CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Worldwide, natural plant oils are increasingly becoming important in cosmetics, nutrition and

commerce because they are sources of dietary energy, antioxidants, biofuels and raw material

for the manufacture of industrial products.

Plant oils such as shear butter and palm kernel oil have long been used on the skin for

cosmetic and medical purposes because they have been found to have many positive

physiological benefits. For example, the application of shea butter and palm kernel oil may

act as a protective barrier to the skin by an occlusive effect, allowing the skin to retain

moisture, resulting in decreased Transepidermal Water Loss (TEWL) values.

Shea butter is a natural creamy-coloured fatty product made from the nut products of Shea

tree (Butyrospermum parkii or "butter seed") and has a large number of applications. The

Shea tree grows normally in the wild Savannah belt over 20 nations across West Africa

(Addaquaye, 2004). Shea butter is extracted from the kernels of the sheu tree (Vitellaria

paradoxa). Shea butter is composed of triglycerides with oleic, stearic, linoleic, and palmitic

fatty acids, as well as unsaponifiable compounds (Maranz et al., 2014). Shea butter is

frequently used in the cosmetic industry due to its high percentage of the unsaponifiable

fraction (e.g., triterpenes, tocopherol, phenols, and sterols), which possesses potent anti-

inflammatory and antioxidant properties (Maranz and Wiesman, 2014). In the study of

lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophage cells, shea butter exhibited anti-inflammatory

effects through inhibition of iNOS, COX-2, and cytokines via the NF-κB pathway (Verma et

al., 2012). Additional research on AD has shown that the cream containing shea butter extract

had the same efficacy as ceramide-precursor product (Hon et al., 2015).

Palm kernel oil is obtained from palm kernel seeds and grows widely in certain locations

such as Niger Delta and South Eastern parts of Nigeria (Warra, 2011). The palm kernel oil is

extracted from the walnut which has a hard hill or shell called kernel. It is also called lauric

oil because it has high content of lauric acid (William and Odom, 2015) the extraction of

palm kernel oil is made by various techniques and the obtained oil is used in the food

domain as well as non-domains. In the food domain, it is used in the preparation of certain

traditional dishes and enter also in the constitution of food fats. In the non-food domain, its

higher proportion of lauric acid gives to the oil an important characteristics used in the

industries of beauty care and soap factory. This property also characterizes, its use in

traditional pharmacopoeia (Warra, 2011). The acceptability of the products at world edible oil

market depends on its ability to satisfy basic standard tests for fats and oil (Yonas, 2014).

1.2 Statement of the Problem

There has been much recent interest

in the beneficial
properties of dietary omega n-3
PUFA [5]. There is
strong evidence that such compounds
can be of benefit
for good health, particularly with
regard to cardiovascu-
lar disease, brain development and
function, arthritis
and various other chronic
inflammatory diseases [6].
Recently, there has been progress in
elucidating the
mechanisms by which n-3 PUFA
exert this effect at the
molecular level [7–9] where they
reduce the metabolism
of n-6 fatty acids to pro-
inflammatory mediators, produce
competing non- or anti-inflammatory
metabolites as well
as reduce the expression of pro-
inflammatory cytokines
and enzymes [6].
There has been much recent interest
in the beneficial
properties of dietary omega n-3
PUFA [5]. There is
strong evidence that such compounds
can be of benefit
for good health, particularly with
regard to cardiovascu-
lar disease, brain development and
function, arthritis
and various other chronic
inflammatory diseases [6].
Recently, there has been progress in
elucidating the
mechanisms by which n-3 PUFA
exert this effect at the
molecular level [7–9] where they
reduce the metabolism
of n-6 fatty acids to pro-
inflammatory mediators, produce
competing non- or anti-inflammatory
metabolites as well
as reduce the expression of pro-
inflammatory cytokines
and enzymes [6].
There has been much recent interest
in the beneficial
properties of dietary omega n-3
PUFA [5]. There is
strong evidence that such compounds
can be of benefit
for good health, particularly with
regard to cardiovascu-
lar disease, brain development and
function, arthritis
and various other chronic
inflammatory diseases [6].
Recently, there has been progress in
elucidating the
mechanisms by which n-3 PUFA
exert this effect at the
molecular level [7–9] where they
reduce the metabolism
of n-6 fatty acids to pro-
inflammatory mediators, produce
competing non- or anti-inflammatory
metabolites as well
as reduce the expression of pro-
inflammatory cytokines
and enzymes [6].
There has been much recent interest in the beneficial properties of shea butter and palm

