and harmful substances. The
useful substances like water, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, salts, ions etc. from the
filtrate back into the blood of the peritubular capillaries. The cells of the wall of renal tubule of
the nephron have some adaptation for reabsorption as a) large surface area due to microvilli and
basal channels on one side, b) cytoplasm having numerous mitochondria and c) closeness to the
peritubular capillaries. More than 80% of glomerulus filtrate selectively reabsorbed when it
passes through the renal tubule, such as- small proteins amino acids, glucose are reabsorbed in
the PCT by passive diffusion and facilitated diffusion or active transport.

Tubular secretion: The blood flowing through the efferent vessels also contains unwanted
substances, which are not clear by filtration. The efferent vessels flow through the DCT, and
these unwanted substances in the blood are secreted into the of DCT by the process is called
tubular secretion. These unwanted substances include drugs, histamine, uric acids which are
secreted by passive diffusion and facilitated diffusion or active transport.
Describe the mechanisms of blood pressure regulation in our body.

Answer to the Question No:2

There are basic mechanism for regulating blood pressure. Regulation of the circulatory system to
maintain a constant arterial pressure is critical in ensuring adequate perfusion to meet metabolic
requirements of tissue. So, the mechanism of blood pressure are:

Baroreceptor feedback mechanism: Baroreceptor are characteristic mechanoreceptor type of

sensory neurons which are activated by a stretch of the blood vessel. An increase in pressure
causes the receptors located at aortic arch and carotid sinuses to stretch, increasing frequency of
action potentials. They send action potentials to vasomotor centers to the solitary nucleus in the
medulla, which via autonomic reflex influence the cardiac output and total peripheral resistance.
Baroreceptor exhibit baro reflex activity whenever there is change in the mean arterial blood
pressure, bringing the blood pressure toward a normal level. Baroreceptor are more sensitive to
decrease in pressure and sudden changes in pressure.

Chemoreceptor feedback mechanism: Chemoreceptor are receptors located in carotid and

aortic bodies. They are simulated by chemical changes in blood mainly hypoxia, hypercapnia,
and pH changes. Chemoreceptors excite the vasomotor center, which elevates the arterial
pressure. When carbon dioxide increases above 40mm Hg or pH decreases below 7.4
chemoreceptor are simulated. They send the sjgnal to the respiratory center and respiratory
activity increases in response to the chemoreceptor reflex. The increased sympathetic activity
simulates both the heart and vasculature to increase arterial pressure also.

Renin angiotensin aldosterone mechanism: This system is generally known as a long term
regulator of arterial pressure. Kidney compensates for loss in blood volume or decreased blood
pressure by activating an endogenous vasoconstrictor angiotensin. The kidneys control the level
of water and sodium chloride in the body, thus controlling the volume of the extracellular fluid
and blood. By controlling blood volume, the kidneys control arterial pressure. Any blood flow of
renal blood flow and/ or Na+, will simulates volume receptors found in jaxtaglomerular apparatus
of kidneys to secrete renin which will act on the angiotensin system leading to production of
angiotensin 1, angiotensin 2 and angiotensin 3. Angiotensin 2 is a vasoconstrictor which will
increase blood flow to the heart and subsequently the preload, ultimately increasing the cardiac
output. Angiotensin 2 also causes an increase in the release of aldosterone from the adrenal
glands and further increases the Na+, and H2O reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubules in the
kidney.

When valves of heart open and close? Explain the mechanism.

Answer to the Question No: 3

The rhythmic contraction and relaxation of heart is called heartbeat. The four heart valves open
and close in response to pressure changes that occur in the ventricles during each cardiac cycle.
When the body is at rest, the heartbeat approximately 72-75 times per minutes, and each cardiac
cycle lasts for about 0.8 seconds. This cycle is completed by following four stages:

a) Open tricuspid and mitral valves: Blood flows from the right atrium into the right
ventricle through the open tricuspid valve, and from the left atrium into the left ventricle
through the open mitral valve.
b) Closed tricuspid and mitral valves: When the right ventricle is full, the tricuspid valve
closes and keeps blood from following backward into the right atrium when the ventricle
contracts. When the left ventricle is full, the mitral valve closes and keeps blood from
following backward into the left atrium when the ventricle contracts.
c) Open pulmonic and aortic valve: As the right ventricles begin to contract, the pulmonic
valve is forced open. Blood is pumped out of the right ventricle through the pulmonic
valve into the pulmonary artery to lungs. As the left ventricle begin to contract, the aortic
valve is forced open. Blood is pumped out of the left ventricle through the aortic valve
into the aorta. The aorta branches into many arteries and provides blood to the body.
d) Closed pulmonic and aortic valves: When the right ventricle finishes contracting and
starts to relax, the pulmonic snaps shut. This keeps blood from flowing back into the right
ventricles. When the left ventricle finishes contracting and begins to relax. The aortic
valve snaps shut. This keeps blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.

This pattern is repeated, causing blood to flow continuously to the heart, lungs, and body.