kernel oil (Lands, 2015). There is strong evidence that some compounds inherent in these oils

can be of benefit for good health, particularly with regard to cardiovascular disease, brain

development and function, arthritis and various other chronic inflammatory diseases

(Harwood and Caterson, 2016). Recently, there has been progress in elucidating the

mechanisms by which these oils exert this effect at the molecular level (Bordoni et al., 2017),

where they reduce the metabolism of n-6 fatty acids to pro-inflammatory mediators, produce

competing non- or anti-inflammatory metabolites as well as reduce the expression of pro-

inflammatory cytokines and enzymes (Harwood and Caterson, 2016). The current study seeks

to proffer solutions to the increasing interest on this field by conducting an evaluation of the

quality and characteristics of shea butter and palm kernel oil.

1.3 Objectives of the Study
The main objective of this study is to evaluate the quality characteristics of shea butter and

palm kernel oil.

The specific objectives are;

i. To determine the medicinal value and health benefits of shea butter and palm

kernel oil.

ii. To determine the fatty acid present in shea butter and palm kernel oil.

iii. To assess the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of fatty acids present

in shear butter and palm kernel oil.

1.4 Significance of the Study

i. The findings from this study would reveal some usefulness of shea butter and palm

kernel oil as great emollient and moisturizer.

ii. The study would encourage the use of locally produced shea butter and palm kernel

oil as a better substitute to other imported moisturizers and emollients.

iii. The findings from the study can also serve as a resourceful reference material for

students, lecturers and researchers in the field of food technology, health,

cosmetology and other related disciplines.

 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview of Shea Butter

2.1.1 The Botany of shea trees

Gaertner Karl (1807), who was a German botanist first named the Shea tree as Vitellaria

paradoxa and it belongs to the Sapotaceae family (Caroline et al., 2009). In 1961, it was

relabeled as Butyrospermum parkii (Maranz et al., 2003), with the “parkii” making reference

to Mungo Park (1771-1805), “who was the truly amazing Scottish traveler presenting Shea

butter to Europe” (Goreja, 2004). Some journals use Butyrospermum parkii, while many

others use V. paradoxa which is the currently approved name for the African Shea trees. The

Western Africa trees could be the subspecies “paradoxa” and the Eastern Africa one as

“nilotica” (Mbaiguinam et al., 2007).

Masters et al. (2004), reported Shea trees growing across a 5000 km wide belt of savanna

such as from Senegal (West) to Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda (East) and across the African

Region. The Shea tree develops normally in the dry Savannah belt and semi-arid areas

(Masters et al., 2004). The 19 countries in which Shea is found across the continent of Africa

are Benin, Ghana, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Chad, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central

African Republic, Ethiopia, Guinea Bissau, Cote D’Iviore, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo,

Uganda, Democratic Republic of Congo and Guinea (CRIG, 2002).

This savanna belt is generally known as “Shea belt” among investors (Ferris et al., 2001).

The Shea tree usually develops to a normal size of about 15 m (height) with excessive

branches and a dense wax-like and greatly fissured bark that makes it fire resistant. The West

African Sub-Region where majority of Shea plants are found and where Shea products can be
found are shown in Figure 2.1. Amongst these nations, Ghana and Burkina Faso are

considered the main Shea nut exporters (Walter et al., 2003).

Figure 2.1: Cross-cutting Shea producing countries in Africa ranging from Senegal

across to Sudan and Ethiopia.

Source: Lovett (2004), WATH Technical Report No. 2.

The map zeros-in on the West Africa Sub-Region where the bulk of shea trees occur

and where Shea products can be found. The high shea production countries are Ghana,

Nigeria, Mali, Togo., Burkina Faso, Benin and, Cote d’Ivoire. Northern Ghana is

singled out as being one of the main sources of high quality Shea.
 Plate 2.1: Shea tree Plate 2.2: Ripe Shea fruits

Plate 2.3: Fresh Shea nuts Plate 2.4: Dry Shea Nuts

2.1.2 Benefits of the Shea Industry: The uses of Shea and Shea products.

According to Paulsen (1981), the value of Shea tree follows the value of palm oil in Africa.

The Shea tree is the second most important oil plant and as it develops in areas unsuitable for

palm tree growth, it takes on primary importance in West Africa. In the early Nineteen

seventies, the value of the Shea to the economic system of Ghana increased extremely when

it was stated that, “it was one of only six plant varieties whose vegetable fat can be used in
the production of Cocoa Butter Equivalents (CBEs), in candy as well as being a valued

component in the drug and beauty products industries” (OJEC, 2000).

2.1.2.1 Traditional use of Shea butter and Shea tree parts.

The Shea butter together with the oil palm represents significant resources of edible oil for

many houses in many areas of the Sahel Africa (Ndukwe et al., 2007; Chaffin, 2004).

Typically unprocessed prepared Shea butter is purchased from “loaves” in market places and

in cases where the Shea butter are prepared properly and wrapped in leaves, they are resistant

to oxidative rancidity and can be kept for years if not exposed to heat and air (Chaffin, 2004).

The Shea butter is also used as raw material for the manufacture of margarine, detergent and

candlestick (Russo and Etherington, 2001).

Different enteric attacks such as dysentery, diarrhoea, helminthes and other digestive system

attacks, skin illnesses and injury attacks may perhaps be treatable by different parts of the

Shea tree such as leaves, roots, seeds, and others (Soladoye et al., 1989). Local healers use

Shea butter as a treatment for rheumatism, swelling of the nose, nose blockage, leprosy,

coughing, and minimal bone tissue dislocation (Tella, 1979; Badifu, 1989; Goreja, 2004;

Olaniyan and Oje, 2007). When Shea butters are produced and are of low quality, they are

smeared on earthen surfaces of homes which provides as water resistant to secure surfaces

during rain (Fluery, 1981). After circumcision of new born male child, treatment can be

multiplied using Shea butter and it can also be used to prevent stretch-marks in African

expectant mothers and as a bug resilient, offering protection against Simulium disease

(Goreja, 2004).
2.1.2.2 Use of Shea butter in the international market.

Shea butter enjoys its use as an element of aesthetic remedies (Akihisa et al.,

2010) and as an alternative for cocoa butter in chocolate sectors (Ogbonnaya and Adgidizi,

2008) although distinction in flavour has been noticed (Fold, 2000). In the chocolate market,

Shea butter is enhanced and deodorized to be used usually as Cocoa Butter Equivalents

(CBEs) since 1960s with its likeness in actual qualities to a more costly cocoa butter

(Alander, 2004). CBEs are plant fat which have identical and substance qualities to cocoa

butter containing no lauric acidity, and are mixable with cocoa butter in every amount

without changing the qualities of cocoa butter (Hee et al., 2013). Under the European Union

Chocolate Directive (EUCD), a 5% non-cocoa is permitted in the produce of chocolate.

However, in the U.S, products that contain CBEs are not permitted to be called “chocolate”

(Lovett, 2004).

The drug market has taken advantage of the effectiveness of Shea butter as it is used as an

element in the treatment of inflammatory related illnesses due to its antiinflammatory action

(Masters et al., 2004). It has also been used to create solution to herpes lesions, joint disease,

acne, and to reduce blood cholesterol stages by a drug company, BSP Pharmaceutical

(Masters et al., 2004). High stages of unsponifiable matters have been revealed in Shea butter

as in comparison to other vegetable fats and oils (Alander, 2004). This results in more

possibilities to create Shea butter products showcasing “Shea butters’ therapeutic qualities

such as anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and other supposed activities” (Maranz et al., 2004).
2.2 Physical Properties of Shea Butter

2.2.1 Moisture Content

According to Olaniyan and Oje (2007), moisture content decreases as heat temperature rises.

Moisture content of oil must be low, this is because oil with great moisture content are

inclined to recontamination or rancidity. The reported moisture contents of Shea butter vary

from 0.1% (Olaniyan and Oje, 2007) to 66 4.9% (Honfo et al., 2013).

2.2.2 Melting Point

This is the point at which Shea butter exist as oil. According to Alander and Andersson

(2002), Shea butter melts at approximately 3 oC – 35 oC depending on the variety and quality

of the nut from which the oil was extracted. Melting point 38.0 oC – 39.5 oC was observed as

reported by Adomako (1985).

2.2.3 Viscosity

According to Olaniyan and Oje (2007), Shea butter has an optimum viscosity of about 100

centipoise (cP) when the heating temperature is 70 oC – 90 oC.

2.2.4 Colour Intensity

Yellow is the dominant colour of Shea butter at all heating temperatures. Heating above 90 oC

will results in darkening of the oil (Olaniyan and Oje, 2007).

2.2.5 Refractive Index

Refractive index varies with chain length, degree of saturation and to the ratio of cis/trans

double bonds. Hence, specific refractive index of fat and oils can be used for identification,

checking purity and also provide hints on the oxidative damage.

Specifically for Shea butter many authors reported refractive index around 1.46 at 40 °C (Hee

et al., 2013; Honfo et al., 2013).

2.3 Chemical Composition of Shea Butter

As a plant fat, Shea butter constitutes approximately about 90% of triglycerides and a minor

unsaponifiable fraction (Hee et al., 2013). The emollient properties of Shea butter are

attributed to the triglycerides it contains, while the unsaponifiable fraction is responsible for

Shea butter’s medicinal properties as it contains the bioactive substances that include

hydrocarbons, tocopherols, sterols, and alcohols (Esuoso et al., 2000).

2.3.1 Triglyceride fraction

Fatty acids usually dominates Shea butter constituency and its composition includes palmitic

(16:0), stearic (18:0), oleic (18:1), and linoleic (18:2) acids. Stearic and oleic acids constitutes

40 – 45% of total fatty acids respectively and the range of 5 – 10% constitutes linoleic acid,

palmitic acid follows at 4% (Alander, 2004) with lower amounts of arachidic acid and others.

Shea butter contains relatively high amounts of saturated fatty acids in comparison with grape

seed oil, olive oil and canola oil which have saturated fatty acids less than 20% of total fatty

acids (Samman et al., 2008). The grape seed oil (total saturated fatty acids: 10.4 – 14.3% of

total fatty acids), olive oil (12.7 – 16.2%), and canola oil (5.5 – 7.7%) are generally liquid at

room temperature (Baydar et al., 2007; Damodaran et al., 2008; Samman et al., 2008). The

high amount of saturated fatty acids in Shea butter is responsible for its solid to semi-solid

state at room temperature. Shea butter fatty acids were found to vary across the African

countries (Di Vincenzo et al., 2005).

2.3.2 Unsaponifiable fraction

Unsaponifiables are identified as substances which dissolves in fat and are insoluble in

aqueous solution but soluble in organic solvent after saponification (Hamilton and Rossell,

1986). Unlike the triglyceride fraction which comprises a larger part of the Shea butter,

unsaponifiables usually comprises only a small part of the Shea butter. Shea butter contains

an unsaponifiable portion consisting of bioactive ingredients that lead to Shea butter’s

therapeutic properties (Esuoso et al., 2000).

The range by weight of unsaponifiables in Shea butter is 4 - 11% (Hamilton and Rossell,

1986; Lipp and Anklam, 1998; Alander, 2004). For many years now, research has

continuously been done on the unsaponifiables of plant oils and fats due to their various

bioactivities including antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory. The unsaponifiable

portion of Shea butter is taken over mostly by triterpene alcohols, followed by hydrocarbons,

sterols, and other minimal components such as vitamin E (Itoh et al., 1974; Lipp and

Anklam, 1998; Alander, 2004).

2.4 Quality Control of Shea Butter: Available Standards For Shea Butter

ProKarité, a project managed by the World Agroforestry Centre and funded by CFC/FAO

(Common Fund for Commodities/Food and Agriculture Organization) has developed a

quality standard for unrefined Shea butter. It is also approved by UEMOA (Union

Economique Monétaire Ouest Africaine) (Lovett et al., 2005). The ProKarité which is like a

regional standard board has proposed sensory, physical and chemical characters that define

the quality of Shea butter.

These qualities includes: colour, odour, taste, moisture, free fatty acids, peroxide value,

insoluble impurities, volatile matters, relative density, refractive index, saponification value,

unsaponifiable matters, iodine value, melting point and soap content (Hee et al., 2013). This
organization has developed a grading system using the most important quality characters for

Shea butter.

2.5 Palm Kernel Oil

Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the kernel of the palm fruit (Ekweis

guineensis) (Hartley, 1997). Palm kernel oil which is semi-solid in non-temperature, is more

saturated than palm oil and comparable to coconut oil. It is very stable at high cooking

temperatures thereby being the best for commercial cooking. It can be stored longer than any

other vegetable oil. It is high in lauric acid (Poku, 2002). Palm kernel oil does not contain

cholesterol or trans fatty acids. Resembling coconut oil, palm kernel oil is packed with lauric

fatty acids (C H O ) and 12 24 2 therefore suitable for the manufacture of soaps, washing

powders and other personal care products. Lauric acid helps in quick lathering. A good soap

must contain 15% laurate for good lathering while soap made for sea water usage virtually

must be based at 100% laurate (Bachmann, 2005).

The palm kernel oil is highly different from palm oil. The two oil from same fruit are entirely

different in fatty acid composition and properties. Palm kernel is an important bio product

from oil palm mill/processing. Plant palm kernel constitutes about 45% - 48% by weight of

oil in which properties and characteristics are quite different from palm oil rather resembles

coconut oil (Gbasonuzo et al. 2012). The major fatty acid (lauric (C ) 12 accounts for about

48% of the fatty acid composition. Other constituents of palm kernel oil includes 16%

nuriatic acid (C ) and 15% 14 oleic acid. (C ).18

Palm kernel oil is used in manufacturing both edible and non-edible products has a great use

both in food industry and non-food industry (Oyinlala et al. 2004). Food usage of palm kernel

oil is more saturated and so can be in regenerated to wide range of products for the food

industries. It can be used alone or in blend with other oil for manufacture of cocobutter
substances, confectionary fats, biscuit dough's, filling cream, cake icing, and table margarine

(Bredeson, 1983). Palm kernel oil is known to confer special attractive physical features and

aroma to bakers of bread and other bakery products. It is also used in making chocolate and

some other related food products. It is used at home cook industry for cooking different types

of food.

Palm kernel oil can be directly combined with petrol diesel or use in making biodiesel for

diesel engines. Locally, Africans use the oil to fuel native lamps for lighting in rural

communities that are not connected with electricity (Shaver, 2005). It is used in making

different non-edible products such as soap/detergent, candle, cosmetics/cream, glue,

grease/lubricants for machines, use in product plastics, use in drilling mud for petroleum

industry, printing inks, rubbe rs, pharmaceuticals products e.t.c. (Butcher, 2005). The process

involved in production of palm kernel oil are selection of good palmkernel-nuts, crushing the

nuts with the nutcrusher, heating the seeds with the mechanical seed fryer so as to excite the

oil molecules the transferring the heated – crushed nuts to the oil press. The oil pressing

machine presses the heated seeds and expels the oil content of the seeds through the oil exit

chamber and at same time expels the cake through the cake exit chamber (Oyinlala et al

2004). The crude oil is. collected in drum of high capacity or over head tanks and left to

settle. Since the sludge (sediments) or residue is denser than the oil, it settles below the oil.

Then the oil can then be collected over the residues and under goes further purification to

remove impurities and get brighter colour.

2.5.1 Uses of palm kernel oil

Palm kernel oil has many uses which include the following [3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12].

i. Palm kernel oil as food is a source of concentrated energy; vegetable oils

generally enhance palatability of other foods.

ii. The oil could be used to serve as lubricants and emulsifiers, ingredient in paint

making as a drying base, and in the manufacture of candles.

iii. Upon hydrogenation, the oil can be used to produce margarine.

iv. The oil is an important constituent in the manufacture of shorteners and

confectioneries.

v. Palm kernel oil is extensively used to make soap. In fact, lauric acid from the oil

when boiled with alkali is used to make soap of the best quality due to its superior

lathering characteristics.

vi. The oil is used to produce glycerol as a bye-product of soap making process.

vii. Palm kernel oil is also useful in the production of cosmetics.

viii. Locally, the black oil extracted by the roasting process is used medicinally for

convulsion concoction.

ix. Residue cakes from palm kernel oil extraction are used for livestock feed

formulation, because apart from carbohydrates and fats the cake contains proteins.

x. Palm kernel oil could be modified and used as non petroleum-based alternative

fuel.
2.5.2 Composition of palm kernel and oil

Palm kernel is composed of oil, protein, cellulose, ash, some non nitrogenous matter, and

water (Table 2). The palm kernel oil itself consists of free fatty acids, volatile matter,

impurities, and peroxides (Table 3).

Table 2: Proximate composition of palm kernel

Component Percent (weight basis)

Oil 47 – 49
Crude protein 7.9 – 9.0
Extractable non-nitrogenous matter 23 – 24
Cellulose 9
Ash 2
Water 7.5 – 9.0
Source: [13]

Table 3: Palm kernel oil composition

Content Percent (weight basis)

Free Fatty Acid (FFA) 3–4
Volatile matter including water 0.15 – 0.20
Impurities 0.05 – 0.10
Peroxide (inch equivalent/kg) 2.0 – 4.0
Saponification value 242 – 222
Source: [3]
2.5.3 Quality indicators

According to [14], [15] as reported in [16], characteristics such as free fatty acids (f.f.a.),

peroxide value (pe-value), thiobabituric acid (TBA) value, iodine value, saponification value,

colour, viscosity, refractive index, specific gravity, etc. are used in evaluating the quality of

vegetable oils. The free fatty acid is a good indicator of the level of degradation by

hydrolysis. The peroxide value is a measure of active oxygen in 1kg of oil, that is, it is a

measure of stability of the oil. The TBA is a secondary oxidation test used for detecting

incipient oxidation of lipids. The iodine value expresses the unsaturation level of the oil. The

saponification value is an indicator of the average molecular weight of the mixed

triglycerides constituting the oil. Free fatty acid (f.f.a.) and peroxide values in vegetable oils

are often seen as quality parameters in the commercial transactions. High levels of f.f.a. are

associated with degradation by hydrolysis and high refining losses. It should be less than 5%

according to [17]. High peroxides are associated with rancidity development, and the value

should not be more than 10 for fresh oil according to [18].

2.5.4 Extraction methods

Palm kernel oil extraction methods can be classified into three, namely: the traditional

methods, the chemical methods and the mechanical methods [19,5,7,20].

2.5.4.1 Traditional methods

i. Traditional roasting method: This method employs the principle of rupturing of oil

glands by heating. In this method, palm kernels are put into a clay pot and heated

over a fire. At a high temperature, oil is released by the kernels and is collected.

ii. Traditional pressure methods: The traditional pressure methods include the

following:
 iii. Hand Pressing: Where crushed kernels are wrapped in cloths and hand pressed to

squeeze out oil.

iv. Stone and lever pressing: Where wrapped, crushed kernels are pressed using devices

operated by stones and levers.

v. Pestle and mortar pressing (Ghanis method): The mortar is fixed to the ground while

the pestle driven by one or a pair of animals is inserted in the mortar to crush the

kernels by friction and pressure, and the oil runs out through a hole at the bottom of

the mortar.

vi. Traditional aqueous method: Where crushed or ground kernels are boiled in water to

liberate oil which floats on the water surface. The oil on the surface is scooped with

mug into another pot. The recovered oil is then heated to remove the water.

2.5.4.2 Chemical or solvent extraction method

In this method, ground kernels are treated with a solvent which dissolves or washes the oil

out of the ground kernel. The pure oil is then obtained by evaporation of the solvent.

Solvent extraction processes can be divided into three main unit operations: kernel pre-

treatment, oil extraction, and solvent recovery from the oil and meal. For smallscale

operations, the solvent extraction process is an alternative for high capacity mills. However

the process is not recommended for small enterprises [1].

2.5.4.3 Mechanical methods

Mechanical extraction involves several processes as shown in Fig. 7 and there are three basic

steps: (a) kernel pre-treatment, (b) screw-pressing, and (c) oil clarification. In these methods,

mechanical compressive forces are used to separate oil from solidoil systems under

permitting conditions. The mechanical methods of oil expression include the following:
2.5.4.4 Hydraulic pressing method

This method is based on the principle that pressure applied to a confined body of fluid is

transmitted undiminished in all directions. Here, a hydraulically operated ram or piston is

used to press out oil from ground kernels. A modern hydraulic press consists of a stack of

horizontal boxes inside each of which is placed a batch of ground kernel particles wrapped in

a cloth. The stack of boxes is compressed by a hydraulic ram, and the oil moves out through

the openings in each box.

2.5.4.5 Screw pressing method

The screw press consists of a series of continuous worms built on a steel shaft that rotate

within a perforated housing and operates against a restricted opening. The worm flights

provide the means of conveyance for the kernels being processed. The conditioned kernels

are fed through a hopper into the housing and are forced along as the screw rotates,

compressing and heating up the mass. The heating and the crushing facilitate oil extraction

[7].
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND MOETHODS

3.1 Sample Collection

Shea butter and palm kernel oil for the study were obtained from Eke market, Ishiagu in Ivo

Local Government Area of Ebonyi State.

3.2 Measurement of Physio chemical Characteristics

3.2.1 Fatty Acids Composition

Fatty acid composition of shea butter and palm kernel oil were analyzed by Gas

chromatography (Fisons, fitted with a flame ionization detector [FID]) using the method

described by Morrison and Smith (2014). The fatty acid methyl esters prepared using 14%

BF3 in methanol were separated on a fused silica capillary column (25 m 0.25 mm, Parma

bond FFAP-DF-0.25, Machery Negal GmbH Co., Duren, Germany). Individual fatty acid

was identified by comparing with the retention times of standards (Reena & Lokesh, 2011).

3.2.2 Total antioxidant value of oils

10 mg of oil was dissolved in 3 ml of hexane. 30 ll of aliquots were used for analysis. The

antioxidant values of the samples were determined by PCL as per the instructions provided

by the manufacturers of the instrument (Photochem, Analytik Jena, Germany) and results are

expressed in terms of trolox equivalents (Sielicka, Malecka & Purlan, 2014).

3.3 Measurement of Sensory Characteristics

Sensory evaluation was determined by distributing score to twenty (20) panelist which will

comprise of lecturers from Home and Rural Economics department to evaluate the sensory

characteristics of the shea butter in terms of color, aroma, and texture were assessed upon

arrival of the samples. Color of the samples was visually assessed. Aroma or note was
assessed by smelling each sample. Texture was assessed by applying the shea butter on the

back of the hand. and overall acceptability using a 9 – Hedonic scale.

9 – Like extremely

8 – Like strongly

7 – Like moderately

6 – Like slightly

5 – Neither Like nor Dislike

4 – Dislike slightly

3 – Dislike moderately

2 – Dislike strongly

1 – Dislike extremely

3.4 Statistical Analysis

Results are represented as means ± standard deviation for each group. The data was analyzed

by one way ANOVA followed by a post hoc Tukey test to compare the control and treatment

groups; P-values less than 0.01 were considered as statistically significant. All statistical

analysis was performed using SPSS statistical software package version 20.